PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

BASALTIC ROCKS
▪ Basaltic rocks are formed via partial melting of mantle rocks i.e., mantle peridotite
▪ SiO2 content of basaltic rocks varies in between 48-52% [alkali basalts content 48-49 wt%
SiO2 and tholeiitic basalt contents 51-52 wt% SiO2]
▪ Not much variation in major element concentration in different types of basalts but there are
significant variation in trace element concentration
▪ Extensional set up: Sea floor Basalts/ MORB
▪ Intraplate set up: Ocean island (comes above the sea surface), sea mounts (high rise over the
seafloor but submerged under the sea water) and oceanic plateau (raised platform over sea
floor flattened by continuous interaction with water); for example – Caribbean oceanic
plateau
▪ Fundamental difference between sea mounts or oceanic islands with oceanic plateau is that
due to enormous size, oceanic plateau can’t undergo subduction like the other two and thus
the oceanic lithosphere associated with plateau got amalgamated or accreted with the
continental lithosphere in the subduction zone
▪ Oceanic plateau is a type of subaqueous large igneous province (LIP) where large scale
volcanism occurs in a small period of time
▪ Deccan trap is an example of fissure eruption within intraplate set up. It is also a large
igneous province (sub-aerial)
▪ Hawaiian islands formed due to central vent eruption within intraplate set up

Different Types of Basalts

Pillow Basalt:
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ Resulted from subaqueous basaltic volcanism and the lava takes bulbous shape due to rapid
chilling in contact with the cold ocean water
▪ Convex upward surface indicate the stratigraphic top direction
▪ Chilled margins, radial cracks are developed from outside in
▪ Hydrous minerals like Chlorite, Amphibole, Serpentine are found near the outer part of
pillows and the dry basaltic composition is preserved near the central part

Aa Type Basaltic Lava:

▪ Rugged surface
▪ Viscosity of lava is much higher, therefore the lava doesn’t flow much
▪ Lava composition is more evolved (higher SiO2 content causes higher viscosity)
▪ Top part of the lava behaves in a brittle manner

Pahoehoe (Ropy) Type Basaltic Lava:

▪ Have a crinkled appearance like a rope

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▪ Viscosity of the lava is lower than Aa lava

▪ Flow direction can also be easily determined (for this particular image flow direction is from
left to right)
▪ Top part of the lava flow behaves in a ductile manner and flows even when the lower part
has stopped flowing – result is convexity in the flow direction of the lava flow in the top part
▪ Comparatively less evolved basaltic magma (SiO2 content of the magma increases as it
becomes more and more evolved with the crystallization of Fe-Mg minerals and evolved
magma is more viscous)

Scoriaceous Basalt:

▪ Vesicles are amalgamated with each other and the shape of a single vesicle is not found

Vesicular Basalt:
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▪ Shape of individual vesicles can be seen

▪ If vesicles are filled up by secondary minerals then they are called amygdales
▪ Vesicular basalts are more common in subaerial condition than subaqueous condition
because difference in external and internal pressure of gas bubbles is more pronounced in the
subaerial condition
▪ Vesicles in pillow lava are uncommon and very small in size

Chemical analysis of a basaltic rock doesn’t give the original magma composition. There
are two main reasons behind –

i. Volatiles are escaped out of the magma as the magma ascend and gets emplaced above
the surface
ii. Due to crystallization of early formed ferro-magnesian or mafic minerals, the primary
magma composition gets evolved from which basaltic rocks form

Magma formed by initial partial melting is termed as primary magma. During ascent, it may
undergo fractional crystallization, may re-equilibrate with surrounding rocks and get
contaminated, may be mixed with magma from other sources, may suffer assimilation, and etc.
Hence, the final magma that gets emplaced differs compositionally from the initial one as it is
much more evolved.

Choosing glassy basaltic rocks (formed in subaqueous volcanism) and determination of their
chemical composition may be a possible solution to get to know the original magma
composition. Due to rapid cooling, volatiles failed to escape from the glass. In case of glass
formation, there is no crystallization and as a result primary magma composition is found.

