Chapter 4
By: Dr. Urooj Javed
Pollution and
Pollution Control
Pollution and Pollution Control
Lecture 4
Pollution
‘Pollution of the environment’ means pollution of the environment due
to the release (into any environmental medium) from any process of
substances which can cause harm to man, or any other living organisms
supported by the environment.
Definition by EPA. . . .The escape of any substance capable of causing
harm to man or any other living organism supported by the environment
EPA, Section 29, Part II
Classification can be made on the basis of the
chemical or physical nature of the substance, its
source, the environmental pathway used, the
target organism affected or simply its gross
effect.
Classifying
Pollution
Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs)
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
(DDT)
The consideration of a pollutant’s
properties is a particularly valuable
approach when examining real-life
pollution effects, since such an
assessment requires both the
evaluation of its general properties
and the local environment.
Pollutant’s This may include factors such as:
properties • Toxicity;
• Persistence;
• Mobility;
• Ease of control;
• Bioaccumulation;
• Chemistry
Toxicity
Toxicity represents the potential damage to life and can be both
short and long term.
It is related to the concentration of pollutant and the time of
exposure to it, though this relationship is not an easy one.
Intrinsically highly toxic substances can kill in a short time, while
less toxic ones require a longer period of exposure to do damage.
Persistence
Environmental
Highly toxic
persistence is a
chemicals which are
particularly
environmentally
This is the duration important factor in
unstable and break
of effect. pollution and is often
down rapidly are less
linked to mobility
harmful than
and
persistent substances
bioaccumulation.
Mobility
The tendency of a pollutant to disperse or dilute is a
very important factor in its overall effect, since this
affects concentration.
Some pollutants are not readily mobile and tend to
remain in ‘hot-spots’ near to their point of origin.
Others spread readily and can cause widespread
contamination
Ease of control
Many factors contribute to the overall ease
with which any given example of pollution
can be controlled
Including the mobility of the pollutant, the
nature, extent or duration of the pollution
event and local site-specific considerations.
Clearly, control at source is the most
effective method, since it removes the
problem at its origin.
Bioaccumulation is a process of accumulation of
chemicals in an organism that takes place if the
rate of intake exceeds the rate of excretion.
Bioaccumulatio
n Chemicals are introduced into the organism
through exposure to the abiotic environment (soil,
water, air) or as dietary intake (trophic transfer).
Pollution effects are not always
entirely defined by the initial
nature of the contamination
The principle underlying much of
Chemistr practical bioremediation in general
involves the break down of
y pollutants to form less harmful
products.
The chemistry of the pollutant itself
is clearly important, other
substances present and the geology
of the site may also influence the
outcome.
• Dilution and dispersal
• it involves the attenuation of pollutants
by permitting them to become
physically spread out, thereby reducing
their effective point concentration.
• It may take place, with varying degrees
Pollution of effectiveness, in air, water or soil.
Control
Strategies • Air: Gaseous pollutants disperse well;
heavier particles settle near the source.
• Water: Large water bodies disperse
pollutants effectively; moving water
spreads them faster.
• Soil: Pollutants move through soil via
water and biological activity, affecting
dispersal.
Pollution Control Strategies
Concentration and containment
it is an attempt to gather the offending substance and prevent its
escape into the surrounding environment.
Prevents Spread: Collects and confines pollutants to reduce
environmental harm.
Context-Dependent: Effectiveness varies based on pollutant type
and conditions.
Complementary Strategy: Used alongside dispersal methods in
pollution control.
Practical Toxicity Issues
Direct vs. Indirect Toxicity: Direct toxicity occurs
when pollutants bind to cellular components,
disrupting function, while indirect toxicity results
from secondary reactions like allergic responses.
Metal Toxicity & Environmental Impact: Industrial
activities disrupt natural metal cycles, leading to
contamination, with toxicity varying by metal type
and environmental conditions.
Bioavailability & Toxic Effects: Toxicity depends on
pollutant form, uptake mechanisms, and
interactions with other substances, influencing real-
world environmental risks.
• Biological Air Remediation: Contaminants are
dissolved in water for bacterial bioremediation,
with potential future use of yeast aerial hyphae for
direct air treatment.
• Common Pollutants Treated: Volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), ammonia, and hydrogen
Applications sulfide (H₂S) are among the substances removed
using biotechnology.
to Pollution • Historical Development: Biological H₂S removal
Control was first discussed in 1920, with modern
biofiltration techniques emerging in the 1960s and
1970s.
• Biotechnological Methods: Biofilters,
biotrickling filters, and bioscrubbers purify waste
gases under controlled temperature, moisture, pH,
and oxygen conditions.
• Technology Selection Factors: The best method
depends on contaminant concentration, solubility,
process control ease, and land availability.
Biotechnological Methods
Early Pollution Control Method: Biofilters are among
the first developed systems for air purification, using
Biofilters large vessels filled with organic filter media like peat or
bark chips.
