What is a computer?

It is a fast electronic calculating machine that accepts data, processes it according to a set of internally stored instructions and produces the
resultant output information.
Or
A computer is a device operating under control of instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data, manipulate the data
according to specified rules, produces results and store the result for future use. Or
It is a high speed device, when given data (input) will process the input in some pre-defined way to produce the required results (output).
Or
It is a high speed electronic device that can receive/accept data and instructions, use the instructions to perform logical and mathematical
operations and report the result of processing.
Or

It is a binary electronic data processing machine which can receive and store a large volume of information in the form of symbols and
digits and process the at a high speed as per the instructions given and gives the results with a preset degree of accuracy.
It is a device that accepts data in one form and processes it to produce data in another form.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
There are three types of computers;
 Analog
 Digital
 Hybrid
1. Digital Computers
They are computers that process data that is represented in the form of discrete values,(eg,0123….)by operating on it in steps. Or
They are computers that operate on information in binary form.
Digital data consists of data represented by on/off, 1/0, true/false
They are computers designed to process data in numerical form
2. Analog computers
Analog means continuously varying in strength and/or quantity. Sound, light, temperature, and pressure can fall anywhere along a range.
Analog computers are akin the measuring instruments such as thermometers and voltmeters with pointers on circular dials. They process
data in the form of electrical voltages; which are variable like the variable positions of a pointer n a dial. The output from analog
computers is often in the form of smooth graph which information can be read.
They are computers which operate on data that varies in strength and/or quantity. A simple example is the thermometer. Or
They are computers that use continuous variable electrical current and voltages to reproduce data being transmitted. Or
They are computers that are represented by electrical voltages which can vary continuously within a certain range e.g. Museum’s EAI
MODEL 680 which supports non-linear functions e.g., square rooting, arbitrary(piecewise linear)function generation, multiplication of
two numbers of two variables, comparing two values of two matrices. Or
It is a type of computer that uses electronic, mechanical phenomena to model the problem being solved by using one kind of physical
quantity to represent another.
Analog computers operate by measuring rather than counting. Analog computer refers to gradual type of change rather than changes in the
form of steps which can be counted digitally.
An example of a simple mechanical computer is the moving pointer type speedometer of any automobile vehicle.
In an analog computer the variable is an electrical signal produced analogous to the variable of physical system. Similarities are established
in the form of current and voltage signal
The speed of the car is measured by the speedometer which is a good example of analog computation. It receives as input the continuously
variable rotational of the drive shaft providing as the output the pointer movement in the dial which in turn indicates the speed of the car.

3. Hybrid Computers
It is a combination of computers using all quantities of both analog and digital computers. In such computers, some calculations are done
in the analog portion of the computer and others done on the digital portion of the same computer. Then it utilizes the services of the
devices which convert analog signals into digital and digital signals into analog. Such units are called modems.
Hardware and software
Hardware-It is a general term used to describe the electronic and mechanical elements of the computer together with those devices used
with the computer.
Software. It is a general term used to describe all the various programs that may be use on a computer system together with their
documentation. Or it refers to the instructions required for running a computer system.

OPERATIONS OF A COMPUTER

A computer system consists of the following operations:

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INPUT
In the input operation, data is entered or otherwise captured electronically and is converted to a form that can be processed by the
computer. The means for “capturing” data (raw unsorted facts) is the input hardware such as the keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner
Storage
Data and instructions enter main storage and are held there until needed to be worked on. The instructions dictate the action to be taken on
the data. Results of the action will be held until they are required for output. Main storage is supplemented by the secondary storage
(auxiliary storage), also known as backing storage e.g. hard disks for mass storage purposes.
Processing
In the processing operation data is manipulated to process or transform it into information.
Output operation
The information obtained from the data is produced in a form usable by people. Examples of output are printed text, sound, and charts and
graphs displayed on the computer screen.

Hardware categories
Hardware consists of the machinery and equipment in a computer system. Or
It is a general term used to describe the electronic and mechanical elements of the computer together with those devices used with the
computer.
Computer hardware is categorized according to which of the five computer operations it performs:
Input, output, processing and memory, output, secondary storage and communications.
Regardless of the operations they perform, external devices that are connected to the computer are known as “peripheral devices” or
simply ‘peripherals”. A peripheral device is any piece of hardware that is connected to a compute r e.g. keyboard, mouse, monitor, and
printer.

