SKELETAL SYSTEM — Bones &

Joints
Study Notes

1. Functions of the Bones

Support
Protection
Movement
Storage
Hematopoiesis (blood cell formation)

2. Types of Bone Tissue

Compact bone — solid mass, dense & hard; forms outer layer;
functional unit = Haversian system.

Spongy (cancellous) bone — contains spaces filled with bone

marrow; incomplete Haversian system.

3. Classification of Bones

A. According to Structure

1. Compact = solid mass; dense & hard; forms outer layer;

functional unit — Haversian system
2. Cancellous/Spongy = contains spaces filled with bone marrow;
incomplete Haversian system

B. According to Shape

1. Long bones — length > breadth; consists of shaft (diaphysis) &

two extremities (epiphysis)
Diaphysis: filled with yellow marrow; cylindrical; large central
canal; covered by periosteum
Epiphysis: made of cancellous tissue
Examples: femur, humerus, tibia, fibula, radius, ulna, phalanges
Membranes: periosteum, endosteum
2. Short bones — cuboidal shape; spongy bone with thin compact
coat
Sesamoid bone: short bone embedded in a tendon (e.g., patella)
Examples: carpals (wrist), tarsals (ankle)
3. Flat bones — broad/elongated flat plates; for protection & muscle
attachment
Composition: 2 thin layers of compact tissue enclosing a thin
layer of spongy bone
Examples: skull bones, sternum, ribs, scapula
4. Irregular bones — bones not fitting other categories
Examples: vertebrae, pelvic bones, bones of the base of the
skull
C. According to Development

1. Membranous — starts as fibrous membrane; calcium deposited

until ossified (intramembranous ossification)
Examples: skull bones, mandible
2. Cartilaginous — starts as cartilage, gradually ossified
(enchondral/intracartilaginous ossification)
Examples: long bones

D. According to Location

AXIAL (80 bones total) | Bone | Count | |—|—| | Skull | 22 | | Hyoid |

1 | | Ossicles | 6 | | Vertebrae | 26 | | Ribs & sternum | 25 | | Total | 80
|

APPENDICULAR

Upper Extremities (64 total) | Bone | Count | |—|—| | Clavicle | 2 | |

Scapulae | 2 | | Humerus | 2 | | Radius | 2 | | Ulna | 2 | | Carpals | 16 | |
Metacarpals | 10 | | Phalanges | 28 | | Total | 64 |

Lower Extremities (62 total) | Bone | Count | |—|—| | Hip bone | 2 | |

Femur | 2 | | Patella | 2 | | Tibia | 2 | | Fibula | 2 | | Tarsals | 14 | |
Metatarsals | 10 | | Phalanges | 28 | | Total | 62 |

4. Axial Skeleton

I. Skull

Skeleton of the head & face; flattened & irregular; bones united by
joints (sutures)
Cranium = skull minus mandible
Calvarium = skull after facial bones removed
Cavities:
Cranial — contains the brain
Orbital — contains eyeball & accessory organs
Nasal

Divisions of skull bones: - Cerebral/cranial bones (brain case) — 8

bones - Unpaired (4): occipital, frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid - Paired (4
→ 2 pairs): parietal, temporal - Facial/visceral cranium - Paired (12 → 6
pairs): nasal, lacrimal, maxilla, zygomatic (malar/cheek), palatine,
inferior nasal concha (turbinate) - Unpaired (2): vomer, mandible

Fontanelles — membrane-filled spaces in newborn skulls 1. Anterior

(largest) 2. Posterior 3. Anterolateral (sphenoidal) 4. Posterolateral
(mastoid)

Hyoid Bone

Small U-shape; lies in front of the neck

Base of the tongue attaches to it
Lies between mandible & thyroid cartilage

II. Ossicles (small bones of the ear, 2 each)

Stapes (stirrup)
Incus (anvil)
Malleus (hammer)

Vertebral Column
 Long, curved, slightly movable pillar
United by cartilage & ligaments; 71–75 cm long
Formed by a series of bones (vertebrae)
Functions: support of the trunk; contains & protects the spinal
cord & nerves

Classification of vertebrae | Region | Young | Adult | |—|—|—| |

Cervical | 7 | 7 | | Thoracic | 12 | 12 | | Lumbar | 5 | 5 | | Sacral | 5 | 1 |
| Coccygeal | 4 | 1 | | Total | 33 | 26 |

Intervertebral discs — flattened fibrocartilage plates between

vertebral bodies - Functions: uniting medium; main shock absorber;
give flexibility & movement

General parts of a vertebra 1. Body 2. Arch 3. Pedicle (root) 4.

Lamina 5. Transverse process 6. Articular process 7. Spinous process
8. Spinal (vertebral) foramen

Special characteristics of individual vertebrae - Cervical (7) —

forms skeleton of neck; all have transverse foramen - Atypical: Atlas
(1st), Axis/epistropheus (2nd), 7th cervical (spinous process not bifid,
small transverse foramen) - Thoracic (12) — costal pits (rib
attachment); circular vertebral canal - Lumbar (5) — mamillary &
accessory processes; triangular vertebral foramen - Sacrum —
inverted triangular bone between hip bones - Coccygeal (1) — 4
small incomplete vertebrae fused to form the coccyx/tailbone;
triangular

Sternum (breast bone)

Flat bone; anterior thoracic wall

Composed of 2 plates of compact bone with spongy bone
(containing red bone marrow) in between
Parts: Manubrium, Corpus (body), Xiphoid process

Ribs (12 pairs)

Narrow arched flat bones with 2 ends: vertebral (posterior) &

sternal (anterior)
Classification:
Sternal/true ribs (1st–7th) — costal cartilages attach directly to
sternum
Asternal/false ribs (8th–12th) — costal cartilages don’t attach
directly to sternum (attach to 7th)
False rib proper: 8th, 9th, 10th
Floating/hanging ribs: 11th & 12th

5. Appendicular Skeleton

Bones of the Upper Extremity (UE)

1. Clavicle (collar bone)

2. Scapula (shoulder blade) — articulates with humerus & clavicle
3. Humerus (arm bone) — longest & largest bone of UE; articulates
with scapula (above), radius & ulna (below)
4. Radius — lateral bone of forearm; cup-shaped head
5. Ulna — principal bone of forearm; longer & larger than radius
6. Carpals (wrist bones) — 8 bones, 2 rows (proximal & distal)
7. Metacarpals (hand bones) — 5 long bones between carpals &
phalanges; numbered lateral to medial
8. Phalanges (finger bones) — 14 long bones; 3 bones per finger
except thumb (2 bones)
Bones of the Lower Extremity (LE)

1. Hip bone (innominate bone)

Right + left hip bones + sacrum = pelvic girdle
3 bones: ilium, ischium, pubis (converge on the acetabulum —
concave fossa articulating with femur head, forming hip joint)
2. Femur (thigh) — longest, strongest, largest bone in the body
3. Tibia (shin bone) — anterior, medial, larger of the 2 leg bones
4. Fibula (peroneal bone) — long slender bone parallel to tibia,
located laterally
5. Tarsals (ankle bones) — short bones; 2 rows (internal & external)
6. Metatarsals (foot bones) — 5 long bones; numbered medial to
lateral
7. Phalanges (toe bones) — similar to finger bones

6. Common Fractures
Greenstick fracture — bone does not break all the way through
Simple (closed) — bone breaks but skin does not
Compound (open) — broken bone tears through the skin, risking
infection
Area around a break swells & discolors; some fractures detectable
only by X-ray
Elderly bones (weakened) are especially susceptible to fractures

Bone Deformation
Rickets — from insufficient vitamin D or insufficient UV radiation
exposure
Can lead to skeletal deformation (e.g., vertebral or leg curvature)

7. Joints (Arthrology)
A joint = a site where 2 or more bones come together, whether with
movement or none.

Classification (by structure)

1. Fibrous joints — articulating bone surfaces; very little movement

Examples: sutures of skull, inferior tibiofibular joint
2. Cartilaginous joints — 2 types
Primary — united by hyaline cartilage plate/bar
Secondary — united by fibrocartilage plate; articular surfaces
covered by thin hyaline cartilage; small amount of movement
3. Synovial joints — articular surfaces covered by thin hyaline
cartilage, separated by a joint cavity; permits great degree of
movement

Classification (by degree of movement)

Synarthroses — immovable joints; articulating surfaces in direct

contact - Uniting medium: fibrous tissue, hyaline cartilage, or
fibrocartilage - Types: - Sutures — bones of the skull - Schindylosis
— bony plate into a cleft/fissure (e.g., vomer into maxilla, palatine
bones) - Gomphosis — conical process into a socket (e.g., tooth root
into alveolus) - Synchondrosis — cartilaginous medium that may
later ossify (e.g., between epiphysis & diaphysis of long bone)
Amphiarthroses — slightly movable joints; connected by a wide disc
of fibrocartilage - Symphysis — uniting medium fibrocartilage (e.g.,
symphysis pubis) - Syndesmosis — large amount of fibrous
connective tissue/wide membrane (e.g., interosseous membrane
between radius & ulna)

Diarthroses — freely movable joints - Articular surfaces covered by

hyaline cartilage (e.g., sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular joints) -
Hinge (ginglymus) — flexion & extension only (e.g., elbow, knee,
ankle) - Pivot (trochoid) — central pivot in bony/ligamentous ring;
rotation only (e.g., atlantoaxial, superior radioulnar joints) -
Condyloid — 2 convex surfaces articulate with 2 concave surfaces;
flexion, extension, adduction, abduction + small rotation (e.g.,
metacarpophalangeal, metatarsophalangeal joints) - Ellipsoid —
elliptical convex surface fits elliptical concave surface;
flexion/extension/adduction/abduction, no rotation (e.g., wrist joint) -
Saddle joints — reciprocally concavoconvex surfaces (like a saddle);
flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, rotation (e.g.,
carpometacarpal joint of thumb) - Ball & socket — ball-shaped head
fits socket-like concavity; freest movement: flexion, extension,
adduction, abduction, medial/lateral rotation, circumduction (e.g., hip
joint)

8. Possible Movements of Joints

1. Gliding — simple slipping/rubbing of flat apposed surfaces; no
angular/rotary movement (e.g., between vertebral bodies)
2. Angular (found in long bones)
Flexion — forms acute angle between 2 approximating parts
(angle decreased)
Extension — forms obtuse angle between 2 parts (angle
increased)
Abduction — moves extremity away from median plane
Adduction — moves extremity towards median plane
3. Circumduction — circular motion
4. Rotation — movement along a central axis without displacement
from that axis; directed medially or laterally
5. Peculiar movements & positions
Forearm/hand: Supination, Pronation
Foot:
Inversion — plantar surface directed towards median plane
Eversion — plantar surface directed away from median
plane

Notes compiled from “SKELETAL_SYSTEM.ppt” — all diagram/figure

slides (Fig./Table references) are noted by their original figure
numbers; refer to the original slides for the corresponding images.