Microbial Degradation: Pollutants dissolve in moisture
surrounding the filter medium, where bacteria break
them down into harmless byproducts.
Efficient Odor Reduction: Properly maintained biofilters
can eliminate over 95% of odorous compounds from
waste gases.
Optimized Design: The medium provides microbial
support, high surface area, and internal void spaces
while retaining moisture for effective biodegradation.
Water Balance is Key: Maintaining proper moisture
levels is essential—excess water can lead to compaction,
reducing efficiency.
Hybrid Technology: Combines features of biofilters
and bioscrubbers, using an inert medium (e.g., clinker
Biotrickling or slag) that resists compaction and provides high
surface area for microbial biofilm attachment.
Filters Efficient Pollutant Removal: Odorous air moves
upward while water trickles down, creating a counter-
current flow that enhances gas dissolution and
biodegradation by biofilm microbes.
Simple Monitoring & Control: Water circulating
through the system can be sampled for process
monitoring, and adjustments can be made to optimize
bacterial activity.
Higher Contaminant Handling: More effective than
biofilters for treating high pollutant concentrations
while maintaining similar efficiency.
Compact but Costly: Requires less space than biofilters
but involves higher capital and operational costs due
to additional engineering needs.
Not a True Biological System: Primarily
removes odorous compounds by dissolving
them in water rather than direct
biodegradation.
Effective for Hydrophilic Pollutants: Best
Bioscrubbers suited for water-soluble contaminants like
acetone and methanol.
Two-Stage Process: Contaminated gas passes
through a fine water mist, absorbing
pollutants, which then collect in a reservoir.
Biodegradation in a Separate Unit: The
pollutant-laden water is transferred to a
secondary bioreactor (e.g., activated sludge
system) for microbial breakdown.
Easy Process Control: Water quality is
monitored, and adjustments (nutrients,
buffers, fresh water) are made to optimize
performance.
Other options
Absorption: Absorbing the compound in a suitable liquid;
this may oxidize or neutralize it in the process.
Adsorption: Activated carbon preferentially adsorbs
organic molecules; this can be tailored to give
contaminant-specific optimum performance.
Incineration: High temperature oxidation; effective
against most contaminants, but costly.
Ozonation: Use of ozone to oxidize some contaminants,
like hydrogen sulphide; effective but can be costly.
‘Clean’ Technology
Pollution and waste reduction at the source
can be achieved through various strategies,
including technological changes, raw
material substitutions, or process
restructuring. Biotechnology primarily
contributes to theReplacing
Process Changes: following traditional
areas:
chemical methods with biological
alternatives for cleaner and more efficient
production.
Biological Control: Using microorganisms or
natural agents instead of chemical
treatments to manage processes sustainably.
Bio-Substitutions: Replacing synthetic
materials with bio-based alternatives to
reduce environmental impact.
Replacing traditional
chemical-based production
methods with microbial or
enzyme-based processes can
reduce pollution and
improve efficiency.
Process
Changes in
Environmental Genetically modified organisms
Biotechnology (GMOs) and biological catalysts
(enzymes) enable these
improvements by operating at
lower temperatures, producing
purer products, and reducing
waste.
Industrial Applications
Cosmetics Industry: Enzyme-based synthesis of isopropyl
myristate (used in moisturizers) lowers energy use and
produces a cleaner, odor-free product.
Textile Industry:
•Enzymatic retting of flax and hemp speeds up fiber extraction
while reducing waste.
•Bio-scouring and bio-bleaching replace chemical treatments,
making cotton and wool processing more sustainable.
•Biopolishing improves fabric softness and prevents pilling.
•Biostoning achieves a “stone-washed” denim effect using
enzymes instead of pumice stones, saving water and reducing
fabric wear.
•Bioactive geotextiles absorb and degrade pollutants (diesel,
grease) near railways, reducing soil contamination and fire
risks.
Leather Industry
• Enzymes improve tanning processes by efficiently removing hair,
softening hides, and reducing waste.
• Enzymatic degreasing enhances leather quality while lowering
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and surfactant pollution.
• Biosensors in leather processing can detect contaminants in real-
time, preventing pollution.
Coal & Oil Desulfurization
• Microbial desulfurization of coal and oil reduces sulfur dioxide
(SO₂) emissions, a major cause of acid rain.
• Traditional chemical methods are costly, making microbial
approaches appealing.
• Thiobacillus species oxidize inorganic sulfur in coal, while bacteria
like Pseudomonas and Rhizobium break down organic sulfur
compounds.
• Future solutions may involve bioreactors using heat-resistant
microbes (Sulfolobus sp.) for more efficient sulfur removal.
Enzymatic Catalysis: Using biological
catalysts to replace chemical processes.
Bioreactors: Controlled systems for
microbial or enzymatic reactions.
Key Microbial Oxidation: Microbes breaking
Concepts: down harmful compounds into safer
substances.