ELEMENTARY DIGITAL COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Central Processing Unit

Control Unit
unit

Input Output bus

Input unit Arithmetic-logical unit Output unit
Bus

Data bus

Main memory

Secondary storage

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The microprocessor implements most of the functions of the processing unit, while the other components provide the memory,
input/output and other required functions.
INPUT HARDWARE
Input unit consists of devices that translate data into a form the computer can process (machine language or computer language).
The people-readable form may be words, but the computer-readable form consists of 0s and 1s or ON/OFF electrical signals.
Input hardware may be categorized into 3 types
 Keyboards
 Pointing devices
 Source data-entry devices
KEYBOARDS
A Keyboard is a device that converts letters, numbers, and other characters into electrical signals that are machine-readable by the
computer’s processor. It may look like a typewriter to which some special keys have been added or it may look like the keys on a bank
ATM.
POINTING DEVICES
Pointing devices control the position of the cursor or pointer on the screen. They may include
 Mice, trackballs, pointing sticks and touch pads.
 Light pens
 Digitized tablets
 Pen-based systems

SOURCE DATA-ENTRY DEVICES

They refer to the many forms of data entry-devices that are not keyboards or pointing devices.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The central processing unit or processor consists of two units: the control unit and the arithmetic and logical unit (ALU).
Arithmetic Logic Unit
The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on the data passing through it. Arithmetic instructions include, addition, subtraction
division etc while logical instructions include logical AND, logical OR and shift operations.
Control Unit
The main function of the control unit is to fetch, decode and execute the successive instructions of a program stored in the memory; it
sequences the operation of the entire system. In particular it generates and manages the control signals necessary to synchronizes
operations , as well as the flow of program instructions and data within and outside the ALU. The CU controls the flow of information
on the address and data buses, and interprets and manages signals presented on the control bus. The three standard buses use to
interconnect a microprocessor system are the data bus, address bus, and the control bus. The control bus is generally connected to the ALU
that it controls; the combination of the ALU and the CU is known as the central processing Unit (CPU).Thus microprocessor is basically a
CPU on a chip.
It consists of:
i.) An 8-bit register known as instruction register. Instructions from the address bus are loaded into this register which is made ready
for the instruction decoder.
ii) Instruction decoder which decodes the instruction received from the instruction register and directs the control unit to produce the
necessary control signals
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MEMORY UNIT
The memory Module, shown below beneath the CPU is used to store information. The memory may contain two types of information:
programs and data. A program is a sequence of instructions that has been coded into binary form so that it can reside in an electronic
memory. The program specifies the sequence of steps executed by the computer. Under the supervision of the control unit, each of the
successive instructions of the program is fetched and deposited into a special register of the control unit, where it is decoded and executed.
The data contained in the memory are processed by the ALU. The term memory designates several types of memory, and three types are
usually used: main memory/primary memory, mass memory/secondary memory/auxiliary and registers
Main Memory
Also known as Primary/memory/internal memory is used for holding data immediately required by the CPU. It is characterized fast
accessing of information, low capacity and high costs.
It is an electronic memory made up of semiconductor chips. These stores
 instructions waiting to be obeyed
 instructions currently being obeyed
 data waiting to be processed
 Instructions awaiting output.
 It holds data for processing
 It holds instructions for processing data
 It holds processed data (information) waiting to be sent to an output or secondary storage device
The primary memory is classified as Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
This memory is in effect the computer’s short term capacity. The amount of RAM in a computer directly affects the level of processing.
This memory can be accessed randomly (i.e. directly from any location in any order).
RAM allows us to read from as well as write to. Hence called Read write memory.
The only drawback to this memory is that it is volatile; the contents of the memory are lost when the power is switched off.
It is used temporarily to hold data, instructions or information.
Rom (Read Only Memory)
As the name implies, ROM is a one-way street-information can only be retrieved from it; the user cannot change the contents of the ROM.
It is also known as firmware. In contrast the contents of ROM are never lost once power is switched off. This is done by burning in the
information into the ROM at the manufacturing stage. The information can only be read from the ROM; it cannot be written into.
It contains programs that are built-in at the factory; these are special instructions for basic computer operations, such as those that start the
computer or put characters on the screen.
They are non-Volatile.
The most common uses of ROM are:
 To provide control programs for the operation of the computer and peripheral devices.
 To provide translation programs for converting a user’s program into machine language
 To provide application programs
SECONDARY MEMORY
It is used for storing back-up information that is not needed immediately by the CPU.
Data and instructions in the secondary memory have to be copied into the RAM prior to processing.

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 They are characterized by slow access of information, high capacity and low cost. Examples are floppy disks, Hard disk drives,
magnetic tapes etc.
REGISTERS
These are high speed circuits that is a staging area for temporarily storing data during processing(ALU and control Units use
registers).They are high-speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing.
The computer loads the program, instructions and data from the main memory into the registers just prior to processing, which helps
the computer to process faster.
HOW CAPACITY IS EXPRESSED
Bit: a bit is a binary digit; each 0 or 1v in binary system is called a bit which is a short for “binary digit”.
Byte: a group of eight bits is called a byte, and a byte represents one character, digit, or any other value.
Kilobyte: One kilobyte (K, KB) is about 1000 bytes (precisely 1024 bytes)
Megabyte: (M, MB) is about 1million bytes (1,048,576) or 1024 KB
Gigabyte: (G, GB) is about 1 billion bytes (1,073,741,824 bytes) or 1024 MB
Terabyte: A terabyte (T, TB) represents about 1 trillion bytes (1, 009,511,627,776 bytes) or 1024GB

OUTPUT HARDWARE
Output devices translate information processed by the computer into a form that human beings can understand. They are divided into
1) Softcopy
2) Hardcopy
3) Other output devices
Softcopy refers to data that is shown on a display screen or is audio or voice form. This type of output is not tangible; it can’t be
[Link] data from the cathode ray oscilloscope, or panel display.
Hardcopy refers to data that is tangible i.e. printed output (Printouts from printers)
.
Other devices include:
1) Sound output devices
2) Voice output devices
3) Video output devices
Buses
A bus is a means of transmitting information or signals grouped by function. Or we can say it is an electrical pathway through which bits
are transmitted within the CPU and other devices in the system unit.
Data Bus
The data bus transmits data between units. Thus, an 8-bit microprocessor requires an 8-bit data bus n order to transmit 8 bits of data in
parallel. Similarly, a 16-bit microprocessor requires a 16-bit data bus in order to transmit 16-bits of data in parallel. The data bus is
bidirectional i.e., it can transmit in both ways.
Address bus
The address bus is used to select the origin and destination of signals transmitted on another bus or line. It carries addresses. Typically an
address bus selects a register within one of the system devices that is used as a source or destination of data. Typically the address buses
have 1-6 or 24 lines and can directly addresses 216(64Kb) locations or 224(16Mb) locations respectively. In computer terminology 1K=1024
or 210, and 1mb=1024Kb or 220
Control Bus

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The control bus synchronizes the activities of the system. It carries status and control information both to and from the microprocessor unit
(MPU).For a control bus to be useful, at least ten or more control lines are required.
SOFTWARE
Software or programs, consists of the instructions that tell the computer how to perform a task or they are series of instructions that tell a
computer what to do.
Software is written in special code by programmers and the software is copied by the manufacturer onto a storage medium such as CD-
ROM.
Software is divided into
1.) Application software
2.) System software
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
This is software that has been developed to perform useful work on specific tasks or to solve a particular problem. Application software
maybe either custom or packaged:

Custom
This is software designed and developed for a particular customer. This is a kind of software that you could hire a computer programmer
or software creator to develop for you. Such software would not be readily done with the standard off the shelf packaged software
available from a computer store.
Packaged
This is the kind of off-the shelf program designed for sale to the general public; examples include word processing programs,
spreadsheets, game software etc.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software includes the computer programs that run a computer system itself,
Or
That assists a computer in running application programs,
Or
It controls the location and usage of hardware resources and enables the application software to run.
Or
It enables the applications software to interact with the computer and helps the computer to manage its internal and external resources.
While an application software is software that has been developed to perform useful work on specific tasks or to solve a particular
problem.
The system software consists of three components
i) The operating system
ii) The utility programs
iii) Language translators
i) Operating system
It is system software that interfaces between the user and the computer hardware
Or
It is an integrated set of specialized programs, which permit the continuous operation of a computer from program to the next with the
minimum amount of operator intervention; it acts as an interface between the user of the computer.
Or
The operating system consists of a system of programs that manage the basic operations of the computer.
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
Booting
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Booting refers to loading an operating system from the disk into the computer’s main memory. Loading of the OS is accomplished by
a program known as bootstrap loader or boot routine that is stored permanently in the computer’s electronic circuitry.
When you turn on your system, programs known as diagnostic routines first start up and test the main memory, central processing
unit, and other parts of the system to make sure they are running properly. Next the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System will be copied
to main memory to help the computer to interpret keyboard characters or transmit characters to the display screen or to a diskette.
The boot program then obtains the operating system, usually from the hard disk, and loads it into the main memory. The operating
system remains in the main memory until you turn off the computer.
Memory management
Memory is a term, always referred to Random Access Memory (RAM)-the main memory of a computer system. When your jobs are
run the operating system (OS) retrieves it from the disk and load it into its main memory. However .before it is loaded, the OS must
check whether memory is available for it, or not, if it is available, it allocates it to your job. Once the execution of the job is over, the
job should be removed from memory and this freed memory is allocated to another job.
CPU management(Scheduling)
It is the assignment of the CPU that allows processes to accomplish jobs assigned to it. The OS handles the probe of assigning various
jobs for processing. The OS helps the CPU to schedule its activities to meet the demands of various parts of the CPU and the computer
system itself. Memory management is an intrinsic part of the CPU. The CPU gets the job from the keyboard or storage unit puts it into
memory, processes the job and passes the result onto the output device and make itself ready for the next job.
Disk management
The Os helps you to store files and retrieve files whenever required by you.
Input/Output Management
The computer you are using might be are attached to peripheral devices like Keyboard, printer, modem, mouse etc. Each one handling
communication with the computer for getting its job done, this is monitored by the operating system.
Managing files
Files of data and programs are located in many places on your hard disk and other secondary devices. The operating system helps you
to find them. If you move, rename, or delete a file the operating system manages such changes and helps you locate and gain access to
it.
Error handling and security
The OS detects errors and recover from it or give a warning to the user
System security and protection
An OS controls access to the system resources (e.g. files or storage devices) to prevent accidental or unauthorized access.
Secondary Storage Management
Why do we go for secondary storage?
 Because main memory is small to store programs and data permanently.
 Main memory is volatile.
The OS keeps track of free disk space.
User interface
The user interface is the user controlled part of the operating system that allows you to communicate, or interact with it. The gap
between the user and the machine readable language is bridged by the OS’s command interpreter. There are four types of interfaces;
command driven, menu driven, graphical, and network
i) Command driven

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 A command driven interface requires you to enter a command by typing in codes or words. An Example is DIR,(directory)You type
the command at the point on the screen where the cursor follows the prompt, such as “C\>”.In general C:\.> refers to the hard disk:\>
and A:\> refer to floppy disk.> is a system prompt ,asking you for the command. It is found on PCs with DOS operating system.
ii) Menu Driven
Menu driven allows you to user cursor movement (arrow) keys to choose a command from a menu; A menu offers you options to choose
from, e.g. Edit, Format etc
iii) Graphical user interface
The graphical user interface allows you to use graphics (images) and menus as well as keystrokes to choose the commands, start programs,
and use lists of files and other options. They take the form of icons; icons are small pictorial figures that represent tasks, procedures, and
[Link] you can use a picture of a trash can to delete a file, Dove for sending mails, etc.

UTILITY PROGRAMS
Utility programs are special programs that either enhance existing functions or provide services not provided by other system software
programs. They include
Backup: - It makes a duplicate of every file on your hard disk, diskettes or any other removable storage medium.
Data recovery:- It is used to resurrect or undo or undelete a file or information that has been accidentally deleted.
File Defragmentation: - Fragmentation is the scattering of portions of files about the disk in non adjacent areas, thus greatly slowing
access to the files. Defragmentation utilities (defragger) finds all the scattered files on your hard disk and reorganize them as contiguous
files.
Disk repair
It will check your hard disk for defects and make repairs on the spot or mark the bad areas.
Virus Protection/Antivirus programs
A virus consists of hidden programming instructions that are buried within an application or system program. They copy themselves to
other programs causing problems. Antivirus software is a utility program that scans hard disks, diskettes, and memory to delete viruses,
examples include, Norton Antivirus, McAfee VirusScan, Webscan etc.
Uninstaller
It removes applications from the hard disk your computer
File/data compression
They remove redundant element, gaps and unnecessary data from the computer storage space so less space is required to store or transmit
data e.g. WINZIP
Disk scanner
It maintains integrity of your hard disk and improves performance.
TRANSLATORS
They transform instructions written in humanly convenient form to machine language form required by computers. They are loaded into
the computer where they control the translation process.
Assemblers:-It translates the assembly language program into machine language.
Compiler:-It is a language that converts the entire program of high-level language into machine language form. E.g. FORTRAN, COBOL,
Pascal, C etc
Interpreter:-It is a language translator that converts each high level language statement into machine language and executes immediately,
statement by statement E.g. the BASIC language is interpreted
Linker: A linker is a program that links several programs. The linker produces a l link file which contains the binary codes for all
compound modules. The linker also produces the link map which contains the address information about the linked file. A linker is also
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called as a linkage editor. It breaks a program into several subroutines (modules).These modules are translated separately, then linked
together to form a large file.
Loader
3.) It is a program that places programs into main memory and prepares them for execution. The loader receives the program either
in absolute or relocatable format and prepares it for loading it into system memory. Incase of absolute format, memory addresses
for different data and instructions have already been assigned by the programmer. And the loader simply loads this into memory.
If on the other hand, the program is in relocatable format, then the actual memory addresses have to be assigned to
data/instructions before it is being loaded into memory. The locator locates these memory and locations and carries out loading
operations. Very often, loader, locator and linker are combined together and named as loader.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
This is software that has been developed to perform useful work on specific tasks or to solve a particular problem. Application software
maybe either custom or packaged:

Custom
This is software designed and developed for a particular customer. This is a kind of software that you could hire a computer programmer
or software creator to develop for you. Such software would not be readily done with the standard off the shelf packaged software
available from a computer store.
Packaged
This is the kind of off-the shelf program designed for sale to the general public; examples include word processing programs,
spreadsheets, game software etc.
There are five types of application software
1.) Entertainment software
2.) Home/Personal software
3.) Educational reference software
4.) Productivity software
5.) Speciality software
a) Entertainment Software
These are software mainly used for entertainment purposes e.g. games, music, video etc.
b) Home/Personal Software
They are software used for home use they include home repair software, Home decoration software, cookery software, gardening, travel
planning etc. The Jenny Craig Cookbook, Completely interactive Cookbook are examples of software cookbooks. Visual Home software
lets you design a floor plan, create three dimensional rooms of various shapes, and choose the wallpaper and the furnishings.
c) Educational or Reference Software
These are the software that supplements learning examples include encyclopedias, phone books, mailing lists, maps and reproductions of
famous art, tutorial CDs,

d) Productivity software
The productivity softwares are used to make users more productive at performing particular tasks. They consist of programs found in most
offices, many houses, campuses, personal computers and on large computers etc. The most common kinds of productivity tools include:
i) Word processing software
ii) Spreadsheet software
iii) Database software
iv) Financial software
v) Software for cyberspace
vi) Integrated software and suites
i) Word processing software
It allows you to use computers to create, edit, format print, and store text among other things. Examples are Ms Word, word and
WordPerfect for Macintosh computers.
ii) Spreadsheets
It allows users to create tables and financial schedules by entering data into rows and columns arranged as a grid on a display
screen. It also allows users to create analytical graphical charts to present data e.g. Ms excel Lotus-1-2-3 and Quattro Pro.
iii) Database software
A database is a computer based collection of interrelated files. Database software is a program that controls the structure of a
database and access to the data
The principal features of a database include; organization of a database, data retrieval and display, sort, calculate and format etc.
They include Ms Access, Oracle, and Mysql etc.
iv) Financial software
It includes personal-finance managers, to entry level accounting programs to business financial-management packages.
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 Personal finance.
They are used to keep track of income and expenses, write checks, do online banking and plan financial goals. They include
Quicken and Microsoft Money. They include a calendar and a calculator.
Business Financial-management
They include tax programs e.g. TaxCut and TurboTax which make complex c calculations and check for mistakes etc. Some
programs go beyond financial management, tax and accounting management e.g. Business Plan Pro, Management pro,
Performance Now can help you set up your business from scratch.
Lastly we have the investment packages such as StreetMart and Online Xpress.
Software for Cyberspace: Communication, Email, Web Browsers
Communication Software
Transmission software manages the transmission of data between computers. The sending and receiving of data is through a MODEM
and telephone line.
A Modem is an electronic device that allows computers to communicate between each other over telephone lines. It translates the
digital signals of the computer to analog signals that can travel over a telephone lines to another modem that converts the analog
signals into Digital signals which the computer can understand. The programs for communication include Crosstalk, QuickLink and
ProComm Plus
Communications software offers the following:
i) Online connections:
You can connect to online services e.g. American Online, Microsoft Network, and to networks that that are used locally (within an
office).
ii) File transfer
You can download files from the other end of the communication line into your computer’s hard disk or upload files from your
computer and transfer it elsewhere.
iii) Fax Support
You can send and receive faxes from one system to another.
iv) Remote Access
You can access your files at home from anywhere via a modem using your portable computer.
v) Automatic dialing services
You can set your software to answer for you if someone tries to call your computer, or to dial some numbers automatically and redial
after a certain time if the a line is busy.
vi) Use of financial services
You can lookup for airline schedules and make reservations, follow and engage in stock trading and even o some home banking and
bill paying
Electronic Mail Software

Electronic mail software enables users to send letters and files from one computer to another. They include Eudora, Microsoft Outlook,
and Lotus CC: Mail, and Pegasus Mail.
Web Browsers
A web browser enables you to go through and view websites. They are software used to access the web after you are online with an
internet service provider. You can move from page to page by clicking on or using a mouse to select an icon or by typing in the correct
address. They include Microsoft’s Internet explorer, and Netscape’s Navigator/communicator.
Web Search Tools
i) Directories
They are indexes classified by topic Directory information is collected and ranked by people.
ii) Search engines
They allow you to find specific documents through keyword searches, eg [Link], [Link], etc.
e) Speciality Software
They are software designed to assist the user in performing a particular task. They include:
i. Desktop Publishing
ii. Presentation graphics
iii. Project management
iv. Computer Aided Design
v. Drawing and painting
vi. Groupware and
vii. Multimedia authoring

i. Desktop publishing
It involves using a microcomputer and mouse, scanner, laser or inkjet printer, and DTP software for mixing text and graphics to produce
high quality output for commercial printing. Professional DTP programs include QuarkXpress and PageMaker. Some word processing
programs e.g. Word and WordPerfect have some qualities of DTP.
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DTP has the following features:
i) Mix of text with graphics
ii) Varied type and layout styles (font, type styles)
iii) Use of files from other programs: DTP Program integrates files from Word, CorelDraw/Adobe illustrator and photographs.

ii. Presentation Graphics Software

They are part of presentation software, which uses graphics and data/information from other software tools to communicate or make
presentation of data to others. They include Microsoft PowerPoint, WordPerfect presentation etc. They are electronically displayed output
as 35-millimeter slides. They (programs) often come with slide sorters, which group together a dozen or so slides in miniature.
iii. Project Management Software
It is a program that is used to plan, schedule, and control people, costs and resources required to complete a project on time. They include
Harvard Project Manager, Microsoft Project, suretrack Project Manager, and ManagerPro.
Two important tools are used
Gantt Chart-it uses lines and bars to indicate the duration of a series of tasks. The time scale may range from minutes to years. The chart
shows you if the tasks are completed as scheduled

PERT Chart-It stands for Program evaluation review Technique. It shows not only timing but also relationships among the tasks of a
project. The relationships are represented by lines that connect boxes describing the tasks.
iv. Computer Aided Design
They are software for the design of products, structures, civil engineering drawings and maps. They help architects to design buildings,
engineers design cars, planes, roadways, and bridges etc, examples of CAD programs for beginners are Autosketch and Corel CAD.
v. Drawing and Painting
Drawing: A drawing program is graphics software that allows users to design and illustrate objects and products; they include CorelDraw,
adobe Illustrator, and Macromedia Freehand.
Painting: They are graphics programs that allow users to simulate painting on screen. They include MetaCreations’ Painter, Adobe
Photoshop, Corel Photoshop, and JASC’s PaintShop Pro.
vi. Groupware
Also known as collaboration software is used on a network and allows users in the same building or even continents away working on the
same project to share ideas and update documents. It improves productivity by keeping you continually notified about what your
colleagues are thinking and doing and they about you. E.g. Lotus Notes, Microsoft Exchange, Novell’s GroupWise, and Netscape’s
communicator
vii. Multimedia Authoring software
It enables users to create multimedia applications that integrate text, images, sound, motion, and animation. The authoring tools allow you
to sequence and time the occurrence of evets, determining which graphics, sound, text and video files shall come into action at what point.
They include Macromedia Authorware, Macromedia Director, and Asymetrix IconAuthor, Asymetrix Toolbook etc
DRAWBACKS OF NEW SOFTWARE
Bloatware or featuritis:-It means software that has a lot of features that computer users don’t understand how to use them /It is software
that is crowded with features. E.g. when Ms Office 1997 came in the market, Supplanting office 1995, it contained 4500 commands, far
more than the few dozen or even few hundred that most people use.

Shovelware;-This is where the software is full of flaws due to incompatibility standards with the other parts of the computer system.
ETHICS AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Intellectual property consists of the products of the human mind. Such property must be protected by copyright; exclusive legal right that
prohibits copying it without permission of the copyright holder. There are three ways of protecting intellectual property;
i. patents:-e.g. an invention
ii. copyrights:-e.g. a song or book
iii. trade secrets:-formula/method of doing business
Plagiarism, piracy &ownership of Images And sounds

Software and network Piracy

Software Piracy:- It is the unauthorized copying of copyrighted software. E.g. to copy a program from one diskette to another
Network Piracy:- It is using electronic networks for unauthorized distribution of copyrighted materials in digital form.
Plagiarism:-It is the expropriation of another writer’s text, findings, or interpretations and presenting it as one’s own
Public Domain Software, Freeware, and Shareware

Public Domain software:-It is software that is not protected by copyright and thus may be duplicated by anyone at will.
Freeware:-It is a software that is available free of charge. It is distributed free of charge usually through the internet or computer users
group.
Shareware:-It is a copyrighted software that is distributed free of charge but requires that users to make contributions in order to continue
using i.e. the WinZip.
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COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

What is a network?

A network or communication network is a system of interconnected computers, telephones or other communication devices that can
communicate with another and share applications and data. Or it is a connection of more than one computer with the main purpose of
sharing computer resources.

Network terminologies

Node: any device that is attached to a network e.g. computer, printer, scanner etc.

Packet: Fixed length block of data for transmission. It contains instructions about the destination of the packet.

Intranet: It is a network that is accessible within a company (corporate network) that uses the infrastructure of the internet and World Wide
Web.

Extranet: An extension of internal network (intranet) to connect not only internal personnel but also selected customers, suppliers, and
other strategic offices.

Uploading: To send files from a user’s computer to another computer.

Downloading: To retrieve files online from another computer and store them in the main memory of one’s computer.

TRANSMISSION DIRECTION

Data transmission occurs in three directions: simplex, half-duplex or full duplex.

Smplex: It uses only one circuit in one direction only-similar to public address system, TV broadcast, and radio. It is simple and relatively
inexpensive but very constraining since communication is one way only.

Half duplex: It also uses one circuit, but it is used in both directions at a time, for example the police radio call where users can receive or
transmit ,but cannot do both simultaneously.

Full Duplex.-It uses two circuits for communication; one for each direction simultaneously.(for example the common telephone)

TRANSMISSION MODE

Data transmission can be either synchronous or asynchronous.

In asynchronous, only one character at a time is transmitted or received at a time. During transmission, the character is preceded by a
start bit and followed by a stop bit, hat lets the receiving device know where a character begins and ends. Asynchronous transmission is
inherently inefficient due to the additional overhead required for the start and stop bits and the idle times between transmissions.

In synchronous, a group of characters is sent over a communications link in a continuous bit stream while data transfer is controlled by a
timing signal initiated by the sending device. The sender and the receiver must be in perfect synchronization to avoid loss the loss or gain
of bits; therefore, data blocks are preceded by unique characters known as synch bits that are encoded into the information being
transmitted. The receiving device recognizes and synchronizes itself with a stream of these characters.

TYPES OF NETWORKS

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Local area network: It is a network that is privately owned that serves users within a confined geographical area. They are designed to
cover a small geographical area (such as a single building, or a few adjacent buildings) and are generally use in an office environment.

Metropolitan Area network: A metropolitan Area Network is a network covering a geographic area the size of a city or suburb.

Wide area network: A wide area network is a network that covers a wide geographical area, such as a state or the entire world.

NETWORK FEATURES:

Host computer/Host: It is the central computer or main computer that controls the network

Node: It is a device that is attached to a network.

Network server: Is a central computer that holds databases and programs for many PCs, workstations or terminals which are called Clients

NETWORK SOFTWARE

 A network requires a network operating system to support access by multiple users and provide for the recognition of users based
on passwords and terminal identifications. They include NetWare and Windows NT.

NETWORK HARDWARE

This involves the hardware components associated with networking namely:

Hub-The hub acts as a repeater. When a single station transmits the hub repeats the signal on the outgoing line to the station.

Repeaters: They repeat and boost the digital signal transmission across a similar media.

Routers: it is a special computer that directs communicating messages when several networks are connected together. They use
information within each packet to route it from one LAN to another, and communicate with each other and share information that
allows them to determine the best route through several LANS.

Gateway: Is an interface that enables dissimilar (incompatible) networks to communicate such as a LAN and a WAN or two LANS
based on different topologies or network operating systems.

ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKS

Sharing of peripheral devices

Because purchasing peripheral devices for example scanners, printers is often expensive, there is need to connect the peripheral device to a
network serving several computer users so that it can be shared.

Sharing programs and data.

In most organizations, people use the same software and need access to the same information. Network linked employees can more easily
work together online on shared projects, using a software known as groupware.

Better Communications. one of the greatest features of networks is electronic mail. With email everyone on a network can easily keep
others posted about the important information, thus eliminating delays.

Security of information

Data can be backed up or duplicated on a networked storage device shared by others such that incase of fire, or dismissal of an employee
or any calamity the same data could be recovered.

Access to databases
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Networks also enable users to tap into numerous databases, whether private databases of a company or public databases available online
through the internet

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

TYPES OF LOCAL AREA NETWORK

Server Based Networks or client/sever

It consists of microcomputers, called clients, and supplying devices that provide a service, called servers .A server is a computer that
manages shared devices Different servers can be used to manage different tasks eg

File server-A computer that stores the programs and data files shared by users

Print server-A computer that controls one or more printers.

Database server - A computer that stores data.

Mail server – manages e-mail.

Fax server-they are dedicated to managing fax transmissions.

It has a central administration and great security. It has also a centralized backup and supports many users

Peer to Peer Networks

It is one in which all computers on the network communicate directly with one another without relying on a server. No dedicated server or
hierarchy also called a workgroup.

They are less expensive than client/server and work effectively for up to 25 computers. The computers are in same general area and
users act as their own administrator and security.

Combination Networks

 Combines the features of both Peer to Peer and Server based networks
 Users can share resources among themselves as well as access server-based resources

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