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Physics Module 8

From the Universe to the Atom

Topic Outline 5. Deep Inside the Atom
Four fundamental forces
1. Origin of the Elements Finding the fundamental particles
Outline of the “Standard Model”
The Big-Bang & expanding Universe
How the first matter was formed
Formation of stars & galaxies
The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram 4. Properties of the Nucleus
Fusion reactions in stars
Nucleons, nuclei & isotopes Radioactivity.
Life stages of stars & nucleosynthesis
Mechanisms of decay. Properties of α, β, γ
Rate of decay Nuclear fission
2. Structure of the Atom
Mass defect in nuclear reactions
Cathode rays & Dalton’s atom
Thomson’s expt. & the electron
Millikan’s oil-drop expt.
3. Quantum Mechanical
Problems with the
Geiger-Marsden expt. Rutherford atom
Nature of the Atom
& Rutherford’s model Balmer Series. Rhydberg equation The Bohr model of the atom
Chadwick’s discovery De Broglie’s matter-waves
of the neutron
Contributions of Heisenberg, Pauli & Schrodinger

What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S. Principle) this topic covers:
1. Origin of the Elements
The Big-Bang Theory & expanding Universe. How matter was first created. Formation of stars & galaxies.
Classification of stars & the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Fusion reactions in stars.
Life stages of stars & nucleosynthesis.

2. Structure of the Atom

The mystery of cathode rays. Dalton’s atomic model. Thomson’s experiment. Discovery of the electron. The
“Plum-Pudding” model of the atom. Millikan’s oil-drop experiment. The Geiger-Marsden experiment.
Rutherford’s atomic model. Chadwick’s experiment and discovery of the neutron.

3. Quantum Mechanical Nature of the Atom

Problems with the Rutherford atom. The Balmer Series of spectral lines & the Rhydberg equation.
The Bohr atom explains it all, but has some limitations. De Broglie & “matter waves”.
Development of Quantum Mechanics. Contributions of Heisenberg, Pauli & Schrodinger.

4. Properties of the Nucleus

Nucleons & nuclei. Isotopes. Radioactivity. Mechanisms & equations for alpha & beta decay.
Properties of alpha, beta & gamma radiations. Rate of decay. Half-life & decay constants.
Nuclear fission. Mass defect in nuclear reactions.

5. Deep Inside the Atom

The 4 fundamental forces. Finding the fundamental particles. Importance of the “atom-smasher” experiments.
Outline of the “Standard Model of Matter”.

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keep it simple science

1. Origin of the Elements
To understand where atoms and the chemical elements came from, we must start with the beginning of the
Universe itself. Our best explanation of that, is known as “The Big-Bang Theory”.
Outline of the “Big-Bang” Theory Discovery of the
1. The universe began 13.8 billion years ago. Expanding Universe
In 1922, the Russian Alexander Friedmann predicted
2. In the beginning, all the space, matter and energy that the universe should be expanding.
of the universe was concentrated in a "singularity"...
one tiny point of incredible density and temperature. His prediction arose from working on the equations
of Einstein's "General Theory of Relativity". This
3. This exploded outwards in all directions, was a brave prediction at the time, since other
becoming cooler and less dense as it expanded very galaxies beyond ours had not been discovered, and
rapidly. This expansion is still occurring today. there was no known evidence of expansion.
Galaxies are moving further apart as the space
between them expands. During the 1920's new, bigger telescopes led to the
discovery of other distant galaxies. The American,
Note: You must NOT think of this as if the Edwin Hubble, analysed the spectral lines from
matter exploded outwards into the distant galaxies and discovered the "cosmological
space surrounding it. red-shift". (A more detailed account of this was
given in Module 7... revise if necessary.)
The explosion and expansion was of
space-time itself. Before the explosion What is the "RED-SHIFT"?
there was no space or time. The "Red-Shift" is when the lines in a galaxy's light
spectrum have “stretched” to longer wavelengths...
4. Within a galaxy, gravity attracts matter and holds nearer to the red end of the visible light spectrum.
stars and planets together in their orbits around each
other, so there is no apparent expansion noticeable This can be related to the
in the "local" area of space. Doppler Effect:
The waves emitted by a
This theory seems strange and unbelievable when stationary object spread out
described in simple outline, so why is it accepted as evenly in all directions, with the
being correct? Simple! ...because the theory same wavelength.
explains many observed facts about the universe:-
However, when the object is
What the “Big-Bang” Explains
moving, the waves in front get “bunched up” and
their wavelength is shortened. The waves behind
The Universe is expanding get “stretched” and the wavelength is lengthened.
The main evidence is the "Red-Shift" of the spectral
Light Waves Spreading Out From a Moving Galaxy
lines of distant galaxies. This can only be explained
by a continuing expansion of space-time due to
the original explosion. Behind, In Front,
wavelength wavelength
Explanation of the “Red Shift”
lengthened shortened
The "Cosmic Background Radiation"
It was discovered in 1965 that the entire Universe Light Light Bluer
seems to be filled with microwave radiation coming redder
from every direction. This is explained as being the
"afterglow" of radiation from soon after the Big-Bang The Red-Shift in the light from distant galaxies
occurred. seems to be caused by the expansion of space-time
between them & us. The wavelength of light gets
What the Universe is Made From longer (redder). If they were approaching, we would
The observed chemical composition of the universe see a “blue shift” in the light.
(almost entirely hydrogen and helium) agrees with
theoretical predictions of what should have All distant galaxies show a red-shift.
happened during the first seconds of the Big-Bang. It seems to be a fact that space-time is expanding.

Within the last 20 years new evidence has emerged that the rate of expansion of the Universe is actually
increasing. The evidence has come from the study of supernova explosions in extremely distant galaxies and
was discovered by an Australian astronomer, Brian Schmidt. For this, he was awarded the Nobel Prize.
No-one yet knows what is causing the expansion to accelerate, so for the moment astronomers refer to a
phenomenon called “dark energy” while they continue to try to figure out how the Universe works.

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® How the Matter of the Universe was Formed

keep it simple science
In the first fraction of a second of the Big Bang
By 1915, Albert Einstein had explosion, all the "substance" of the universe was
deduced his famous equation radiation energy. It was too hot for matter to form, or
rather, any matter that formed was instantly torn
E = energy, E = mc² apart again at a temperature of some billions of oC.
m = mass
c = the speed of light = 3x108 ms-1 As the fireball expanded, however, it cooled rapidly
until particles of matter (protons, electrons &
The equation predicts that matter neutrons) were "condensed" from the energy
and energy are equivalent and according to E=mc². This began about 1 second
inter-changeable. after the initial period of hyper-expansion.

Because the c² term in the equation is a very large A few minutes later, some protons & neutrons were
number, it follows that a very small amount of matter able to combine into simple atomic nuclei.
is equivalent to a large amount of energy
After approximately 400,000 years it became cool
For example, during a nuclear explosion a small enough for electrons to combine with nuclei to form
amount of matter "disappears". It has been the first atoms of mainly hydrogen, with some
converted into the energy of the explosion. In the helium and a trace of lithium.
Sun, as in all stars, energy is constantly being e
released from the conversion of matter to energy.
p
The atoms formed were
The reverse happened during the Big-Bang. e nearly all hydrogen,
Originally there was only energy. The matter and p with a small amount of
mass of the universe was formed from this energy, n p n helium and a trace
according to Einstein's equation. Obviously it must e
of lithium
have taken large amounts of energy to form each tiny
particle of matter.
Formation of Stars and Galaxies
As the early universe (now made up of large amounts Gravity was able to attract the matter within each
of atoms) continued to expand, it also cooled further. "lump" of gas and cause it to collapse in on itself.
At this time the entire universe may be pictured as a Eventually, each separate "lump" of matter became
single, hot cloud of mostly hydrogen gas, still a galaxy. Further "accretion" of "lumps" within
expanding as space-time itself grows. each galaxy led to the formation of stars. Later, the
debris of exploded stars, containing heavier
Expansion of a gas causes it to cool, so the elements, accreted to form solar systems like ours.
temperature of the fireball must have fallen as the
cloud expanded. Since temperature is really a
measure of the kinetic energy (i.e. speed) of the
particles, it follows that the KE of the atoms must As space-time expands, the galaxies
have dropped too. get further apart.
Eventually, the particles became cool enough (and
slow enough) for gravity to have an effect.

If the atoms in the cloud had been perfectly evenly

distributed, then gravitational attractions would have
been equal in every direction and cancelled out.
However, it seems that random fluctuations within the Galaxies
cloud had caused a degree of "lumpiness". form

Note: we know this is true because the Particles of matter,

Cosmic Background Radiation then atoms
(the afterglow of the Big Bang fireball) Universe of Universe is a
shows distinct patterns of unequal distribution. pure energy singularity

Roughly 14 billion years later, here we are on a planet, in a solar system, orbiting a star.
Our star is one of billions, orbiting around our galaxy. Our galaxy is one of billions, all flying apart from each
other as space-time itself continues to expand. Our bodies, and the Earth itself, are made up of atoms which
were either created in the Big-Bang, or manufactured in a star. We are all “star material”.

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Images from Near the Big-Bang
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Full Moon
gives scale

XDF

The Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF) views shown above are the result of combining 10 years of photos
from the Hubble Space Telescope. At right is the deepest view of the Universe we have. The blobs of light
are distant galaxies, some of which (the smallest) show the image of things from 13.2 billion years ago.
We are looking back in time to the Universe as it was soon after the Big-Bang!

Evolution of the Universe (below) based on our

current knowledge. All images courtesy of NASA.

13.8
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How Stars Make the Elements
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Soon after the Big-Bang, the Universe was composed of hydrogen, a little helium & a trace of lithium.
So, where have all the rest of the elements in the Periodic Table come from?
To answer that, you need to know more about the life and death of stars.
Begin with some material already covered in Module 7. Spectral Star Classification
Revise Wien’s Law (p.15 of KISS mod.7) and all the
Spectral Colour Surface Spectral
material on light spectra, intensity-wavelength graphs, Class Temp (K) Features
star classification, etc. on pp. 5-8 inclusive.

The “Spectral Star Classification” scheme is important O Blue >30,000 Strong ionised
here, so we have reproduced it at the right. Helium

Brightness & Magnitude of Stars B Blue-White 15,000 to Strong

Over 2,000 years ago the Greek philosopher Hipparchus 30,000 neutral He lines
observed and mapped the star-field of the night sky. As
part of his study, he invented a “scale of brightness” to A White 10,000 to Prominent
classify each star he mapped. His scale was: 15,000 hydrogen lines
Brightest star visible = “magnitude 1”
2 F White-yellow 7-10,000 Strong metal
3 lines and weak
4 H lines
5
Dullest star visible = “magnitude 6” G Yellow 5-7,000 Prominent Ca2+
lines
Note that this is a reverse scale... brighter stars have
smaller number values. K Orange 3,500- Strong lines
5,000 from metals
For historical reasons, we still use this scale of
magnitudes, but it is now mathematically defined and M Red 2,500- Strong lines
extended beyond the original 6 values. Telescopes have 3,500 due to
revealed faint stars not visible to the eye, so magnitudes molecules
7,8,9,10... etc are included, and some stars are brighter
than “magnitude 1”, so values of 0, -1, -2, etc are To remember, use this mnemonic:
included. “Oh, Be A Fine Girl (Guy), Kiss Me”.
The magnitude scale is not linear.
By modern definition magnitude 1 is 100x So, when we see a bright star (e.g. magnitude 1) in the sky
brighter than magnitude 5, so (without going it might be a small, dull star which is relatively close to
into the maths) each magnitude is different Earth, or it could be a huge, highly luminous star which is
by about 2.5 times the amount of light much further away.
”
intensity. e “2d
anc
dist Square with

Magnitudes & Distance

sides twice as
long.
Square
The magnitudes dealt with so far are the 2x Area = 4x2
x
“apparent magnitudes” of a star as seen from dista Area x2 Same amount
Earth. This value depends on how luminous nce of light falls
“d”
light on 4 times the
the star really is and how far away it is. source area

You are reminded of the Inverse Square Law To deal with this, astronomers have invented a
for how the brightness (intensity) of light measurement called “Absolute Magnitude”. This allows
energy drops off with the square of the the brightness (“luminosity”) of all stars to be compared
distance. (diag. right) equally by calculating what magnitude they would have if
viewed from a standard distance.
This means, for example, that if 2 stars have
the same luminosity (i.e. both emit the same On the diagrams & graphs on the following pages, all the
amount of light energy), but one is twice as scales of “luminosity” are based on these “Absolute
far away, it will appear only 1/4 as bright. If it Magnitudes”.
was 3 times as far away it would be only 1/9
as bright, and so on. As an example, our Sun’s absolute magnitude = +3.

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The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
keep it simple science
The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram is a graphical To an astronomer, the Sun is an average “Main
plot of the absolute magnitude of stars against their Sequence” star, classified “G3” on the H-R
“spectral class”, which relates to their surface diagram. (Spectral class “G”, [Link] = +3)
temperature. It is named after the 2 astronomers who
discovered the relationship around 1910. hot, bright,

-10
blue stars
Most stars lie in this
Be careful trying to read this as a graph. Neither scale is zone which is
linear and the temperatures of the horizontal scale

-5
Luminosity increasing
called the
decrease to the right. “MAIN SEQUENCE”

(Absolute Magnitudes)
0
Obviously, there is a pattern revealed in the H-R diagram
and the reason for the pattern is the mass of each star.

+5
Basically, low-mass stars are dim, cool & red. As you our Sun
move upwards to the left along the “Main Sequence” of

+10
stars, they become hotter & brighter with “peaks” of
radiation at higher frequencies. How does this work? cool, dull,
red stars

+15
The more massive a star is, the greater the effect that Spectral O B A F G K M
gravity will have on it. More mass causes its core to be Classes
compressed inwards to a higher temperature & Colours Blue White Yellow Red
pressure, so that its matter becomes a hotter plasma Temp. 30,000+ 10,000 5,000 2,500 (oC)
and it “burns” hotter & faster.
Note: Temp scale decreases to the right

What is a “Plasma”? The Proton-Proton Chain

You may know that in Biology, “plasma” is the liquid
This is the “classic” fusion of hydrogen into
part of the blood. Well, we are talking about something
helium and is particularly important in small to
totally different here!
medium sized stars.
Plasma may be described as the “4th state of matter”... START WITH
heat heat heat 4 Hydrogen nuclei (protons)
SOLID LIQUID GAS PLASMA

particles & energy

particles & energy

+ + + +

Emission of
Emission of

If a gas gets hot enough, the atoms begin to lose Step 1

electrons... they become ionised. A gas which is so hot
that it becomes partially or completely ionised is called + n + n
a “plasma”. “heavy hydrogen”
(deuterium) nuclei
If completely ionised, the plasma becomes an
+ n + n
incandescent mixture of electrons and “naked” atomic 2 more protons
nuclei. On Earth, a plasma can occur, (eg in the thin + +
channel of air in a lightning discharge) but it quickly Energy Step 2 Energy
expands, cools and returns to the gas state.
n n
+ + + +
However, in the core of a star, the plasma cannot Helium-3 nuclei
expand & cool because of the enormous pressure of Step 3
gravity pressing in. The temperature is millions of oC, + +
2 protons
so the bare atomic nuclei have a lot of KE and travel re-released n + n
very fast. They slam into each other so hard that some Energy
+
of them undergo nuclear fusion. FINAL PRODUCT = Helium-4 nucleus

The size of any star is the balance between 2 opposing

forces: The details of reaction steps 1, 2 & 3 are shown
on the next page.
• Gravity, which attempts to collapse and compress the
star inwards, and The immediate thing for you to realise is that the
overall reaction turns protons (hydrogen nuclei)
• Heat and Radiation Pressure, from the energy released into helium and releases energy along the way.
by nuclear fusion in the core. This would cause the star
to explode outwards if not for gravity. Although not obvious in the diagram, the mass of
helium at the end, is slightly less than the starting
There are 2 fusion reactions you need to know about. mass of hydrogen. This “mass defect” has been
converted to energy according to E = mc2.

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Fusion in Stars (cont.)
keep it simple science
The Proton-Proton Chain (cont.) Notice that carbon is involved in the first step, and
is re-generated by the last step. It could be said
Step 1: that carbon acts as a catalyst.
Two hydrogen nuclei (protons) fuse to form Helium-2,
which immediately undergoes radioactive decay to As before, any positrons formed will soon meet an
“deuterium” (“heavy hydrogen” or hydrogen-2). electron and be annihilated in a burst of gamma
rays.
0
1
1
H +
1
1
H 2
2
He 2
1
H +
+1
e+ + ν
Both these main-sequence reactions involve
fusion which (overall) converts hydrogen to
positron neutrino helium. In each reaction a small amount of mass
“disappears” and is converted to energy according
The positron (positive electron) will eventually meet to Einstein’s E = mc2 equation.
an ordinary electron. They will then annihilate each
other in a burst of gamma radiation. Main Sequence Stars Fuse
Hydrogen into Helium
More about neutrinos later.
Step 2: Bo
t
The hydrogen-2 fuses with another proton forming to h rea
va
CNO Cycle ryi ction
helium-3, and gamma radiation. ng s
Reaction de occ
gr
ee ur
2 1 3 γ

Luminosity
Predominates
H +
1
H 2
He + s
1

Step 3: our Sun

Two helium-3 nuclei fuse to form helium-4 & release 2
Which reaction predominates
protons, which can re-cycle back to reaction 1. depends on star mass. More
Proton-Proton
3
He + 3 He 4
He +
1
H +
1
H + γ mass means higher temp. &
pressure in the core. This reaction
2 2 2 1 1 favours the CNO cycle. predominates

Overall: Hydrogen Helium + energy

1 4
So, all main sequence stars turn hydrogen into
4 1
H He + energy helium via one or both of these fusion cycles.
2

Important Note: Eventually, the core of the star becomes depleted

If you are not familiar with the type of equations in hydrogen and rich in helium. When a critical
above, or are confused by “positrons” & level is reached, the star enters a new phase of its
“neutrinos”, please continue on, then come back to life... we will get to that shortly.
this AFTER the later section on “Radioactivity”.
When we introduced the H-R diagram, did you
The CNO Cycle (Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen)
notice that we said “MOST” stars lie on the “Main
Sequence”? This means that some stars have
This reaction cycle occurs in medium to large main
sequence stars, and predominates in the larger ones. luminosity-temperature combinations that place
In a star the size of our Sun, both Proton-Proton and them elsewhere on the H-R grid.
CNO Cycle reactions occur, although the P-P reaction
is dominant. In the reactions For example, "Red Giant" stars are very large,
below, any nuclear (and therefore luminosity is high) but relatively
“species” which cool (therefore red in colour).
A cycle of reactions occurs as follows: occurs on both
R&L of equations
"White Dwarfs" are very small stars,
13
Fusion

12
C +
1
1
H 7
N + γ can be cacelled. (therefore luminosity is low) but they are
6 relatively hot.
13
Decay N +
13
C +
0 e+ + ν Edge Our Sun “White Dwarf”
7 6 +1 star
of a
Fusion Fusion

13 14
C +
1
1
H 7
N + γ “red
6 On the scale of this
14 15 giant” Diam. diagram, the Earth is
N +
1
1
H 8
O + γ 1,300,000 km microscopic
7 star
15
Decay O +
15
N +
0 e+ + ν Astronomers have figured out that all
8 7 +1 stars go through a series of changes
12 4 during their lives. Most stars spend most
Fusion

15
N +
1
H C + He + γ
7 1 6 2 of their life on the Main Sequence, but what
happens to them later depends very much on
Overall, the result is the same as the P-P reaction: their total mass.
1 4
4 1
H He + energy
2 The various possibilities are described next.

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Stages in the Life of a Star
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Small stars “burn” their fuel slowly and will stay on
Every star begins its life on the “main sequence”. the main sequence for billions of years. A star the
If you plot the spectral class of a “newborn” star size of the Sun, for example, can be expected to
against luminosity, it lies very close to the lower remain on the main sequence for about 10 billion
border of the main sequence band on a H-R years. The Sun is currently about half-way through
diagram. Since all new stars plot along this curve, this chapter of its life.
it is called the “Zero Age Main Sequence” (ZAMS)
curve. The larger the star, the faster it burns its fuel and the
shorter its life-time on the main sequence.
Exactly where each new star joins the ZAMS curve
depends entirely on its mass. Eventually, every star reaches a stage when it leaves
the main sequence, first expanding into a giant, then
104

beginning the process of star death as a dwarf. The

generalised pathways of a star’s life are shown below.
103

Mass = 10xMs Supergiant Stars

(Relative to the Sun. Sun = 1)
102

Complete
ZA Worksheet 1
Red Giants
10

MS
Cu
Luminosity

rv e Sun
1

All new stars join Mass = Ms

10-1

the main sequence “M

Luminosity
a in S
at a point along equ
the “ZAMS” curve, enc
10-2

e”
according to
Mass Very small
their mass = 0.1xMs stars remain
10-3

on the Main
Sequence
Spectral O B A F G K M
Class Wh for
ite
Dw perhaps a
Temp. 30,000+ 10,000 5,000 2,500 arfs
trillion years.
That’s
All stars tend to get hotter & more luminous as they accumulate helium and the CNO Cycle releases more essentially
energy. That’s why the Main Sequence is a thick band and not just the narrow ZAMS curve. forever!

After the Main Sequence Phase

Large mass stars burn fast and hot; smaller stars carbon
3 helium nuclei

burn slower and cooler, but eventually they all end up

fusion nucleus
with a core depleted in hydrogen and rich in helium.
Non-reacted hydrogen

Non-reacting helium energy release

core, depleted of
hydrogen
When this happens, the extra heat generated in the
core affects the layers of unreacted hydrogen
Up until now, the core surrounding the core. Depending on the size and
of the star has not been density of the star, a “shell” of hydrogen may
hot enough for any other begin fusing around the outside of the core,
fusion reactions beyond adding even more heat, and possibly causing
the hydrogen to helium eruptions which may “blow away” outer layers of
reactions. the star.

Now, as it runs out of hydrogen, the core ceases The main effect, however, is that the outer mantle
producing energy and gravity causes it to collapse of the star swells enormously with the extra heat
inwards. We’re talking zillions of tonnes of collapsing coming from within. The star swells hugely to
matter which rapidly converts gravitational potential become a giant star.
energy into heat.
Being so much bigger, it becomes much more
The core temperature skyrockets and at a certain luminous (moves upwards on the H-R diagram). At
point a new fusion reaction begins... the core starts the same time, the outer surface actually becomes
fusing helium into carbon. cooler, and its colour redder...
4 12
3 2
He
6
C + energy it has become a Red Giant star.
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Fusion in a giant star doesn’t stop at carbon. Depending
on the size and core temperature of the giant, a variety of fusions can occur,
gradually producing nearly all the elements of the Periodic Table.
For example:
carbon + helium oxygen
oxygen + helium neon “Nucleosynthesis”
oxygen + carbon
neon + helium
silicon
magnesium
refers to the building of
magnesium + silicon iron ...and many more. atomic nuclei by nuclear
fusion reactions.
As far as iron, the fusion reactions release energy.
Beyond iron, the reactions tend to absorb energy,
but atoms as large as lead can be formed.

The universe began as entirely hydrogen and

helium and is still predominantly made of just Grossly swollen “Shell Burning”
these two. In some places such as the Earth, outer envelope layer of
however, there are many heavier elements. of a Red Giant hydrogen fusion
We believe that these have all been made
by fusion in giant stars.

Eventually, the energy-producing

fusions begin to run out of fuel.
Gradually, an “onion-skin” structure
Remember that fusion to anything
may develop around the core, with
larger than iron, absorbs energy rather
different layers undergoing a variety
than releasing it. As iron accumulates Multiple fusion
of other fusion reactions.
in the core, the star’s ability to release reactions producing
energy, reaches another critical larger atomic nuclei
This is where all the larger atoms
stage... in layers
originated.
... the star is about to die!

Star Death
Exactly what happens at the end of a star’s life depends on its mass.
Small Stars Splutter & Fade After several such events there may be little left of the star
If the original mass of the star is less except its iron-rich core. Without any remaining “fuel” for fusion
than about 5 times the mass of the reactions, this core collapses under gravity to form a dense
Sun, the star goes through its “Red lump of “degenerate matter”.
Giant” phase (previous page & above)
starting by burning helium to carbon, “Degenerate matter” is where the atoms themselves are
and possibly developing an “onion- compressed into a smaller volume by squashing the electron
skin” structure of different fusion orbits closer to the atomic nuclei. A mass the size of the Sun can
reactions in successive shells. end up compressed down to the size of the Earth, and have a
density of 1 tonne per cm3.
In a dying red giant there are
sudden outbursts or Fusion has ceased, but this
“flashes” of energy as a shell star remnant has a lot of
Original star surface
runs out of fuel. Fusion Planetary Nebula: residual heat, so its surface
slows dramatically. Energy a hollow sphere of temperature may be around
production basically ceases. 10,000oK. Being very small,
gas and dust blown the total luminosity is quite
Gravity collapses matter
inwards. This brings fresh outwards from the low.
fuel into the fusion zone dying star.
which causes a sudden collapsed core
On the H-R diagram, it plots
explosion, like throwing to the left, but well below the
petrol onto a fire. main sequence. This is a
“White Dwarf” star.
Such an explosion has the
effect of blowing away an Over millions of years it
outer layer, as a hollow sphere radiates its residual heat,
of gas and dust called a gradually cooling and
“planetary nebula”. disappearing from our view.

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Big Stars Go Out With a Bang
keep it simple science What becomes of the imploding core depends on its mass:
If the star’s original mass is greater than about If the core is more than 1.4, but less If the core is bigger than
5 times the mass of our Sun, its death is quite than 3 solar masses, it forms a about 3 solar masses,
spectacular. neutron star. The atoms are nothing can stop the
crushed together, so that electrons implosion.
A star this large will certainly have developed are forced into the nucleus of
an “onion-skin” layer structure with some atoms, forming a solid ball of The matter is crushed
heavy elements in the core. When this runs out neutrons about 20 km across with a into a “singularity” with
density millions of tonnes per cm3. an intense gravitational
of fusion fuel, the core suddenly collapses field which not even light
under gravity and rapidly implodes upon itself. The neutron star spins rapidly and can escape from. Hence
gives out beams of high frequency it is called a “black hole”.
The outer layers suddenly have nothing holding EMR, such as X-rays. If the beam
them out there, so they fall inwards at an sweeps past the Earth we detect Inside the black hole we
enormous speed. These outer layers still pulses of radiation. When first think that time stops and
contain fusionable “fuel” which now ignites in a discovered, these were called all the normal laws of
cataclysmic detonation which explodes & re- “pulsars”. physics no longer apply.
bounds outwards... a “Supernova” explosion.
Artist’s impression of a black
Three significant things result immediately: hole sucking matter from a
• large amounts of heavy elements (up to and nearby star. Atoms are torn
beyond uranium) are formed in a rapid burst of apart as they circle into the
fusion events. “event horizon”.

• the force of the explosion in a shell around

the core, further accelerates the core implosion.

• the outer layers of the star are blown

outwards in a fireball that briefly outshines a Twisted magnetic
million stars, and continues expanding fields cause 2
outwards as a cloud of debris for thousands of “jets” of matter to
years. be ejected.

H-R Pathways of a Star’s Life

Photo below shows the “Crab
The diagram below shows the approximate life-pathways Nebula”. This is the remnant of a
for a Sun-sized star, and a star about 5 times more Supernova. supernova which was observed
massive, and one 10 times more massive. Briefly
from Earth in the year 1054.
Image courtesy of NASA.
In cases where the pathway goes off the very
H-R diagram, the pathway and its final position luminous Supernova
is not to scale, and may be fanciful. & hot

Supergiant Stars
5M star leaves a
-10

core about 2M
Red Giants
10M
-5
Luminosity

Neutron Star & Pulsar. 5M Complete

Hot, but very low Ma Worksheets 2 & 3
0

in S
luminosity. Radiations e qu
enc 1M
include UV & X-rays. e
A star about Sun-size
+5

will become a Red-

Giant, then a White
+10

Dwarf and finally “fade

Wh away” to a “Brown
10M star leaves a core about ite
Dw
arfs Dwarf”.
5M, which will collapse to form
+15

a BLACK HOLE.
Spectral O B A F G K M
Class
Zero Luminosity! Temp. 30,000+ 10,000 5,000 2,500

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2. Structure of the Atom
For almost the entire 19th century, atoms were thought to be small solid particles which were NOT made of
any smaller parts or pieces. This section of the module looks at the history of Science and how we came to
have a very different understanding of atomic structure.

Cathode Rays Confusion About Cathode Rays

By the 1850’s, scientists had developed the The evidence from these various experiments was
technology to produce quite high voltages of very inconsistent... some of the features of cathode
electricity and to make sealed glass tubes from rays suggested they were particles, other results
which most of the air had been removed using a suggested they were waves.
vacuum pump.

It wasn’t long before these 2 things were combined,

Evidence that CR’s were Waves
and some mysterious phenomena were discovered. Cathode Rays:
• Travel in straight lines like light waves.
Of great interest were the glows & “discharges” in • Cause fluorescence, like ultra-violet waves.
electrified vacuum tubes. They came from the • Can “expose” photographic film, as light does.
negative electrode, or “cathode”... so these
emissions were called “Cathode Rays”. Evidence that CR’s were Particles
Cathode Rays:
Over the following 20 years these mysterious “rays” • Carry kinetic energy and momentum,
were studied by many scientists, most notably
and therefore must have mass.
Sir William Crookes. He devised so many clever
variations on these Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT’s) that • Carry negative electric charge.
they were sometimes called “Crookes Tubes”. (but this vital clue was missed for some time!)

Experiments with CRT’s This confusion was finally settled by a famous

experiment. In 1897, Sir Joseph John Thomson
Maltese Cross Tube
showed that cathode rays had both mass and
CATHODE ANODE (+ve) negative charge.
( -ve) in the shape
of a Maltese
He had discovered the electron.
Cross
The Model of the Atom
Before we look into Thomson’s experiment, you are
reminded of the prevailing theories about atoms at
that time.

John Dalton (English, 1808) had experimented with

chemical reactions and showed that substances
Shadow of the cross in the always reacted and combined in fixed ratios by
glow at the end of the tube
weight.
This proves that Cathode Rays travel in straight
For this to happen, Dalton reasoned that each
lines from the Cathode.
element must have unique atoms (of fixed weight)
which could react and combine with each other in
Furthermore, Crookes tried this experiment with simple ratios.
many different metals as his electrodes. The type of
metal made no difference... Cathode Rays are He resurrected the “atomus” idea of the ancient
identical, regardless of the materials used. Greek Democritus (400 BCE) and combined it with
the new ideas of chemical elements & compounds.
Tube With a Fluorescent Screen
Beam of Cathode Rays causing a Dalton’s model proposed that atoms were
fluorescent screen to glow unbreakable spheres, with no smaller parts. Each
chemical element had different atoms with
different weights and properties, so the atoms of
lead are different to atoms of copper, etc.

H
Pb This was the unquestioned
model throughout most of
Fluorescence was known to be caused by Cu the 19th century.
certain waves, such as ultra-violet (UV) rays

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Discovery of the Electron... Thomson’s Experiment
keep it simple science
Thomson was able to adjust the strengths of the 2 fields
In 1897, the confusion and debate about so that their opposite effects exactly cancelled out, and
Cathode rays was settled by one of the most the beam went straight through to the centre of the
famous, and critically important, experiments in screen.
the history of Science.
At this point, Force due to = Force due to
The British physicist J.J. Thomson set up an Electric Field Magnetic Field
experiment in which cathode rays could be
Since the strengths of the fields could be calculated from the
passed through both an electric field, and currents and voltages applied to the plates and
through a magnetic field, at the same time. electromagnets, Thomson was able to calculate the ratio
Electric Field Effect (charged plates) between the charge and mass of the cathode rays.
Charge to mass ratio = Q
+ve m
Cathode
Rays E down page
This established beyond doubt that cathode rays were
particles (because they had mass) and were not waves.
-ve
Fluorescent screen to
Variable voltage measure deflection Furthermore, he repeated the experiment with many
different cathode materials and always got the same
result. This meant that the exact same cathode ray
Magnetic Field Effect particles were coming from every type of atom.
(Adjustable Electromagnets)
Other experimenters had already determined the charge-
Cathode mass ratio for the hydrogen atom (the smallest atom). It was
Rays apparent that the cathode ray particle was much smaller
than a hydrogen atom. The conclusion was that all atoms
must be made of smaller parts, one of which was the
B into page “cathode ray particle”, soon re-named ELECTRON.

A New Atomic Model

From this discovery, Thomson proposed a new model for the atom. It seemed that
all atoms had smaller parts (the electrons) and since electrons carried a negative + +
charge, but atoms overall are neutral, then atoms must also contain some positively
charged material to balance the total charge.
+
Thomson suggested that atoms might consist of a positively charged “matrix” of
matter with electrons embedded within it. This model quickly became known as the
“Plum Pudding Model”.
+
Finding the Charge of the Electron
Some oil
Thomson had solved the mystery of the “cathode droplets
rays”, discovered the electron and put forward a lose
Atomiser electron(s)
new model of the atom. oil spray & have +ve
charge
However, he had found a value for the charge-to-
mass ratio (Q / m) so neither the electron’s charge,
nor mass were known... only the ratio between droplets fall
them. under gravity Adjustable
charged
plates.
In 1909 American physicist, Robert Millikan found a
Microscope
way to measure the electron’s charge. The diagram to examine
shows schematically how this was done. droplets
+ + + + + + + +
Tiny droplets of oil had their mass calculated from
their known oil density and the terminal velocity
they reached when falling through the air. This equation could be solved to find the charge on
the droplet. Millikan measured the charge on
Some droplets developed a positive static electric hundreds of droplets. There were many different
charge from the sprayer. By adjusting the charged charge values, but all were multiples of 1.6x10-19 C.
plates, a charged droplet could be held motionless He proposed that this was the charge of a single
when the forces on it were balanced: electron. Incidentally, this also showed that charge
Gravitational force = Electrical force was quantised, thus fitting the (new) “quantum” idea.
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Radioactivity
keep it simple science
Rutherford had already discovered that there were
In 1896, the French scientist 3 types of radiation and had named them. He didn’t
Henri Becquerel accidentally know the full detail we now have:
discovered that certain minerals
containing uranium were Alpha Radiation is a stream of particles. + n
emitting a mysterious, invisible
radiation. This was called
An alpha particle is a “chunk” of nucleus, n+
made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
“radioactivity”. It carries positive charge.
Henri Becquerel -
We will come back to cover this Beta Radiation is also a stream of e
in detail later, but one of the scientists who became particles: this time it is high-speed electrons
very interested was the New ejected from an atomic nucleus. These carry
Zealander, Ernest Rutherford, who
Rutherford

negative charge.
was a professor at Manchester
University in England. Gamma Radiation is very high frequency
electromagnetic waves, similar to X-rays, but
Rutherford had received the Nobel carrying even more energy.
Prize in 1908 for his discoveries They have no charge.
associated with radioactivity and
had enlisted the help of the In 1909, Rutherford gave Geiger the task of
German physicist, Hans Geiger. measuring the deflection of alpha radiation as it
Together they were developing methods of detecting, passed through matter. Geiger carried out this
observing & counting radioactive radiations. experiment with his student Ernest Marsden.

The Geiger-Marsden Experiment

Expectations Rutherford’s Explanation
When Rutherford directed Geiger & Marsden to To explain this unexpected result, Rutherford
investigate any scattering of alpha rays through proposed a new model for the atom in 1911.
matter, he already had an expectation of what they
would probably find. • At the centre is a tiny, dense nucleus with a
positive electrical charge.
Based on Thomson’s
“Plum Pudding” model,
it was predicted that
+ + • The negatively charged electrons orbit around
the nucleus.
most alpha radiation
would pass straight • The distance from nucleus to the electron
through, with just a few + orbits is very large compared to the size of the
particles, so the atom is mostly empty space.
being deflected through
small angles. + Electrons in orbit
Rutherford’s around central
The Results ATOM nucleus
Geiger & Marsden selected a thin gold foil as their Atom mostly empty
“target” for the alpha rays because it could be made space, so most alpha
thin enough for the rays to pass through easily. Alpha
passes straight
beam
(Alpha rays are not very penetrative.) through.

As expected, most of the radiation passed straight Nucleus of very dense, positively
charged matter is able to deflect an
through. However, a few alpha particles were
occasional alpha particle through
deflected through quite large angles and some even a very large angle.
bounced back!
Since negative charge was carried by particles
Rutherford later said that this was like firing an (electrons) Rutherford thought it likely that the nucleus
artillery shell at a tissue paper and have it was made of positive particles. He later confirmed this
bounce back to hit you... he was amazed by the (next page) and named these particles “protons”.
result.
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Confirmation of the Proton
In the second decade of the 20th century political events and
Rutherford put forward the idea that the
WW1 caused a disruption & a slow-down in pure scientific
nucleus of a hydrogen atom is a single
research. Some promising young scientists died in battle and
fundamental particle with a positive charge
many others were drafted into weapons research.
equal in magnitude to that of an electron.
There were, however, some exceptions:
All atomic nuclei, he argued, contain a
Albert Einstein, a life-long pacifist, fled from Germany to
number of these particles equal to the
Switzerland. He became a Swiss citizen and continued his
“Atomic Number” of the element and equal
work on General Relativity which he published in 1915.
to the number of electrons in a neutral
atom. At a conference in 1920, he
Rutherford managed to continue his work as well.
proposed the word “proton” for these
In experiments conducted in 1917 (but not reported until 1919)
nuclear particles.
he “fired” alpha radiation into nitrogen gas and recognised
the “signature” of hydrogen atoms in his detectors.
The mass of hydrogen atoms was already
well known, so this defined the mass of
He proposed that the “hydrogen” (a proton) must have been the proton. However, the total mass of any
inside the nucleus of the nitrogen atoms and had been atom (except hydrogen) was at least twice
knocked out by the energy of the alpha collision. as much as the known mass of the
14 17 1
protons plus electrons within it.
4 O H
N + 2
He 8
+ 1
There must be more
7
Nitrogen Alpha Oxygen Hydrogen
nucleus particle nucleus nucleus particles in the nucleus!

Discovery of the Neutron

After this page, complete
worksheets 4 & 5
By the 1920’s it was known that there must be more to the atomic nucleus than just protons because
the mass of atoms did not add up. One proposed solution was that there were extra protons
combined with extra electrons in the nucleus.
This made sense, but the emerging science of Quantum Mechanics soon showed that the combination of
(proton + electron) was impossible and violated the strange rules of the new Physics.
Back to the drawing board... we are looking for another particle!
Experiments in Germany in 1931 had revealed a Beryllium Paraffin Wax
target target Detecting
mysterious new radiation which had been assumed equipment
to be gamma rays. Rutherford was not convinced. p+
n0
Neither was James Chadwick at Cambridge α
University. In 1932, he repeated the German
experiments with a view to looking for the “missing”
atomic particle, already called a “neutron”. Radioactive
substance
emitting
It was impossible then to detect and measure such a α-particles
particle directly. The method Chadwick used relied • Some of the neutrons then hit a second target of
upon neutrons colliding with other particles, then paraffin wax, which has a lot of hydrogen in it.
applying the scientific principles of Conservation of Occasionally a neutron collision would dislodge a
Energy and Conservation of Momentum to measure proton.
the properties of the neutron.
• Chadwick was able to study some of these protons
The diagram shows schematically the experiment. and measure the energy they carried.

• Chadwick could then apply the principles of

• The alpha (α) particles emitted by a radioactive
Conservation of Momentum and Energy to calculate
substance were used to bombard a beryllium target.
the mass and velocity of whatever had hit the
protons and dislodged them.
• The beryllium emitted neutrons, which (having no
electrical charge) are very penetrating and are The results indicated the presence of a particle
unaffected by electric or magnetic fields, so could (not γ-rays) with a mass almost the same as a
not be measured or studied directly. The German proton, and no electric charge. This matched
scientists had thought the radiation was gamma ( γ ) perfectly with the (then hypothetical) neutron, so the
waves of extreme high energy. existence of the “missing” nuclear particle was
confirmed.

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3. Quantum Mechanical Nature
of the Atom
keep it simple science

What Has Gone Before...

The entire Science of Chemistry and much of Physics is built on In his famous experiment with
the foundation of Atomic Theory... the concept that all matter cathode rays, [Link] had
+ - discovered the (negatively charged)
is composed of atoms. Initially conceived as tiny,
- + electrons in all atoms.
unbreakable particles of matter, by the beginning of the 20th +
-
century it became apparent that the atom was composed of -
+ This meant that there also had to
smaller parts. be a positive part of each atom.

In 1900, Max Planck had proposed the Quantum Theory to Light is NOT a stream of particles...
explain the details of the “Black Body Radiation Curves”.
Light is NOT a wave...
In 1905, Einstein then explained the strange phenomenon
of the Photoelectric Effect by using Planck’s quantum idea.
He proposed that light is not just a wave, nor a stream of Light is a stream of “wave packets”... PHOTONS”
particles, but made up of “wave packets”. Einstein also
proposed his “Theory of Relativity” in 1905. Classical
Physics was being turned upside-down by this sequence Each photon is both a particle AND a wave!
of new, fundamental discoveries.

Rutherford Model of the Atom Rutherford’s Electrons in orbit around

In 1911, Ernest Rutherford explained the unexpected ATOM central nucleus
results of the Geiger-Marsden experiment.
He proposed that the positively charged part of an atom Atom mostly
must be concentrated into a tiny “nucleus”, with the electrons empty space
orbiting around it.
Problems with Rutherford’s Atom
Nucleus of positively
charged matter, possibly
Even as he proposed his atomic model, Rutherford knew there was made up of particles
a huge problem with it.
The existing theory of Electromagnetic Existing accepted theory light emission
Radiation (EMR) contained the concept that if required that an orbiting from electrons
an electrically charged particle was electron should emit light
accelerating, then it must emit EMR, in the form energy continuously.
of light waves.
Obviously they don’t,
Since Rutherford’s electrons were imagined to
or all substances would
be in circular orbits around the nucleus, and
constantly glow with light.
since circular motion involves constant
(centripital) acceleration, then it follows that
However, atoms DO emit light
each electron should be constantly emitting
if stimulated with energy,
light. Trouble is... they obviously don’t!
such as in a high-voltage discharge tube.

Spectral Lines Element A Element B Element C

You are reminded of emission & absorption spectra
and how each element has its own “fingerprint” of
spectral lines.

These were studied extensively in the 19th century and

by the time of Rutherford they were already being used
by astronomers to classify stars (the “spectral classes”
in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram) and to identify the
elements within a star.

However, there was just one little problem, which was a

bit embarrassing...
No-one had the faintest idea
how to explain them! Emission Absorption Emission Absorption Emission Absorption

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® The Balmer Series & Rhydberg Equation

keep it simple science
The lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen had Practical Work
been discovered many years before Rutherford’s Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
work, and were known as the “Balmer Series”. You may have observed the emission spectrum for
hydrogen by using a spectrometer to view the light
Each line was given a name (Hα, Hβ, Hχ & Hδ ) and from a discharge tube filled with low-pressure
the precise wavelength of each had been measured. hydrogen gas.
Other similar series of lines were known to exist in
the invisible infra-red and ultra violet parts of the High Voltage
EMR spectrum. from induction coil

Spectroscope
No-one could explain them, but mathematicians Slit & lens
Balmer and (later) Rhydberg had worked out that the

Tube filled with Hydrogen gas

Prism Optical
viewing system
exact wavelengths of the hydrogen spectrum lines
could be calculated from an empirical equation:

The Rhydberg Equation “Telescope” can be

2 rotated to view the
1 = RH( 1/nf - 1/ni2 ) Tube glows different “lines” of the
λ with emitted emission spectrum
light
λ = wavelength of the spectral line (metres)
RH = the “Rhydberg constant” = 1.097 x 107
nf = an integer number.
You will have seen that the light from a hydrogen
For the Balmer series nf = 2
discharge tube is composed of 4 visible bright
ni = an integer number. lines of light. These are the “Balmer Series”. (left)
To calculate the wavelengths of the 4 lines of
the Balmer series, ni takes the values 3, 4, 5, 6. Each line is one single wavelength of light.

The fact that the Rhydberg equation worked was strong evidence that there was an underlying
“law” controlling the hydrogen spectral lines. The fact that a series of integer numbers were
involved was a clue that connected the whole thing to Plank’s Quantum Theory...

Planck’s Quantum Theory A quick revision of what you learned in Module 7...
In 1900, Max Planck proposed a radical new theory to explain the black body radiation. He found that the only way
to explain the exact details coming from the experiments, was that the energy was quantised: emitted or absorbed
in “little packets” called “quanta” (singular “quantum”).
Example Calculation
Planck proposed that the amount of energy carried by a a) Use the Rhydberg Equation to find the
“quantum” of light is related to the frequency of the light wavelength of the Hδ line of the hydrogen
and can be calculated as follows: spectrum, given that nf = 2 and ni = 6.

E = h.f 1 = RH( 1/nf2 - 1/ni2 )

E = energy of a quantum, in joules ( J) λ
h = “Planck’s constant”, value 6.63x10-34 = 1.097x107 ( 1/22 - 1/62 )
f = frequency of the wave, in hertz (Hz) 1/λ = 2.438 x 106
∴ λ = 4.10x10-7 m (410 nanometres)
You are reminded also, of the wave equation:
b) Calculate the energy carried by one
v = λ.f (or, for light) c = λ.f so f = c / λ. photon of light in the Hδ spectral line.

Combined with Planck’s equation, this gives E = h.c / λ

an additional relationship: = 6.63x10-34 x 3.00x108 / 4.10x10-7
= 4.85x10-19 J.
E = h.c / λ

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Neils Bohr Puts It Together

®

keep it simple science

It was the Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885-1962) who put these separate threads
together in 1913. He used Plank’s Quantum Theory to modify the Rutherford model of
the atom in such a way that:

• the problem of radiation that should be emitted constantly from accelerating electrons
(in Rutherford’s atomic model) was overcome.

• the reasons for emission spectra were explained.

• the empirical nature of the Rhydberg Equation was given theoretical backing and mathematical validity.

• the reasons for the “valency” of different atoms & how & why they combine in fixed ratios became clear.
(The last point is fundamental to Chemistry and understanding chemical bonding and formulas. It will not be pursued any further in this topic.)

Bohr’s Postulates “Allowed” orbit

Electrons orbit only in “allowed” orbits. positions.
Bohr theorised that there are a series of orbits, at Electrons cannot orbit
anywhere else.
fixed distances from the nucleus, in which an
electron will not constantly emit radiation as Electrons can “jump”
demanded by classical theory. (Why is explained later.) from one orbit to
another, but must
Electrons gain or lose energy to “jump” orbits. 1 absorb energy to jump
To jump up to a higher orbit, an electron must gain a higher, or emit energy
certain quantity of energy. If it drops back to lower 2 to drop lower.
orbit, it must emit that exact same amount of energy. 3 Quantum numbers of
These quantities of energy are “quantised”, so each the orbits.
orbit is really a “quantum energy level” within the atom.

The amount of energy absorbed or emitted during a Electrons in “allowed orbits” have
“jump” is defined by Plank’s Equation E = hf, and the quantised amounts of angular momentum.
corresponding wavelengths of light are defined by Bohr figured out that the amount of angular
the Rhydberg Equation. The integer numbers nf and momentum possessed by an electron must always
ni turn out to be the “quantum numbers” of the π.
be a multiple of h/2π
orbits, counting outwards from the nucleus. The significance of this comes later.

Bohr & the Balmer Series

Let’s see how Bohr’s ideas work with regard to the Balmer Series of hydrogen emission lines.

Bohr suggested that the Hα emission line was due to an 6 light photon emitted
Hδ line. ni = 6
electron dropping from the 3rd orbit down to the 2nd orbit. 5
It must lose a precise quantum of energy, so it emits a Hχ line. ni = 5
4
photon of light at a precise frequency given by E = hf. Hβ line. ni = 4
3
In the Rhydberg Equation, ni = 3 and nf = 2. The calculated 2 Hα line. ni = 3
wavelength (λ ) agrees perfectly with the observed spectral 1
line. Plank’s Quantum Equation calculates the energy of that Quantum energy
photon of light. levels or “allowed

Bohr argued that this amount of energy must represent the + orbits” around the
hydrogen atom
difference in energy level from orbit 2 to orbit 3. Nucleus

The other lines of the Balmer Series represent electrons It all worked!
dropping from higher orbits to the 2nd orbit:
Bohr’s idea gave a theoretical
Hα line. ni = 3 ) Increasing energy explanation for the Rhydberg
Hβ line. ni = 4 )
nf = 2 difference gives Equation, which had been
in higher frequency
each (and shorter wavelength) empirically derived to explain
Hχ line. ni = 5 )
case of spectral light the observed spectral lines.
Hδ line. ni = 6 )

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Limitations of the Rutherford-Bohr Model
keep it simple science
Despite the way that Bohr’s Postulates seem to solve The Zeeman Effect
the problem with Rutherford’s brilliant new concept of When a discharge tube is operated within a
the atom, there were still unexplained difficulties. magnetic field, each spectral line is split up into
several separate lines.
Bohr Model worked only for Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the simplest atom, with only one electron This, and the presence of the “hyperfine lines”,
and one proton. suggested that the energy levels or orbits were
divided into a number of “sub-orbits” of slightly
Attempts to apply the model to larger atoms failed, different energy. Bohr’s model had no
because multiple, orbiting electrons interact with each explanation for this.
other as well as the nucleus, and the Maths becomes
too complex to solve all the simultaneous equations. Like all scientific models, the Rutherford-Bohr
atom is a human attempt to explain the observed
Different Intensities of Spectral Lines facts of nature. In its day, this model was the
The different spectral lines showed different best explanation available, but it was recognised
intensities or brightness. This that certain facts remained
means that some orbital unexplained.
Spectral
“jumps” by electrons always view
ed line is
occur more often than others. a g nifi
M made up of This doesn’t make the
Bohr’s model had no model wrong... simply
a number
explanation as to why. incomplete. It was a
of separate,
finer lines “work-in-progress”, to be
“Hyperfine” Spectral Lines added to and refined by
When the spectral lines were later scientists. This is the
examined more closely, most way Science works. If
were found to be made up of a further evidence had
number of very fine lines close Spectral lines are of Complete proven it totally wrong (as
together. (Chemistry students may different brightness Worksheets 6 & 7 can happen) you would
relate this to “Orbital Theory”
not be studying it!
You might notice that the Rutherford-Bohr model of the atom is still used to explain basic
Chemistry to students in high schools today, over 100 years after it was developed.

De Broglie’s Matter Waves

Remember that in 1905 Einstein had explained the E = mc2 E = h.f c = λ.f
Photoelectric Effect by suggesting that light has
both wave and particle properties. (For this he was mc.c = h.f so λ.f = h.f
mc.λ
awarded the Nobel Prize)
Light is a stream of “wave packets”... “PHOTONS” ∴ mc.λ
λ=h
(and “c” is a velocity, so this can be re-written as...)

Each photon is both a particle AND a wave! λ = h / mv

Now “mv” is momentum, so this equation links to
Einstein had used Planck’s Quantum Theory to Bohr’s postulate about electrons having quantised
explain a phenomenon that “classical” Physics was angular momentum in their “allowed” orbits.
unable to explain.
λ= h
In 1924, a young graduate student Louis de Broglie mv
(French, 1892-1987) turned this concept around... λ = wavelength (metres) of the electron.
h = Planck’s constant (= 6.63x10-34)
If light waves can have particle-like m = mass of the electron (= 9.11x10-31 kg)
properties, does this mean particles v = velocity of the electron, in ms-1.
can have wave-like properties?
Example Calculation
Using Quantum Theory and Bohr’s atomic model, Find the wavelength of an electron which is
de Broglie developed a mathematical model for an travelling at a velocity of 4.35x105 ms-1.
electron in orbit around the nucleus acting as a
particle with wave properties. Solution
λ= h = 6.63x10-34/(9.11x10-31 x 4.35x105)
You can derive the de Broglie equation from
Einstein, Planck & the wave equation:
mv
= 1.67x10-9 m (1.67 nanometres)

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®
De Broglie’s Matter Waves (cont.)
keep it simple science
Diffraction & Interference
Impact of de Broglie’s Hypothesis You are reminded (from Module 7) of the interference
De Broglie’s proposals had almost no impact on the patterns which arise from the diffraction of light.
scientific community at first. His mathematics were Beam of light striking a
checked and found to be totally correct. His barrier with slits in it Light falling on
screen or photo
hypothesis was totally consistent with the Quantum film shows a
Theory, and with the Bohr model. pattern of light and
dark spots
The physicists of the day, including Planck, Einstein,
Rutherford and Bohr were all very interested by his
work, but it was just a neat mathematical exercise,
Light spot
without any evidence based in experiment or where waves
observation. add together

Dark zone
Usually, scientists observe a phenomenon and then where waves
try to explain it by theory. de Broglie was putting cancel
theory first, without any facts to explain!

Eventually, (as happens in Science) an experiment Diffracting waves form Interference Patterns
was done to test the hypothesis.
How do you tell if something is a wave or not?
Simple: test electrons to see if they show diffraction & interference patterns!
Davisson & Germer’s Experiment
Between 1925-7, American physicists Davisson and Germer used a Result?
modified cathode ray tube to test de Broglie’s hypothesis.
An interference pattern
was detected!
A beam of electrons travelling through a vacuum was allowed to strike a
crystal of nickel, specially prepared so that electrons would reflect from
This proved that electrons have
parts of it. Different parts of the beam could then overlap their pathways
wave properties, and confirmed
as they travelled into a detection device, which could measure the
the de Broglie hypothesis.
intensity of the beam at varying positions.
Why Are Bohr’s “Allowed” Orbits Stable?
A quick review of some important points:
“Standing waves” are a well-known wave
Rutherford’s atomic model places electrons in orbit, phenomenon in which an exact number of full
but classical theory predicts they should constantly wavelengths can “resonate” or reverberate in a
be emitting light, because they are accelerating. stable way. For example, all musical instruments
involve standing waves of sound energy in a string
However, this isn’t happening, so Bohr proposes or air space. (Revise these ideas in module 3)
that there are “allowed”, stable orbits where
electrons don’t constantly give off light. (They only The “allowed orbits” around an atom are located at
radiate when they “jump” orbits) distances from the nucleus which allow the
quantum energy of the electron to fit in an exact
What makes these “allowed orbits” stable?
de Broglie’s particle-wave theory of the electron number of wavelengths to form a standing wave.
explains:
At any other distance, the orbit cannot fit a
An allowed orbit is where the wavelength of the standing wave with an exact number of
electron exactly fits to form a “standing wave” wavelengths, so the electron cannot exist there.
around the nucleus.
The electron is a particle, with mass and
An electron momentum. It is also a wave, with a wavelength
forms a λ = h/mv) and capable of diffraction, interference
(λ
“Standing and standing wave behaviour.
+ Wave”
around the
Welcome to the world of Quantum Physics!
nucleus

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® Quantum Mechanics
keep it simple science At this point the Syllabus requires that you analyse the contribution of one particular
scientist to our modern understanding of the atom. We think that’s a bit unfair.
In the 1920’s, Quantum Theory was being accepted as a “necessary evil” to satisfactorily describe the
structure of an atom, and account for all the known observations. However, the explanations being used
were a mixture of new “quantum” ideas overlaid on a framework of “classical” Physics,
so it was all rather artificial or contrived.

It was the theoretical work of many great scientists that turned “Quantum Theory” into “Quantum
Mechanics”; a complete, new branch of Physics without the need for any reference to the “old” Physics.

Although the details of their work are beyond the scope of this course, we have chosen 3 of the best:

Werner Heisenberg Wolfgang Pauli

(German, 1901-76) is best
(1900-58) was born in Austria, but
remembered for the
became an American citizen. He is
“Heisenberg Uncertainty
best remembered for the
Principle”,
“Pauli Exclusion Principle”,
for which he was awarded the
(Nobel Prize 1945) which states that
Nobel Prize in 1932.
2 electrons in the same atom cannot
have exactly the same quantum state.
Heisenberg developed the
mathematical framework for
His mathematical analysis
Quantum Mechanics. He showed that the dual
established the idea that the Bohr-de Broglie orbits
nature of the “particle-wave” which describes the
are just one of several different types of quantum
electron (and the light photon), makes it
properties that electrons can have.
impossible to know everything about any particle
at any moment. Either you know where it is, or
This gives rise to the idea of “sub-orbits” within an
you know how much momentum it has, but you
atom (this explains the “hyperfine lines” in emission
cannot know both things at once with any
spectra) and shows why 2 electrons with almost the
certainty.
same quantum state, but opposite “spin”, will tend
to pair up. (e.g. electron pairs in chemical bonding.)
This “uncertainty” about things at the atomic scale
was described by Heisenberg as mathematical
He made important contributions to understanding
probabilities. Thus, an electron orbit becomes a
nuclear processes as well.
“region of probability” in which there is a good
chance (but not a certainty) that the electron exists
as either particle, or standing wave. Complete Worksheets 8 & 9

Erwin Schrodinger (Austrian, 1887-1961)

Schrodinger’s equations do not rely on any
Schrodinger is known as the “father of Quantum
Mechanics”. His mathematical “wave aspects of “classical Physics”, but stand
function” equation became the basis for alone in their own right. For this work, he was
understanding many aspects of the sub- awarded the Nobel Prize in 1933.
atomic world and now under-pins much
of modern Physics & Chemistry. Schrodinger was unsettled by some of the
implications & interpretations of Quantum
All previous “quantum equations” grew Mechanics. While fully supportive of its
from Planck’s work plus that of Einstein statistical aspects (eg Uncertainty Principle)
& classical Physics. In contrast, he was sceptical about implications such as
Schrodinger’s “wave function” is a “quantum superposition” (“entanglement”).
complex mathematical description of a
Erwin To learn more, research his famous paradox
Schrodinger system totally built from quantum
energy effects. known as “Schrodinger’s Cat”.
in 1933

When studying Quantum Physics, you should bear in mind a statement attributed to
another great scientist, Richard Feynman, who said:

“If you think you understand Quantum Mechanics,

then you don’t understand Quantum Mechanics!”
(In fact, it may be an urban myth that he ever said this... but, if he didn’t say it, he should have!)

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keep it simple science

4. Properties of the Nucleus
Things to Know About the Nucleus
Nucleons Note that:
A “nucleon” means any particle located in the • The charge on a proton is exactly the same magnitude,
nucleus of an atom. There are 2 types of but of opposite sign to that carried by an electron.
nucleon:
• So, in a neutral atom:
Protons protons = electrons = “Atomic Number”
The existence of protons was considered likely
almost as soon as the electron was • Protons and neutrons have almost identical masses.
discovered. By the 1920’s the proton had been (The neutron is slightly heavier)
positively identified, and its properties
measured. Both are almost 2,000 times heavier than an electron, so
virtually all the mass of an atom is in the nucleus.
Neutrons
As early as 1907 it had been suggested that protons + neutrons = “Atomic Mass Number”
protons alone were not sufficient to account
for the mass of most atoms. It was suspected Thus we get the familiar atomic model, with electrons
that there must be another nucleon, with (in Bohr’s allowed orbits) around a nucleus
considerable mass, but no electric charge. of protons and neutrons.
However, it was 25 years before the neutron’s MAKE SURE YOU UNDERSTAND THE SHORTHAND DESCRIPTION
existence was proven.

Nucleon Number For example:

The sum of the (protons + neutrons) in a Sodium atom
particular nucleus is called the “nucleon
number”. It must be a whole number. electrons = 11
protons = 11
Compare this to the “atomic mass number”. neutrons = 12
These terms are inter-changeable.
Total nucleons = 23
Properties of Nucleons (protons + neutrons)
Proton Neutron
Electrical Atomic
Charge +1.602x10-19C 0 (neutral) Mass Number = 23
23
Mass 1.673x10-27kg 1.675x10-27kg
11
Na Atomic Number = 11

What Holds the Nucleus Together?

This question had been asked as soon as Since the nucleus does exist, and doesn’t instantly
Rutherford had proposed that atoms have a explode, it was realised that there must be another force
nucleus. There were just 2 forces then operating. It was called simply the
understood, which could be operating in the “Strong Nuclear Force”.
nucleus:
Its properties could be inferred and calculated:
Gravity • It must be much stronger than the proton-proton
All masses attract all other masses by gravity. electrostatic repulsion.
This would attract all nucleons to each other.
• It must be independent of charge and attract all
Electrostatic Forces nucleons... protons & neutrons.
All charged particles exert a force on other
charged particles. This force would not act on • It must be extremely short-ranged, operating only
neutrons, but should cause protons to be across the tiny distances of the nucleus.
repelled by other protons. (Otherwise it might cause neighbouring atomic nuclei to
fuse together & eventually pull all matter into one lump!)
Calculations showed that the Even before its existence was proven, the Strong
electrostatic repulsion would be much, Nuclear Force was known to exist, and scientists began
much stronger than gravity. The speculating on how to tap into its enormous energy
nucleus should instantly fly apart! potential...

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® Reading the Periodic Table

keep it simple science
How to Read the Information for Each Element
“Atomic Number” ( = protons = electrons)
The elements are numbered, in order, across and then down the table. This puts
13 the elements in a numerical order, but it also tells you how many electrons &
Aluminium protons in each atom.
Shorthand for an Atom
Al
Mass No. above
Name of the Element From this, you can work 40

26.98 Chemical Symbol

out that each Argon atom
contains 18 electrons, 18 18
Ar Chemical symbol

Each element has a short- protons and 22 neutrons. Atomic No. below
hand symbol. It is always
one capital letter, OR if 2 letters, always a capital followed by a lower case letter.
“Relative Atomic Mass” (RAM) (Sometimes loosely called the “Atomic Weight”)
This gives the relative mass of an “average” atom of the element.

Whoa! Wait a minute! That cannot be correct!

The Atomic Mass Number (Nucleon Number) must be a whole number. What’s going on?

The explanation lies in a knowledge of ISOTOPES...

Isotopes Example: Chlorine has 2 main isotopes

35 37
You know that the atoms of an element are all the same
as each other. Actually, that’s not quite true!
17 Cl17 Cl
All the atoms of an element have exactly the same 17 protons 17 protons
• number of protons &
• number of electrons } = “Atomic Number” 17 electrons
18 neutrons
17 electrons
20 neutrons
It is the number of electrons which gives each atom its
chemical properties, and defines it as a particular On Earth, there is a mixture of these 2 isotopes in
element. However, the number of neutrons can vary. such a proportion so that the “weighted average”
atomic mass is 35.45. This is the value of R.A.M.
For example, hydrogen has the smallest, simplest atoms shown in the Periodic Table.
of all, but there are 3 variations, or “isotopes”.
Isotopes are commonly described by their individual
Example: Isotopes of Hydrogen mass numbers. The isotopes above are “Chlorine-35”
3 H & “Chlorine-37”, or simply Cl-35 & Cl-37.
1 H 2 H
1 1 1
The isotopes of Hydrogen (at left) are Hydrogen-1,
n Hydrogen-2 and Hydrogen-3.
n n (These actually have “special” names: H-2 = “deuterium”, H-3 = “tritium”.

Calculating R.A.M. from Isotope Data

0 neutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons If you know the proportions of each isotope in a
sample of an element, you can easily calculate the
These atoms have the same chemistry, because the
electrons are the same ; they are all Hydrogen. R.A.M.

However, their Mass Numbers are different. Example: A sample of chlorine is found to contain
77% Cl-35 and 23% Cl-37.

ISOTOPES are atoms of the same element (same R.A.M. = (nucleon no. x %) + (nucleon no. x %) +...
Atomic Number) but with different numbers of for each isotope
neutrons and different ATOMIC MASS NUMBERS. = 35 x 77 + 37 x 23 = 35.46
Their chemistry is the same. 100 100
The slight variation between this calculated value &
the RAM shown in a Periodic Table is due to slight
Most elements exist in nature as a mixture of 2 or differences in the mix of isotopes in different
more isotopes. The “Relative Atomic Mass” shown samples of the element. The official RAM in the
on the Periodic Table is the average of the mixture Periodic Table is the average of many, many
of isotopes that occurs on Earth. measurements.

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®
Nuclear Reactions
keep it simple science The nucleus of every atom is held together by the “strong nuclear force”.
This force is the strongest known. It is far stronger than electrical or magnetic forces,
and billions of times stronger than gravity. Certain reactions in the nucleus can release this nuclear energy.

Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fission

is when 2 small atomic nuclei are slammed together so Under certain conditions,
hard that they join and become one. They join to form a a very large atomic
larger nucleus and in the process some nuclear energy nucleus (e.g. uranium or
may be released. plutonium) can break
p Fusion apart into smaller
fragments.
p Helium nucleus
p A nucleus which splits may release nuclear
p n p n energy. It also can set off other nuclei, so the
result is a “fission chain reaction”.
p
Hydrogen nuclei. This is the process in a nuclear reactor used to
Energy released generate electricity in many countries. It is also
(protons)
the energy source in an “atomic bomb”.
This type of reaction is called “Nuclear Fusion”. It is the
process which powers the stars. In a star, hydrogen is In a nuclear power station the chain reaction is
fused into helium. Helium can later be fused to form controlled. The energy is used to make steam
carbon atoms and so on. to drive an electrical generator.

In fact, we believe that the Universe was originally made In a bomb, the chain reaction runs out of
entirely of very small atoms. All the larger atoms have control and releases the energy instantly...
been made by fusion in the stars. a nuclear explosion.

On Earth, the fusion process only occurs in a Fusion in stars was covered earlier
“Thermonuclear (Hydrogen) Bomb”. We would like to be in this module.
able to use nuclear fusion for peaceful energy
production, but so far we have not figured out how to
Fission will be covered soon,
control the process safely. but first...

Radioactivity
In 1896, the French scientist Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered that certain
minerals containing uranium were emitting a mysterious, invisible radiation. This was
later called “radioactivity”, meaning that the substance was actively emitting radiation.
After Becquerel’s discovery, scientists soon Rutherford was another research
discovered that these radiations were coming pioneer and he discovered that
from inside the atoms of uranium... it was NOT there were, in fact, 3 different
Chemistry. radiations. They were quickly
Henri Becquerel
labelled alpha (α ), beta (β ) and
Marie & Pierre Curie were 2 of gamma (γ ) rays.
the leaders in this research &
after Pierre’s tragic death, Alpha Radiation is a stream of particles. + n
Marie continued the work An alpha particle is a “chunk” of nucleus,
until her death in 1934 from a made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. n+
blood disorder probably
caused by her exposure to Beta Radiation is also a stream of
radiation. Marie particles: this time it is high-speed
e-
Curie electrons ejected from the nucleus.
By the 1930’s the research of
the Curies, and others, had established:
Gamma Radiation is very high frequency
• the nature of radioactivity. electromagnetic waves, similar to X-rays, but carrying
• that the radiation was coming from the nucleus even more energy.
of atoms.
• the occurrence of different isotopes of each
element. Gamma radiation is often (but not always) associated
• that some isotopes are “stable” (do NOT emit with the emission of alpha and beta particles.
radiation), but others are “unstable” which
causes them to be “radioisotopes”.
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Alpha ( α ) Decay
keep it simple science
Every atomic nucleus is held together by the “strong nuclear force”. While this is very powerful, it is also
very short-ranged and depends on a certain “balance” of protons & neutrons. If this balance is wrong, or the
nucleus is very large, it can be unstable. It may undergo a nuclear reaction to change into a more stable
form. The process can involve the emission of particles and radiation... radioactivity.

Alpha decay occurs in atoms which have a very large nucleus and are unstable. To achieve greater stability,
the nucleus “spits-out” an alpha particle to get rid of excess mass and energy. As it does this, the nucleus
turns into a different element. This decay may occur over and over, until the large, unstable atom “decays”
into a smaller, stable atom such as lead.

Example
Uranium is well known as a radioactive substance, and “nuclear fuel” for nuclear reactors and bombs.
Its most common isotope is U-238, meaning it has a mass number of 238. It decays as follows:
238 234 4 The α-particle consists of 2
92
U
90
Th + 2
He + n protons & 2 neutrons. It is the
n+ nucleus of a helium atom, so it
Uranium-238 Thorium-234 Alpha is usually written as 4
particle He
Note that the Mass No. decreases by 4, and the Atomic No. decreases by 2. 2

Example 2 226 222 4

Radium-226 undergoes alpha decay: Ra Rn + He
88 86 2
Radium-226 Radon-222 Alpha
particle
Hints: Use the Periodic Table to find Atomic Numbers and identify names and symbols.
Note that the mass numbers AND the atomic numbers ALWAYS BALANCE (add up)
on each side of a “decay equation”.

Beta ( β ) Decay
Some atomic nuclei, of any size, have an unstable Examples of β - Decay
mix of protons and neutrons. If there is an excess Carbon-14 is a well-known radioactive isotope which
of neutrons, a “nuclear reaction” occurs which undergoes beta decay:
converts a neutron into a proton, plus an electron.
14 14 0 -
Neutron Proton + Electron C N + e
6 7 -1
Nitrogen-14 Beta
How can this happen? It seems like magic, but it Carbon-14 particle
shows what a strange place the quantum nucleus
is. There is more detail next page; for now you must In some cases of beta-decay there may be a gamma
accept that it actually happens. ray emitted as well, but you cannot predict which
ones do, or do not emit gamma rays.
To understand a “decay equation” for β-decay, you
need to know that electrons can be described by Iodine-131 is a radioactive beta-decayer which also
the following shorthand. emits a gamma ray:
0 -
e
Electrons have such little mass -1
131
53 I
131
Xe +
0 -
-1
e + γ
that it counts as zero. 54
Beta Gamma
To make everything “balance” in a decay equation, Iodine-131 Xenon-131 particle ray
the Atomic Number is taken to be -1.
Note that once again the Mass Numbers and Atomic
Results of Beta-Decay Numbers ALWAYS BALANCE across the equation.
Number of neutrons decreases by 1 and protons (Gamma emission does not affect the numbers)
increase by 1. (So Atomic Number goes up 1 but
Mass Number does not change) Note:
An electron is created in the nucleus, then ejected at There are other decay mechanisms which will not be
high speed. This is the Beta particle... covered here. If interested, research “positrons”
a high speed electron. & “electron-capture” to learn more.

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Which Decay?
keep it simple science How can you tell which type of decay a particular isotope is likely to undergo?
Well, you can never be 100% sure, but there are certain patterns.
Graph of Neutron/Proton Ratio
For example, there are very for all known isotopes (approximate)
few stable isotopes of really
large atoms. Any isotope with Within the dotted line In this zone, nuclei are too big to
atomic number more than zone, but above LoS, be stable, and are radioactive,
about 80 is quite likely to be the isotopes have too mostly by alpha-decay.

100 120 140

many neutrons (Some beta-decay)
radioactive, very likely by compared to protons.
alpha-decay. They are unstable &
radioactive.
Number of Neutrons Most undergo “Line of Stability” (LoS)
Among smaller atoms, beta-decay. These nuclei are stable
alpha-decay is very unlikely.
However, an atom can’t Within the dotted line zone, but below LoS,
80

exist with just any the isotopes have too few neutrons
combination of protons & compared to protons. They are unstable &
neutrons in its nucleus. The radioactive. They may undergo a variety of
60

nucleus can only be stable decay mechanisms not covered here.

if the neutron/proton ratio is
40

within certain, very narrow

Any nucleus formed outside the dotted-line zone is
limits. This is best seen if so unstable that it can have only a fleeting existence
20

all the known isotopes of all before spontaneously decaying by a variety of

the elements are plotted on mechanisms.
a graph, as follows:
20 40 60 80 100
Number of Protons

More About β-Decay... Pauli and the Neutrino

Historically, it was known that the electrons To have avoided detection, this hypothetical particle
ejected during Beta decay varied considerably in must have no mass (or so little that it was not
their velocity, and the amount of energy they measurable) and no electric charge. However, it could
carried. This was puzzling, because it was carry quantum energy. Pauli’s idea was that there was a
thought that the process involved was the same certain total energy involved in b-decay; some was
in every β-decay, so why did the energy vary? carried off by the beta particle, the rest by the mystery
particle.
In 1931, Wolfgang Pauli suggested a quantum
explanation.
Enrico Fermi did the mathematics and the whole
What if there was another particle being scenario worked so well in theory that the scientific
produced, that no-one had detected? This community accepted the new particle, even though it
“missing” particle could carry away some of the was not positively detected and identified until 1956.
energy in varying amounts.
This new particle was eventually christened the
β-particle
neutron “neutrino” (little neutral one) and is now a totally
(electron)
accepted fact of the sub-atomic quantum world. In fact,
n there are a whole family of neutrinos; to keep it simple
The sum of the (KISS Principle!) the one released in beta decay is an
energy of the beta “anti-neutrino”.
particle and
neutrino always The symbol used for the anti-neutrino is ν. The full
adds up to the equation for a beta decay is therefore: (for example)
same amount.
14 14 0
C N + e- + ν
anti 6 7 -1
proton neutrino
Carbon-14 Nitrogen-14 β particle anti-neutrino
Note: Neutrinos were mentioned (but not explained) earlier when we described fusion in the stars. Some fusions in a star
are followed by a decay involving “anti-electrons” (positrons) and neutrinos. Our examples here involve ordinary
electrons and “anti-neutrinos”. We now know that stars produce uncountable zillions of neutrinos throughout their lives.

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® Properties of Alpha, Beta & Gamma Radiation

Effects of Electric
keep it simple science
Radiation Causes Ionisation & Magnetic Fields
All 3 radioactive radiations can cause ionisation... Alpha and Beta radiations are particles and both
they can cause electrons to be knocked out of their carry electric charges. Alpha is positive (+ve), Beta
orbit around an atom, turning the atom into an ion. negative(-ve).
Electron knocked out This means that both Alpha and Beta can be
of orbit deflected by an electric field and by a magnetic field.
The deflection of alpha compared to beta will be
Alpha, Beta or Gamma opposite in either type of field.
radiation
Deflection of Radiations by Electric Field
Alpha (+ve)
This is why radiation is Atom - small deflection due to
large mass
dangerous to living things. becomes
ionised Gamma.
Ionisation of atoms in a (no charge)
living cell can disrupt membranes, cause genetic no deflection
mutations or alter the cell’s DNA so that it becomes
+
Beta (-ve)
cancerous. Electric Field larger deflection due
between charged plates to small mass.
n

Note that Gamma rays are NOT deflected by either

tio

field, because they have no electric charge.

ia

The massive ALPHA

ad

particle has the Deflection of Radiations

R

highest ionisation by a Magnetic Field Alpha (+ve)

small deflection
ability, BETA is much
less ionising and Gamma. (no charge)
GAMMA less again. no deflection

Magnetic Field
(into page) Beta (-ve)
between mag. poles larger deflection

Penetrating Ability What You Might Have Discovered

Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation are quite different ALPHA particles have low penetrating ability.
in their abilty to penetrate through different They are so likely to collide and interact with
substances. atoms in their path, that they usually do not
penetrate far. A few centimetres in air is as far
You may have done Practical Work on this. as they’ll get, and a piece of paper will stop
99% of them.
FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION,
that you may have done to test the penetration of BETA particles penetrate further than alpha.
radiation through different materials. They are less likely to interact, and so
penetrate further, but rarely go more than 10-
20cm in air and most can be stopped by thin
metal sheets such as aluminium foil.
Data sent to
electronic counting Alpha
device to measure
the radiation levels Beta
Geiger Tube.
Detects radiation by
the ionisation it Gamma
causes.
Paper Aluminium Lead

Different materials GAMMA rays are highly penetrating.

placed here They are like X-rays, only more so. Gamma can
(e.g. paper, lead,
aluminium) to see travel many metres through air and other
what can block the substances. To absorb gamma rays, several
Alpha, Beta or Gamma source. radiation. centimetres of lead or a metre of concrete is
Each tested separately. merely a good start.
Complete Worksheets 10 & 11
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®
Rate of Radioactive Decay
keep it simple science
from here The time it takes for the
You cannot predict when any particular unstable 100% radiation to drop to half
atom will undergo a decay event. However, in any the previous level is

or number of atoms remaining

statistically large sample of atoms of an unstable constant.
This is the “Half-life”.

RADIATION LEVEL
isotope, the decay events occur in a predictable,
mathematical way.

re
he
Over time, the radiation emitted (and the number of 50

to
atoms remaining which have not decayed) drops
exponentially as shown in the graph. The rate at
which the graph declines is usually expressed by a to here
measurement called “half-life”. 25

Half-life of Radioisotopes
As each (equal) half-life of time goes by, half of the 0 TIME
previous sample of atoms decays. Compared to the half-life half-life
original starting sample, the amount remaining is a half-life
fraction as shown. For example, the diagram shows that How Long are Some Half-Lives?
after 4 half-lives, 1/16 of the original sample remains.
(Note that theoretically this series never reaches zero.) What is the typical half-life for some
radioisotopes? Well, it varies enormously.
Original Sample Some isotopes are so unstable that their half-
life is a fraction of a second. Others have a
half-life of a few days.

half- half- half- half- The isotope cobalt-60 is used in medicine and
life life life life industry as a source of radiation. Its half-life is
5.3 years.
1 1 1 1
1 2 4 8 16
Carbon-14 has a half-life of about 5,700 years.
Now, please don’t think that the sample shrinks in size. It is used to measure the age of artifacts from
The atoms are still there, and the rock (or whatever) still human history.
looks exactly the same. What declines is the amount of
radiation it is emitting, because the number of radioactive The isotopes most useful for measuring the
atoms is getting less, as each one “decays” to a new age of rocks have much longer half-lives,
form. measured in millions of years

Simple Example Problem Nt = N0.e-λλt where λ = ln(2) / t1/2

A sample containing a radioactive isotope has a
Nt = number of atoms remaining at time = t
radiation count of 128 units. After 12 days the
N0 = number of atoms present at time = 0
radiation level has declined to 32 units.
e = “Euler’s number”. e ≅ 2.7183
The base of “natural logarithms”.
a) What is the half-life of the isotope? λ = the “decay constant”
b) What radiation level would you expect after a t = time elapsed. (units depend on those of t1/2)
further 18 days? t1/2 = half-life of the radioisotope.

Solution Example Calculation

a) By halving the radiation counts: The half life of radioactive cobalt-60 is 5.3 years.
128 64 32 a) What is its “decay constant”? (hint: ln(2) = 0.693)
you can see that 2 half-lives have gone by in 12
days. Therefore, half-life = 6 days b) What % of Co-60 atoms would remain in a
sample after 12 years? (hint: If working with %, let N0 = 100)
b) Another 18 days would be 3 more half-lives.
32 16 8 4 Solution
Expected radiation level = 4 units a) λ = ln(2) / t1/2 = ln(2) / 5.3 = 0.693 / 5.3 = 0.131
(Note: units of λ are the reciprocal of time units. In this case yr-1 )

However, you need to know the more

complex mathematics of calculating the rate b) Nt = N0.e-λλt = 100 x e-0.131x12
of decay over any given time, not just an = 100 x 0.208 = 20.8 %
(This makes sense, since after 2 half-lives,
exact number of half-lives. (at right) (10.6 yr) there would be 1/4 (25%) remaining.)
Complete Worksheet 12
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® Measuring Mass & Energy in the Nucleus

keep it simple science Before going any further, you need to know about the commonly used methods of
measuring mass and energy at the atomic level.

Atomic Mass Units Energy in Electron-Volts

The “atomic mass unit” (u) is a measure of mass The “electron-volt” (eV) is an energy unit that is
devised for convenience at the atomic level. convenient because the energy of sub-atomic
Roughly speaking, both a proton and a neutron particles has traditionally been measured by their
have a mass of 1 u, although in the calculations behaviour within electric fields.
following, you need to be much more precise.
Obviously, 1 u is a very small mass: 1 eV is the energy gained by an electron accelerating
in an electric field with a potential difference of 1V.
1 u = 1.661x10-27 kg 1 eV is an extremely small amount of energy:
You need to be able carry out calculations using
1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 joules of energy
either unit, so the following data may be useful.
so the unit often used is the mega-electron-volt (MeV)
Proton Neutron 1 MeV = 1x106 (one million) eV
Mass (in kg) 1.673x10-27 1.675x10-27
This is convenient when dealing with individual
Mass (in u) 1.0073 1.0087 atoms or particles.

Example Calculation
Mass Defect in the Nucleus The nucleus of a carbon-12 atom contains 6 protons and
It was realised that incredibly powerful forces were 6 neutrons.
operating within the atomic nucleus. How could The nucleus is known to have a mass = 11.9967 u
such forces arise? = 1.993x10-26 kg

Calculate the Mass Defect, and total Binding Energy.

The answer lies in the fact that the mass of every
atomic nucleus (except hydrogen) DOES NOT ADD UP.
Solution
If you add up the mass of all the In kg and joules In u and MeV
protons+neutrons in any nucleus,
Mass of 6 protons Mass of 6 protons
the total is always more than the actual measured = 6 x 1.673x10-27 = 6 x 1.0073
= 1.004x10-26 kg = 6.0438 u
mass of the whole nucleus.
Mass of 6 neutrons Mass of 6 neutrons
Mass of Mass of = 6 x 1.675x10-27 = 6 x 1.0087
Protons + Neutrons > Whole Nucleus = 1.005x10-26 kg = 6.0522 u
Total particle mass Total particle mass
= 2.009x10-26kg = 12.0960 u
This difference is called the “Mass Defect”. ∴ Mass defect ∴ Mass defect
It’s as if a little bit of mass “went missing” when = 2.009x10-26- 1.993x10-26 = 12.0960 -11.9967
the protons and neutrons joined together to form = 1.600x10-28kg = 0.0993 u
the nucleus.
These are the same, just different units
Where is the missing mass?

It has converted to energy... E = mc2 This missing mass has Each 1 u converts to
converted to binding 931.5 MeV of energy
(you should have known that Einstein would energy according to (This value is in your
be involved sooner or later!) Physics Data Table)
E = mc2 So, binding energy
...to provide the “Binding Energy” of the Strong = 1.6x10-28 x (3.00x108)2 = 0.0993 x 931.5
Nuclear Force which holds the nucleus together. = 1.44 x10-11J = 92.50 MeV

Einstein had developed his most famous equation

as part of his Theory of Relativity. He never These are the same, just different units
anticipated that it would find another use...
From here on, all calculations will be done in
atomic mass units (u) and MeV.

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Nuclear Fission
®

keep it simple science

In the 1930’s, it was discovered that bombarding
“target” atoms with alpha particles could
The Manhattan Project
Following a “letter of concern” (outlining the danger of
occasionally produce a transmutation to a new nuclear research in Nazi Germany) from Einstein to the
radioactive isotope. For example... President of the USA , the top secret “Manhattan Project”
27 4 30 1 was set up in 1942. Its objective was to research nuclear
13
Al + 2
He 15
P + 0
n fission and develop an “atomic bomb” if possible.

Aluminium α-particle new isotope neutron The first step was to discover if a self-sustaining fission
of phosphorus chain-reaction was possible. Enrico Fermi was appointed
the leader of the scientific team. He designed the reactor
In Italy, brilliant young physicist Enrico Fermi or “nuclear pile”, which was built in a squash court at the
University of Chicago.
(1901-54) decided that using neutrons as “atomic
bullets” would be even more productive. In December 1942 the reactor achieved the first self-
sustaining, controlled chain reaction.
In 1934 he began bombarding every possible
element, in turn, with neutrons and studying the
resulting radioactivity to detect any new
The Fission Chain Reaction
Since fission is set off by a neutron, and since it releases
radioisotopes. Over 40 were discovered very more neutrons, it follows that a chain reaction can occur,
quickly. For example: in which each atom which splits can set off more.
19 1 20
9
F + 0
n 9
F
Fluorine Neutron New, previously unknown
radioisotope of Fluorine

In one experiment he bombarded uranium atoms

with neutrons, confidently expecting to produce
atoms of “transuranic” elements. The radiation Start
“signatures” detected were unexpected and
puzzling, but he was focused on other things and
failed to investigate further.

Fermi had “split” the nucleus, but it was another 4

years before other scientists in Germany confirmed
what had happened. In his sample of uranium were
atoms of U-235 which had absorbed a neutron, then
totally disintegrated: 92 Krypton

36 Kr isotope

3 extra If the amount of “fissile” atoms is below a certain “critical mass”, most
1 1 neutrons neutrons escape without striking another nucleus, so the chain reaction is
235
92
U+ 0
n 3 0
n released. not self-sustaining and dies away.

These can set In a critical mass of “fissile” atoms, if every fission

Uranium Neutron
141
off other sets off (say) 2 more, then the chain reaction grows
Barium atoms in a
exponentially within a fraction of a second. This is
56 Ba isotope “chain
uncontrolled fission, and results in a nuclear
reaction”
explosion of devastating power... an “atomic bomb”.
This is Nuclear Fission; the splitting of the nucleus., with
enormous energy release, due to a mass defect and If a neutron-absorbing material (such as cadmium)
E = mc2.
is present, it is possible to absorb many of the
neutrons so that each fission sets off exactly one
Meanwhile, Fermi had continued on with his work, and other. This is controlled fission and is what Fermi
was awarded the Nobel Prize of 1938 for his production of achieved in his “pile” in 1942, and what occurs in
new radioactive materials. every nuclear power station.

With war looming in Europe and a Fascist regime in Italy, There are only 2 nuclei which will readily undergo
Fermi and his Jewish wife used attendance at the Nobel fission:
Prize ceremony in Sweden to flee to the USA, where Fermi 235 239
was immediately accepted into the scientific community. 92
U 94
Pu
By then he was aware of nuclear fission and its huge Uranium-235 which Plutonium-239 which can
energy potential, and that the experiments confirming occurs naturally in be made from U-238 by
fission had been done in Nazi Germany. On the eve of uranium ores, but in neutron bombardment in
World War II, it seemed that the knowledge to develop an very small amounts. a nuclear reactor.
“atom bomb” was in the hands of a dangerous enemy.

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®
Mass Defect During Nuclear Fission
keep it simple science The enormous energy released by nuclear fission is due to a “mass defect”
between the starting nucleus and the product nuclei.
For example, in the fission of Uranium-235: Enrico Fermi in 1943
(Note: fission products can vary) working on the
“Manhattan Project”
235 1 148 85 1 Below:

92
U+ 0
n 57 La
+ 35 Br + 3 0
n This is the plutonium fission
bomb, nicknamed “Fat Boy”,
which destroyed the city of
U-235 neutron La-148 Br-85 3 neutrons Nagasaki in 1945.
mass mass mass mass mass
235.0439 u 1.0087 u 147.8114 u 84.8917 u 3.0261 u

Total Mass before Total Mass after

Fission Fission
Below: Atom bomb test by USA in 1946 at
236.0526 u 235.7292
Bikini Atoll, Pacific Ocean.
Later that year, a French fashion designer released a new, daring, 2-piece
style of swimwear. It was named “bikini” to take advantage of the great
public interest in nuclear weapons. Yes, that’s where the name came from!
Mass Defect = (Mass Reactants - Mass Products)
= 236.0526 - 235.7292 = 0.3234 u

Energy yield per fission:

Remember that 1u 931.5 MeV
of mass of energy

So, energy released = 0.3234 x 931.5

= 301.2 MeV
(This equates to about 5 x 10-11 joules of energy)
The energy released might seem a very small amount,
but this is from just one atom. In (say) 10kg of
uranium there are about 2.5x1025 atoms. If all of these
were to undergo fission, the total energy released would be about 1x1015 joules, all released in a split second, in
the case of an atom bomb. This is the energy generated by an average size power station in about 30 years.

Of course, the Conservation of Mass & Energy applies. The total energy before the reaction (including the
E=mc2 energy equivalent of the masses involved) is exactly the same as total energy after the reaction.
Mass Defect in Fusion
As an example, consider the “helium-burning”
fusion which occurs in a “Red-Giant” star, As was covered
carbon
3 helium nuclei

covered earlier. earlier, fusion in

fusion nucleus
4 stars can produce
12 energy
3 2
He C + larger & larger
6 nuclei to eventually
Total Mass before Fusion Total Mass after fill the Periodic
3 x 4.0026 u Fusion energy release
= 12.0078 u 11.9967 u Table.
For nuclei up to
Mass Defect = (Mass Reactants - Mass Products) about the size of
= 12.0078 - 11.9967 = 0.0111 u iron, the fusions release more heat & radiation to keep
the star “burning”. Beyond iron, the fusions need to
absorb some energy to make the larger nuclei.
Energy yield per fusion: 1u 931.5 MeV
mass energy
Once again, the Conservation of Mass & Energy
So, energy released = 0.0.0111 x 931.5 applies, with conversion of mass into “binding energy”
= 10.34 MeV (according to E = mc2) occurring.

Mass Defect in Radioactivity Complete Worksheet 13

We will NOT attempt to calculate a “mass defect” for In radioactivity reactions, α or β particles may come
an example of a radioactive decay. You can try it for out of the nucleus at relativistic velocities. This
yourself, but you will probably get a negative mass complicates the calculation. There is also the energy
defect (= a gain in total mass) which doesn’t make carried away by gamma radiation and/or neutrinos.
sense for a spontaneous reaction. The problem is Just be assured that Conservation of Mass & Energy
that the masses we use are “rest masses”. is alive & well and rules supreme as always!
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keep it simple science

5. Deep Inside the Atom
The “Standard Model” of Matter
After 120 years of scientific research into the sub-atomic quantum universe, just what is the latest “picture”
we have for the structure of matter? Our modern understanding is known as the “Standard Model”, and is a
description of both matter and energy (since these are inter-changeable) at its most fundamental level.

The 4 Fundamental Forces 3. Weak Nuclear Force

The Standard Model describes the ways that matter This fundamental force acts inside the atomic
and energy interact with each other via four nucleus and is responsible for the events occurring
fundamental forces. These forces have, in the past, during radioactive decay.
been described as “force-fields” such as the
electric, magnetic & gravitational fields. It is much weaker than electromagnetism and has
effects only within the atomic nucleus.
1. Gravity
If you drop a 4. Strong Nuclear Force
brick on your This force is the most
toe, you may powerful of all and operates
assess only within the atomic
gravity as nucleus. It is equal to the
being a pretty “binding energy” which holds
powerful nuclei together and for the
(& painful) Image by NASA release of energy during
force. In fact, nuclear fission or fusion.
it is by far the weakest of all and at the atomic scale
is billions of times weaker than all the others. More about this when we discuss the Standard
Model with regard to fundamental particles.
At astronomical scales, gravity is best understood
as the curvature of space-time as described in Unification of the Forces
General Relativity. It is responsible for the formation Just as the electrical & magnetic forces were
of galaxies, stars & planets, as well as falling bricks. “unified” into electromagnetism, in the 1970’s it was
proven that electromagnetism and the weak nuclear
At atomic scales, there are theoretical reasons to force are manifestations of a single, fundamental
suspect that gravity is due to quantum particles force now called “Electroweak”.
called “gravitons”, but these have not yet been
proven to exist. The idea is that, at the time of the Big-Bang, these
forces were all one fundamental force. As the
At the everyday macroscopic scales where humans “energy-density” of the expanding Big-Bang
exist, gravity is best understood as a “force-field”, declined, these forces separated into seemingly
so do not drop that brick! different force phenomena.
2. Electromagnetism If matter is subjected to high enough energies in “particle
Originally it was thought that electricity & accelerator” experiments (more soon) these forces become
magnetism were 2 separate forces, but since the same thing... they are unified. This has been verified by
the time of Maxwell’s Theory in the 19th experiments and can also be explained in mathematical
century, they have been “unified” as detail by modern Quantum Mechanics theory.
“electromagnetism”.
We do not notice The GUT & the ToE
how powerful An important point to note is that electroweak and strong
this force is, nuclear forces are both quantum fields involving particles
because all (like the light photon) which are all “particle-waves” and
atoms contain have a variety of quantised properties.
electric &
magnetic Progress is currently being made to unify the strong
particles whose nuclear force with electroweak to form a “Grand Unified
opposite charges & poles tend to cancel out at Theory” (“GUT”). It is thought that very early in the Big-
macroscopic levels. We only notice the effects Bang, all these forces were one. Modern high-energy
of this force when temporary imbalances experiments aim to prove this, if the energy of the early
occur, such as in a lightning discharge. Big-Bang can be achieved in the particle-accelerators.

Electromagnetism controls chemical reactions, What about gravity? Can it be unified with the others?
because electrons interact to form, or break, Many scientist think so, and some research aims to find
chemical bonds. Electromagnetism is of the “Theory of Everything” (“ToE”). So far, gravity cannot
course, responsible for all EM radiations, be reconciled with Quantum Mechanics. Finding the
including light and for all our electrical & hypothetical “graviton” particle would be a major
electronic technology. breakthrough.
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® Finding the Fundamental Particles

keep it simple science For much of the 19th century, atoms were thought to be fundamental particles of matter.
They were imagined as indivisible, unbreakable particles and NOT made from any smaller parts. In 1897,
Thomson’s experiment (discovery of electrons) changed that opinion for ever and over the next 30+ years came
many discoveries; radioactivity, protons & neutrons, particle-wave properties, Quantum Mechanics, etc.

During this time, some scientists turned their radiation-detectors upwards or flew them in balloons and soon
discovered strange radiations coming from space. Initially thought to be high energy gamma waves, this
radiation was called “cosmic rays”. Later, it was figured out that it is high-velocity protons & alpha particles
coming from the Sun, or other stars, and creating showers of “cosmic rays”
as they struck atoms in the upper atmosphere.

The “cosmic rays” turned out to be cascades of strange new particles given names like “muons”, “mesons”
& pions. There were also anti-particles such as “positrons” (positively-charged electrons). These new particles were
similar in some ways, but also different from, electrons & protons. This raised new questions about the true
nature of matter and whether protons & neutrons were really “fundamental” particles.
The “Atom-Smashers” Part of the LHC at CERN
image by Maximilien Brice. CCA-SA 4.0 Int
Taking a lesson from the cosmic rays, scientists
began accelerating ions, protons or electrons with
powerful magnetic fields in the laboratory.
Accelerated (in vacuum) to relativistic velocity, these
“atomic bullets” were collided with each other or
smashed into targets in the experiments. Sensitive
detectors were developed to study the particles &
energy spraying outwards from each collision. (and
extending what Rutherford, Chadwick, Fermi and others had done before.)

CERN and the LHC

Currently the largest & most powerful scientific
facility to do this is located underground on the
border between France & Switzerland.
This tube forms a ring 27 km in circumference.
The facility is run by an organisation called It contains a near-perfect vacuum. Within it, protons at
CERN, which is a French acronym for close to the speed of light smash each other with
“European Nuclear Research Organisation”. It energies approaching those in the early Big-Bang.
was formed in the 1950’s and is dedicated to The “Particle Zoo” & Quarks
high-energy Particle Physics. It has 23 member Through the 1950-60’s the particle-collision experiments
countries who run it & fund it co-operatively. carried out at a variety of laboratories in Europe & USA
kept discovering more & more exotic sub-atomic
The facility cost many billions of dollars to particles. This large population was jokingly called the
build & millions per year to maintain. It has a “Particle Zoo”. This huge variety defied explanation!
technical staff of over 2,000, hosts about 10,000
visiting experimenters per year and feeds its In 1964, two American physicists independently put
data world-wide for analysis by thousands forward a theoretical model to explain & simplify the
more scientists. The internet was first invented “zoo”. Based firmly in Quantum Mechanics, the model
as part of the computer network to distribute proposed the existence of a family of particles called
CERN data. “quarks”. Quarks have mass and carry fractional electric
charges, (compared to the electron) plus other quantum
The biggest particle-accelerator at CERN (there properties which have been called “colour” & “flavour”.
are several) is the “Large Hadron Collider” (but have nothing to do with the normal meaning of those words)
(“LHC”). It was first used in 2008 and by 2012 It was proposed that protons & neutrons (and many other
had confirmed the existence of the theoretical members of the “zoo”) are NOT fundamental particles, but
particle, (Higgs boson) which we believe is composed of certain combinations of quarks.
responsible for giving mass to all matter.
This theoretical idea was soon tested by experiments at
At the time, the mass media called it the “God- the Stanford Linear Accelerator Centre (“SLAC”) in
particle”, because it has “created” the Universe California, USA. In 1968, while bombarding protons with
as we know it. By endowing other particles high-velocity electrons, evidence was found for 3 quarks
with their mass, the Higgs boson gives atoms inside a proton. Later experiments at SLAC and CERN
the property which allows gravity to form them (and other labs) were able to isolate & indentify a family
into stars & planets. of 6 individual quarks between mid 1970’s to 1995.
So, what are the true “fundamental” particles?
The Standard Model for particles is next.
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®
The Standard Model for Particles
keep it simple science
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

QUARKS LEPTONS BOSONS

There are 6 different quarks, some with are fundamental particles with The massless “Gauge
whimsical names such as “charm” & very small masses. They Bosons” are the means by
“strange”. Quarks have mass, carry include the electron, and the which all the other particles
electric charge and also the quantum neutrino family. (There are exert one or more of the
properties called “colour” & “flavour”. several types of neutrino) fundamental forces on
This means they can “feel” and interact each other.
with ALL 4 fundamental forces. Some leptons (such as the Photons
electron) carry electric charge The best known is the
Each quark has an electric charge of and the “flavour” quantum “photon” of electromagnetic
either +2/3 or -1/3 compared to the electron. property. They have mass, radiation, such as light.
charge & “flavour”, so this Photons will interact with any
Protons & Neutrons Contain Quarks means they interact with lepton or quark (or quark-
• Protons are each made of 3 quarks gravity, electromagnetic & composite) which carries
with charges = +2/3 +2/3 -1/3 = +1 weak nuclear forces, but NOT electric charge.
• Neutrons also contain 3 quarks the strong nuclear force. The
with charges = +2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0 strong force relies on the Gravitons
“colour charge” quantum Gravity is thought to involve
Mesons property. “gravitons”, but these have
These are nuclear particles composed not yet been proven to exist.
of 2 quarks. Within an atomic nucleus, As well as being the particles
the mesons act as “carriers” of the which flow in an electric Gluons
strong force and hold a nucleus current, electrons are at home The quarks inside a proton,
together. In this role, they act in a in orbit around a nucleus. neutron or meson are held
similar way to the bosons (right). Remember too, that they have together by “gluons” which
wave properties and form (de interact only with particles
Outside the nucleus, mesons are Broglie’s) “standing waves” which have “colour charge”.
unstable and rapidly decay into various within (Bohr’s) allowed orbits.
leptons & gamma radiation, as their W & Z Particles
“weak nuclear force” interactions take When formed in the nucleus These carry weak nuclear
over. during beta decay, the force, responsible for the re-
electron, and an anti-neutrino, arrangements of quarks
When an atomic nucleus is “smashed” are instantly ejected which occur during
apart, a vast array of different mesons at high speed. radioactive decay. They
may appear, each then decaying into interact with any particles
even more particles. carrying the “flavour charge”.
This is why the “cosmic rays” Nucleus
and the “particle zoo” was quark quark
Higgs Boson
so confusing to earlier -1/3 -1/3
is quite different to all the
glu

glu
n

n
uo

researchers. “gauge bosons” above.

uo
on
gl

on
gl

mesons
Higgs is a “scalar boson”
A simple atomic quark quark quark quark
and has a very large mass.
+2/3 gluon +2/3 +2/3 gluon -1/3
nucleus according to It interacts with quarks &
Proton +1 leptons to imbue them with
the Standard Model Neutron 0

of Matter the property we call “mass”.

Anti-Particles and Anti-Matter

We also know that for every quark (and quark-based particle) and lepton that exists, there is also a
corresponding anti-particle. For example, there are electrons, and there are anti-electrons (“positrons”)
which have the same mass, but opposite electric charge. There are also anti-protons, anti-neutrons, and
so on. As you know, the other particle formed in beta-decay is an anti-neutrino. Theoretically, “anti-matter”
could exist, with atoms made entirely of anti-particles.
Complete Worksheet 14
When any particle and its anti-particle meet, they mutually annihilate each other... all the mass is
converted into energy (photons of gamma radiation) according to E = mc2.

One of the remaining mysteries is why (some time in the early Big-Bang) the Universe came to be made of
mostly “normal” matter. Theory suggests there should have been an equal amount of anti-matter.

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