Biosensors: Tools that detect environmental
contaminants in real-time.
Biodegradable Materials: Using microbes
to create eco-friendly fibers and polymers.
Biological Control
Traditional insecticides & herbicides contribute to
environmental pollution.
Many chemicals used in agriculture persist in the
environment, causing long-term contamination.
There is a shift towards more sustainable pest control
methods with reduced chemical usage.
Biological control: Using living organisms or natural
compounds to control pests and pathogens.
Some early failures (e.g., Cane Toad in Australia) raised
concerns, but research continues to refine methods.
Environmental Benefits &
Challenges
• Environmental Benefits:
• Reduces dependence on chemical pesticides.
• Prevents groundwater and soil contamination.
• Helps maintain ecological balance by targeting
specific pests.
• Challenges:
• Biocontrol methods act slower than chemical
pesticides.
• Requires a deep understanding of pest life cycles
for effectiveness.
• High target specificity can be a drawback if the
wrong method is applied.
• Requires more planning and monitoring than
conventional pesticides.
1. Classical Biological Control:
• Introduces natural predators to a new environment to
control invasive pests.
• Example: The Cane Toad was introduced in Australia to
control cane beetles but became an ecological
disaster.
2. Conservation Control:
Whole- • Enhances the survival of existing predators within the
Organism pest’s environment.
• Example: Protecting ladybugs to naturally control
Approaches aphids.
3. Augmentation:
• Boosts the population or efficiency of natural enemies
through breeding or genetic modification.
• Example: Parasitic nematodes (e.g., Steinernema and
Heterorhabditis species) infect soil insects and
introduce lethal bacteria.
• Challenges: Effectiveness varies; requires regular
intervention.
Semiochemical & Biochemical Approaches
Semiochemicals: Natural Biologically Derived
signaling chemicals that affect Chemicals:
pest behavior.
Example: Neem-based azadirachtin—
Pheromones: Used to trap a natural compound that disrupts
pests or attract natural insect growth and prevents
predators. metamorphosis.
Example: Pheromone traps for Works by:
brown stink bugs (Euschistus
spp.) to track their migration • Preventing larvae from maturing
and control infestations. into adults.
• Repelling leaf-eating insects.
Effective, but commercial large-scale
Bio-substitutions
Biosubstitution: Replacing harmful substances with
environmentally friendly alternatives.
Key industries benefiting from biosubstitutions:
Lubricants (biodegradable alternatives to mineral oils).
Construction (eco-building materials like hemp, straw,
and flax).
Energy (biomass fuels for direct combustion).
Biosubstitutions help reduce pollution and
environmental impact.
Biodegradable Lubricants –
Benefits & Challenges
Traditional lubricants contribute to water and soil pollution.
Biodegradable lubricants (plant-based oils) offer nontoxic, eco-
friendly alternatives.
Challenges to adoption:
High cost – Twice as expensive as conventional oils.
Industrial resistance – Heavy industries hesitate due to reliability
concerns.
OEM approval – Original Equipment Manufacturers rarely
guarantee performance.
Simple Biosubstitutions
– Eco-Building Materials
Some biosubstitutes do not require complex chemical synthesis.
Biomass fuels – Renewable plant-based energy.
Examples: Eco-building materials – Made from hemp, straw,
and flax.
Better soundproofing in homes and workplaces.
Advantages of Reduce construction waste (concrete, timber,
eco-materials: brick rubble).
Lightweight, sustainable, and biodegradable.
Barriers to Adoption of
Biosubstitutes
Cost: Biosubstitutes are often more expensive than
conventional alternatives.
Industrial Hesitation:
Heavy industries fear equipment failure with new lubricants.
OEMs hesitate to guarantee performance.
Petrochemical Competition:
Petroleum industry is developing biodegradable lubricants
from crude oil.
Limited Large-Scale Adoption:
Many biosubstitutes are still in small-scale trials.
Microbial Pollution Control – Case
Study (Maine, USA)
Problem: A food market’s septic system failed,
leaking waste into a nearby lake.
Solution: Used BioRem® ST, a microbial
treatment, to clean up pollution.
How it Works:
Liquefies solid waste, reduces odour, and
prevents blockages.
Breaks down fats, oils, starches, and
detergents.
Safe for humans, animals, and plants.
Cleanup Process: Daily bacterial dosing +
added nutrients to boost microbes.
Result: Pollution eliminated in 9 months;
Why system restored.
Microbial
Treatment? Benefits:
Eco-friendly alternative to harmful chemicals.
Cost-effective and prevents future failures.
Business continued microbial treatment for
regular maintenance.
Closing Thoughts
• Pollution affects industries and daily life.
• Preventing pollution is better than cleaning it up.
• Clean technologies help reduce contamination from
the start.
• Currently, biotechnology is mainly used for treating
pollution rather than preventing it.
• The next sections will focus on biotech solutions for
waste and pollution control.