Alkali Olivine Basalt:

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▪ Green colored altered Olivine crystals are present

▪ Plagioclase percentage is low
▪ Aegirine Augite is present

Porphyritic Basalt:

▪ White colored microlitic laths of Plagioclase and dark colored short prismatic, dull Pyroxene
crystals are present (if Amphibole – long prismatic and more glossy) are present as
phenocrysts
▪ Presence of fine grained matrix containing Pyroxene and some other mineral phases that are
opaque under transmitted light microscope

Partial Melting of the Mantle

▪ Production of melt from a system in some proportion less than the wholesale melting is
called partial melting
▪ Partial fusion, anatexis, partial melting – all are synonyms
▪ Wholesale melting: Bulk rock composition = melt composition
▪ Partial melting: Bulk rock composition = melt (more siliceous) + residual solid (less
siliceous)
▪ Partial melting of lherzolite (Olivine + OPx + CPx ± Aluminous phase line Garnet/ Spinel)
gives melt of basaltic composition and restitic solid becomes more ultramafic

Equillibrium or Batch Melting:

▪ Melt forms from crystals in a closed system

▪ Melt continuously reacts and equilibrates with crystalline residue until segregation
▪ Melt is in contact with the solid
▪ Melt and solid composition keeps varying with temperature change but stays in an overall
equilibrium with constant bulk composition
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▪ Melt escapes the system as a batch when permeability threshold/ critical melt fraction
(CMF) value is crossed
▪ Source rock composition can be extrapolated from this melt

What does batch melting imply physically?

That melt and solids stay intermingled as a closed system until melting ceases. This figure
depicts melting in a diapir of mantle rising adiabatically toward the surface. The black dots are
melt pockets formed by partial melting of the diapir but haven’t escaped out as they have not
exceeded the CMF. Hence, they rise with the diapir. Diapir moves upward due to density
contrast. The plume becomes less dense than the surrounding materials and rises upward due
topositive buoyancy. This is the case of an intra-plate set-up.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

Fractional or Rayleigh Melting:

▪ Melt continuously removed, no reaction with crystalline residue occurs

▪ Changing bulk composition so original rock composition cannot be traced from this melt
▪ Increments of melt form from crystals at instantaneous chemical equilibrium with the melt,
but the melt is continuously removed as it is formed (e.g., escapes by porous flow and its
own buoyancy)
▪ System is not at chemical equilibrium for all the original phases and materials involved

▪ Melt segregation governs type of melting

▪ It is a function of permeability in partially molten lherzolite (the primitive mantle)
▪ In equilibrium melting melt accumulation happens until it crosses the permeability
threshold
▪ In fractional melting, melt is extracted even at low percentage of melting (1%)
▪ If critical melt fraction (CMF) value is high for any rock, then chances of equilibrium
melting is more
▪ On the other hand, low CMF value of rock promotes fractional melting and quick escape of
melt after formation
▪ Reality is somewhere between these end members
▪ MORB justifies high degree of partial melting of the source rock. This basalt is of low K
tholeiitic composition (K content <0.2%). K being an incompatible element (LILE), tends to
be partitioned into the melt (distribution coefficient <1). So, when melting initiates, K
readily goes into the melt and its concentration increases. In case of high degree of partial
melting, compatible elements also go into the melt and the relative proportion of
incompatible elements decreases.
▪ Ocean island basalts, on the other hand indicate low degree of partial melting. K content of
this basalt is 1-2%. Low degree of partial melting is justified by its relatively higher K
content.
▪ For MORB, critical melt fraction or permeability threshold is high for the magma to escape
the system and needs higher degree of partial melting, while in case of ocean island basaltic
magma, melt can escape the system at low critical melt fraction value.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ For both the magmas, the primary melt is not directly erupted in the surface but it is stored in
the magma chamber before eruption and undergoes differentiation, fractional crystallization
etc. So, the primordial melt composition can never be deciphered from neither mid oceanic
ridge basalt nor ocean island basalt. Magnesium content in the Olivine of MORB (0.65) is
always lower than Mg content in Olivine of mantle source rocks (0.69-0.7).
▪ Extent and type of partial melting thus can control diversity of primary magmas.

Spreading Center

▪ At spreading center, oceanic plates move away from each other. Consequently,
asthenospheric mantle comes upward to a shallow depth below the lithospheric mantle and
touches the geotherm to initiate partial melting.
▪ If the asthenosphere just touches the geotherm then partial melting will be low, but if it
intersects the geotherm at greater depth then high degree of partial melting will take place.

Fast Spreading Center:

▪ Example: East Pacific Rise

▪ In case of fast spreading the upliftment of asthenosphere (adiabatic rise) is also fast and this
in terms intersects the geotherm at much greater depth and generates large amount of melts.
▪ Generated magma is focused on the magma vent at the top of the MOR where the
magmatism takes place.
▪ As rate of magma generation is much higher than the rate of magma eruption through vent,
therefore huge amount of magma is stored below the spreading center and form magma
chamber or magma pool. Within the magma chamber, the melt may get differentiated;
fractional crystallization may take place and the melt composition changes from the original.
▪ So, in case of fast spreading center we get much differentiated magma.
▪ As magma is escaped from the magma chamber, newly generated magma of same
composition (due to partial melting of same source rock) comes to replenish the vacant
space. So, rocks of various compositions are not commonly found at fast spreading center.

Slow Spreading Center:

▪ Example: Mid Atlantic Ridge, Mid Indian Ocean Ridge

▪ In slow spreading center, melt generation is relatively low. Generated magma is erupted
through the central vent at MOR and very less amount of magma is there to be stored in the
magma chamber. So, magma chambers are temporary and relatively smaller in size in this
case.
▪ As magma is not stored in magma chamber, its chance to get differentiated is also less.
▪ We get varieties of rocks in this situation.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

Enriched and Depleted Mantle

▪ Enriched or depleted with respect to incompatible elements

▪ Depleted mantle: Had participated in the crust formation
▪ Enriched mantle: Hadn’t participated in the crust formation and some crustal materials
have been added to enrich the mantle composition
▪ As oceanic lithosphere subducts, it undergoes metamorphism and eclogite facies rocks form
at elevated pressure temperature condition at greater depth. As eclogite facies rocks (basaltic
composition) moves further down into the mantle, they become foreign material for mantle
rocks and to get rid of this disequilibrium situation, they melt and assimilate and become a
part of the mantle. Thus, mantle rocks get enriched with incompatible elements (recycling of
old oceanic crusts by subduction)

Partial Melting of the Mantle

▪ In the phase diagram we consider 3

phases that are A: Olivine, B: CPx and
C: OPx. These 3 phases represent a rock
with lherzolitic composition.
▪ Eutectic point indicates the minimum
temperature of melting (eutectic melt)
where first melting initiates.
▪ Cotectic lines from the binary eutectic
points intersect to give the ternary
eutectic point.
▪ Ternary eutectic temperature is always
lower temperature than the binary
eutectic due to addition of an extra
component to the system.
▪ Melting temperature of ‘n’ phase is always higher than the melting temperature of (n+1)
phase.
▪ It doesn’t matter whether a rock undergoes Batch/equilibrium or Rayleigh/fractional
melting; melt generation always starts from the eutectic point.
▪ If the rock composition would lie on the A, B and C points then their corresponding rock
names would be Dunite, Clinopyroxinite and Orthopyroxinite respectively.
▪ A rock is considered with composition X (more or less similar to lherzolitic composition)
which plots closer to the olivine end, and thus indicating the rock to be enriched in Olivine
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

than OPx and CPx. As melting initiates,

the first melt appears to be the eutectic
melt (E1) which contents more CPx and
less Olivine than the parent rock.
▪ As partial melting continues, the restitic
solid will gradually be depleted with
respect to CPx and will be more enriched
with olivine. So, for partial melting of a
lherzolitic rock, the rock composition
changes along the path X-X’ and the
melting continues until one phase that is
the CPx is totally consumed. Thus, the
restitic solid of X’ composition contains
only Olivine and OPx that is a solid of
Herzburgite composition.
▪ Now, the system turns out to be a binary
one with components Olivine and OPx. This two component system needs higher
temperature to initiate melting again than ternary eutectic temperature of 1150oC.
▪ So, again melt generation will start at the binary eutectic point E2 where a melt with
composition different from the restitic solid of X’ composition is produced. This melt is
richer in OPx and therefore, the restitic solid becomes more and more enriched with Olivine.
▪ So, when all the OPx is exhausted, only olivine rich solid of dunitic composition remains in
the final restitic solid. To initiate partial melting of dunite again, extremely high temperature
is required which is quite impossible.
▪ Thus because of partial melting, initial rock of lherzolitic composition gets changed first to
harzburgite and then to dunite and different basaltic melts are produced in the path.
▪ Dunite is not considered as fertile protolith for basaltic magma generation though it is a type
of mantle peridotite. For this purpose, lherzolite and harzburgite are best (although
harzburgite doesn’t give pure basalt, but magma of noritic composition).

In Batch melting, the melting occurs in a continuous spectrum, where disappearance of one
phase is followed by smooth increment in temperature which allows partial melting to continue.

A + B + C + Liq. E1 → A + C + Liq. (B disappears) → A + Liq. (C disappears)

Whereas, in Fractional Melting, as the melt is removed immediately after generation, melting
stops after one phase disappears and resumes only after there is an increase in temperature of
the system. It is hence, a pulsating (step-like) melting mechanism.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

A + B + C + Liq. E1 → A + C + Liq. E2 → A + Liq. A

Magma Type in Different Tectonic Set-up

Tectonic Setting Plate Margin Within Plate

Convergent Divergent Intra-Oceanic Intra-
(Destructive) (Constructive) Continental

Volcanic feature Island arcs, MOR and back Oceanic islands Continental rift
active continental arc spreading zones,
margins centers continental
flood-basalt
provinces
Characteristics Tholeiitic Tholeiitic Tholeiitic Tholeiitic
magma series Calc-alkaline -- -- --
Alkaline -- Alkaline Alkaline
SiO2 range Basalts and Basalts Basalts and Basalts and
differentiates differentiates differentiates

▪ Island arcs occur at active continental margins where ocean-ocean subduction causes
formation of arc type islands; Example: Philippines, Andaman
▪ Volcanic arcs also occur at active continental margins where ocean-continent subduction
happens; Example: Andes, Rockies
▪ Oceanic islands form due to hotspot activity (mantle plumes) in intra-oceanic plate set-up;
Example: Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands, Fiji etc
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ Intra-continental plate set-up are two types – continental rift zones; Example: Yellowstone
National Park in USA (magmatism in a continental rift) and continental flood-basalt or large
igneous provinces; Example: Deccan Trap formed via fissure eruption
▪ LIP from oceans is oceanic plateau, where the thickness of the oceanic crust increases
multiple times up to 30-35km; Example: Java plateau, Caribbean Plateau; they get accreted
to the overriding continental plate during subduction
▪ Convergent margin is the only place where we get calc-alkaline magma
▪ Similarly, Divergent margins give rise to tholeiitic magma only
▪ Tholeiitic magma is common for all tectonic set up

Types of Magma

▪ In the adjacent diagrams, K2O and Na2O wt% is

plotted against SiO2 wt% to differentiate the
different types of basaltic magma.
▪ Basalts can broadly be classified into Alkali Basalt
and Sub-alkali Basalts.
▪ At 50wt% of SiO2, if the K2O value is > ~ 1.5wt%,
then we call it as Alkali Basalt.
▪ At 50wt% of SiO2, if the K2O value is < ~ 1wt%,
then we call it as Sub-alkali Basalt.
▪ Tholeiitic Basalt is a part of the Sub-alkali
Basalt.
▪ Sub-alkali Basalt can be further classified as Low-
K Sub-alkali basalts, also known as Low-K
Tholeiites, for K2O wt% < 0.2 at 50wt% of SiO2.
▪ MOR Basalts are Low-K tholeiite basalts.
▪ Normal Sub-alkali basalts excluding the Low-K
tholeiites can be classified into calc-alkaline and
tholeiitic basalts depending upon the wt% of Al2O3,
both of which are found at subduction zones.
▪ On the basis of Na2O content, at 50wt% of SiO2, if a
rock/magma has > 3 wt% of Na2O, then we classify it
as Alkali Basalt. Otherwise, it is Sub-alkali basalts
with < 3 wt% of Na2O.
▪ We cannot differentiate tholeiitic basalts from MOR and
other set-ups on the basis of Na2O content.
▪ Normal range of Al2O3 in basalts is around 12-13 wt.%
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ High-aluminous basalts with 17-20 wt% Al2O3 are what we call calc-alkaline basalts, and
this forms only in the subduction zones; arc set-ups.
▪ Low-K Tholeiites and Calc-alkaline basalts are both part of sub-alkali basalts.

Peralkaline volcanic rocks are defined as rocks having Na2O + K2O > Al2O3, so that some of the
alkali oxides must be present as aegirine or sodic amphibole rather than feldspar.

Differentiation Trend of Tholeiitic and Calc-Alkaline Magma:

▪ Calc-alkaline and tholeiitic magma are both found in convergent boundaries, i.e., subduction
zones. Hence, it is important to differentiate them on the basis of petrology as well as major
oxides.
▪ Fractional crystallization of basalts is critical in magma evolution as it makes the magma
more silicious and alkali rich.
▪ Major difference between calc-alkaline and tholeiitic basalts is that calc-alkaline magma has
higher wt% of Al2O3 than tholeiites.
▪ As chemical composition analysis is not always possible, these two type of magmas are
distinguished from each other by some other observations.
▪ As differentiation of magma proceeds, tholeiitic basaltic magma evolves to give Ferro-
Basalt, followed by Basaltic Andesite → Andesite → Dacite → Rhyolite.
▪ For calc-alkaline trend, fractional crystallization leads melt to evolve and change in
composition as Basaltic Andesite → Andesite → Dacite → Rhyolite.
▪ Basalt is volcanic equivalent of
▪ A = Na2O + K2O
Gabbro. ▪ F = FeO + Fe2O3
▪ Andesite is volcanic equivalent of (Total Fe in 2+
Diorite. and 3+ state)
▪ M = MgO
▪ Dacite is the volcanic equivalent of
Granodiorite.
▪ Rhyolite is the volcanic equivalent of
Granite.
▪ Basaltic andesite has composition
intermediate to gabbro and diorite.
▪ Diorite is more Ca rich than gabbro.
(On the basis of Plagioclase
composition); gabbro is more mafic
than diorite. Diorite has Biotite and
hornblende (hydrous) whereas
gabbro is Pyroxene-Olivine rich.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ In the differentiation of tholeiitic magma, we generally get till andesite, but in case of calc-
alkaline trend, the entire spectrum up to rhyolite is observed in nature.
▪ Calc-alkaline magma differentiation yields rhyolitic magma at the end of the spectrum that is
more felsic and alkali rich than the rhyolitic magma produced at the end of the tholeiitic
magma differentiation.

Types of Sub-alkaline Rocks:

If we plot Alkali Index vs. wt% of Al2O3, then for alkali index of 2, >17 wt% of Al2O3, we get
Calc-alkaline Basalt and below that value i.e., <17 wt% of Al2O3 we have tholeiitic basalt.
For tholeiites wt% of Al2O3 hardly exceeds 12-16%.

Types of Alkaline Rocks:

▪ Plotted in Na2O vs. K2O

▪ High Na content but Low K content = Na series (Mugearite)
▪ Moderate K content = K series
▪ High K content = High K series (Shoshonite)
▪ Shoshonite and Mugearite for SiO2 wt% around 50%

Basalt Tetrahedron:

▪ Calculating Modal proportion for Basalts is very difficult as they are very fine grained.
▪ So NORM calculation is carried out based on the 13 major oxide proportions.
▪ It is assumed that the rocks are composed of anhydrous minerals, i.e., dry and devoid of any
volatiles.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ Also, an ideal condition inside a magma chamber is considered, where the chemical
composition of magma is assumed to represent the original parental magma composition.
Sequence of mineral crystallization is not taken into account. Rather, based on the chemical
analyses, the minerals that can have crystallized from a melt with a composition as that of
the rock is found out.
▪ The minerals that are most likely to crystallize can be put in the ends of a tetrahedron within
which most basaltic compositions plot.
▪ Cpx lies on the apex of the basalt tetrahedron.
▪ Opx (Enstatite) plots on the line between Olivine (Forsterite) and Quartz
▪ Albitic plagioclase – Quartz = Nepheline.
▪ Albitic plagioclase lies in between Nepheline and Quartz.
▪ By inserting planes along Plag-Opx-Cpx join and Plag-Olivine-Cpx join, we can divide the
entire tetrahedron into three sub-
tetrahedrons.
▪ Di-En-Plag plane defines the right
most sub-tetrahedron while the
adjacent sub-tetrahedron is bound
by this plane and the Di-Fo-Plag
plane.
▪ The sub-tetrahedron on the
leftmost side, opposite to the
quartz end member is defined by
the Di-Fo-Plag plane.
▪ Diopside-Enstatite-Plagioclase
(CPx-OPx-Plag) plane is called
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

the critical plane of silica saturation.

▪ If compositions exceed this plane, then rock/melt becomes silica oversaturated.
▪ Diopside-Forsterite-Plagioclase (CPx-Olivine-Plag) plane is called the critical plane of
silica undersaturation.
▪ The region/sub-tetrahedron between Diopside-Enstatite-Plagioclase (Cpx-Opx-Plag) plane
and the Diopside-Forsterite-Plagioclase (Cpx-Olivine-Plag) is termed saturated, whereas
compositions lying on the further left to the critical plane of silica undersaturation are called
unsaturated.
▪ Rock plotting on the critical plane of silica undersaturation:
- Troctolite with composition of Olivine and Plagioclase and very little Pyroxene; on the
Olivine-Plagioclase join.
- Picrite Basalt has Olivine, Plagioclase and Pyroxene and will plot somewhere a bit
above the Olivine-Plagioclase join.
- Olivine Gabbro
▪ Tholeiitic composition basaltic magma may be silica over-saturated and saturated:
- Quartz Tholeiite Volume – Silica oversaturated; this is very rare
- Olivine Tholeiite Volume – Silica saturated; commonly found in MOR – Low K
tholeiites
▪ Silica undersaturated sub-tetrahedron gives Alkali Basalt/ alakaline rocks – Basanite,
Nephelinite; common in intra plate set-up, and also found in subduction zones.
▪ Basanite: > 5% Nepheline (modal); Basanitoid if cannot be seen.
▪ Nephelinite has higher proportions of Nepheline and hence greater alkali content.
▪ Olivine tholeiite (silica saturated) and alkali olivine basalt (silica under saturated) are
different in nature.
▪ Alkali Olivine basalts lie in undersaturated region of the Basalt tetrahedron, closer to the
olivine end and critical plane of silica undersaturation.
▪ Gabbro will lie on the critical plane of silica saturation, whereas Norite will plot on the
Plagioclase-OPx line

Two Principal Types of Basalt in the ocean basins: Tholeiitic Basalt and Alkaline Basalt

• Tholeiites are generated in mid-oceanic ridge. Also at oceanic island, subduction zones,
and in intraplate setup (continental LIP and oceanic plateaus).
• Alkaline basalts generated at ocean islands, also at subduction zones and also in
continental setup.
Tholeiites are generated in Mid –oceanic ridge. Also at oceanic island, subduction zones, and in
ontinental setup(LIP).
Alkaline basalts generated at ocean islands, also at subduction zones and also in continental setup.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE
Tholeiitic basalt Alkaline basalt
Groundmass:
Usually fine grained , intergranular texture Usually fairly coarse, intergranular to ophitic
texture
No olivine in Groundmass Olivine is very common
fferentiation Cpx- Augite (+ possibly pigeonite) Titanoferrous Augite(reddish) Ti+4 enters in
th respect to the structure due to silica deficiency – to
oundmass maintain the charge balance.
Opx common(hypersthene), may rim Ol Opx absent
No alkali feldspar Interstitial alkali feldspar or feldspathoid may
occur.
Interstitial glass and /or quartz common Interstitial glass rare and qtz absent.

Phenocryst:
Olivine rare, unzoned and may be partially Olivine common and zoned
reabsorbed or show reaction rim of opx
ferentiation
h respect to Opx uncommon Opx absent
nocryst Early plagioclase common Plagioclase less common and later in sequence
Cpx are pale brown Augite Cpx are titanoferrous Augite , reddish rims.

Calc-alkaline:

- Orogenic belts
- Island Arcs
- Subduction Zones

Tholeiitic:

- MOR
- