1. What Is Projectile Motion?

Projectile motion is the motion of an object launched into the air that subsequently moves under the influence
of gravity. In the ideal model, air resistance is neglected and the acceleration due to gravity is treated as
constant.

Examples include a basketball shot toward a hoop, a volleyball served over a net, a soccer ball kicked into the
air, water leaving a fountain nozzle, and a ball rolling off a table.

The path of an ideal projectile is a curved path called a trajectory. Near Earth's surface, that trajectory is
parabolic.

2. The Central Idea: Two Motions at Once

Projectile motion becomes easier to understand when it is separated into two independent components:

Aspect Horizontal Motion Vertical Motion

Direction Along the x-axis Along the y-axis

Acceleration 0 m/s² −9.8 m/s² (ideal model)

Velocity Constant Changes continuously

Main cause Initial launch velocity Gravity

Typical model Uniform motion Constant-acceleration motion

Key idea: Gravity changes the vertical motion, not the horizontal motion, in the ideal projectile model.

3. Horizontal Motion
Because gravity acts vertically downward, the ideal projectile has no horizontal acceleration:

aₓ = 0

Therefore, horizontal velocity remains constant:

vₓ = constant

Horizontal displacement is related to horizontal velocity and time:

Δx = vₓt

Example: If a projectile has a constant horizontal velocity of 8 m/s, it travels 8 m horizontally every second,
ignoring air resistance.

Projectile Motion • Physics 1 Study Notes

4. Vertical Motion
The vertical motion is a constant-acceleration motion caused by gravity. Taking upward as positive:

aᵧ = −g ≈ −9.8 m/s²

The vertical velocity changes according to:

vᵧ = vᵢᵧ − gt

The vertical displacement can be described by:

Δy = vᵢᵧt − ½gt²

5. Launching at an Angle
When a projectile is launched with initial speed vᵢ at an angle θ above the horizontal, its initial velocity can be
resolved into two perpendicular components:

Horizontal component: vᵢₓ = vᵢ cos θ

Vertical component: vᵢᵧ = vᵢ sin θ

The horizontal component determines how rapidly the projectile moves forward. The vertical component
determines how strongly it initially moves upward.

6. Understanding the Trajectory

Ascending portion: The projectile moves upward. Its vertical velocity is positive but decreases because
gravity acts downward.

Highest point: The vertical velocity is momentarily zero. The projectile is not necessarily stopped because it
can still have horizontal velocity.

Descending portion: The vertical velocity becomes downward and its magnitude increases because gravity
continues to accelerate the projectile.

7. What Happens at Maximum Height?

At maximum height, the vertical velocity is zero:

vᵧ = 0

However, acceleration is not zero. Gravity is still acting downward:

aᵧ = −9.8 m/s²

If horizontal velocity is present, the projectile continues moving horizontally. Thus, zero vertical velocity does
not mean zero total velocity.

Projectile Motion • Physics 1 Study Notes

8. Time to Reach Maximum Height
For an upward launch, the time to reach maximum height is found by setting the final vertical velocity equal to
zero:

tᵤₚ = vᵢᵧ / g = (vᵢ sin θ) / g

Conceptually, a greater initial vertical velocity means a longer time before the projectile reaches its highest
point.

9. Maximum Height
For a projectile launched from a reference level, the vertical rise to maximum height is:

H = vᵢᵧ² / (2g) = vᵢ² sin²θ / (2g)

Maximum height depends strongly on the initial vertical component. Increasing the upward component
increases the height reached.

10. Time of Flight

If a projectile is launched and lands at the same vertical height, the motion is symmetric. The total flight time is
twice the time needed to reach maximum height:

T = 2vᵢᵧ/g = 2vᵢ sinθ/g

This symmetry applies only under the stated ideal conditions.

11. Horizontal Range

Range is the horizontal distance from the launch point to the landing point. For equal launch and landing
heights:

R = vᵢ² sin(2θ) / g

For fixed initial speed, the theoretical maximum range occurs at 45° when launch and landing heights are equal
and air resistance is neglected.

12. Why 45° Gives Maximum Ideal Range

A low launch angle provides a large horizontal component but a relatively short flight time. A very high angle
provides more vertical motion and a longer flight time but a smaller horizontal component. At 45°, these
effects are balanced under the ideal equal-height conditions.

13. Complementary Angles

Under ideal conditions with equal launch and landing heights, complementary angles can produce the same
range. For example, 30° and 60° add to 90° and can have the same range at the same initial speed.

Projectile Motion • Physics 1 Study Notes

Launch angle Typical trajectory Horizontal component

30° Lower and flatter Larger

45° Balanced; maximum ideal range Balanced

60° Higher and steeper Smaller

14. Horizontal Launch

An object rolling off a table is a special projectile case. At release, its initial vertical velocity is zero:

vᵢᵧ = 0

It still has horizontal velocity, while gravity causes it to accelerate downward. Its fall time depends on the
vertical motion; its horizontal landing distance depends on its horizontal velocity and that fall time.

A ball thrown horizontally and a ball dropped from the same height at the same instant reach the ground
simultaneously, ignoring air resistance.

15. Real-Life Applications

• Basketball: A shot has horizontal and vertical velocity components. Release speed, angle, release height,
and target distance affect whether the ball reaches the hoop.
• Volleyball: A serve must have enough horizontal motion to cross the court and enough vertical motion to
clear the net.
• Soccer: A kicked ball can travel on a curved trajectory. Players control launch direction and speed to pass
or shoot.
• Water fountain: Water leaving a nozzle behaves approximately like a set of projectiles, producing a
curved stream.
• Long jump: After takeoff, an athlete's center of mass follows an approximately projectile-like path. Takeoff
speed and angle affect flight.
• Object from a height: A horizontally launched object falls while moving forward. Its vertical fall and
horizontal travel can be analyzed separately.

16. Air Resistance and the Real World

The ideal projectile model neglects air resistance. Real projectiles experience drag, which can reduce speed,
shorten range, lower maximum height, and make the trajectory different from a perfect parabola. Air
resistance can also make the ascending and descending portions asymmetric.

Therefore, statements such as '45° always gives the greatest range' should be understood as ideal-model
conclusions, not universal rules for every real-world projectile.

Projectile Motion • Physics 1 Study Notes

17. Energy View of Projectile Motion
Projectile motion can also be understood using energy. As an object rises, some kinetic energy is converted
into gravitational potential energy. As it falls, gravitational potential energy is converted back into kinetic
energy.

This energy perspective supports the observation that a projectile generally slows while rising and speeds up
while falling, although its horizontal component can remain constant in the ideal model.

18. Common Misconceptions

• At maximum height, acceleration is zero. False. Vertical velocity is zero, but gravitational acceleration
remains downward.
• The projectile stops at maximum height. False. Only vertical velocity is momentarily zero; horizontal
velocity may remain.
• Gravity makes horizontal velocity decrease. False in the ideal model. Gravity produces vertical
acceleration.
• A heavier object falls faster. False when air resistance is neglected; gravitational acceleration is the same.
• A horizontal throw takes longer to fall because it travels farther. False. Fall time is governed by
vertical motion, not horizontal distance.
• The 45° rule works for every real projectile. False. It assumes equal launch/landing heights and
negligible air resistance.

19. Essential Formula Sheet

Quantity Ideal-model relationship

Horizontal acceleration aₓ = 0

Vertical acceleration aᵧ = −g

Horizontal velocity vₓ = vᵢ cos θ

Initial vertical velocity vᵢᵧ = vᵢ sin θ

Horizontal displacement Δx = vₓt

Vertical velocity vᵧ = vᵢᵧ − gt

Vertical displacement Δy = vᵢᵧt − ½gt²

Time to maximum height tᵤₚ = vᵢᵧ/g

Maximum height H = vᵢᵧ²/(2g)

Range; equal heights R = vᵢ² sin(2θ)/g

Total velocity v = √(vₓ² + vᵧ²)

Projectile Motion • Physics 1 Study Notes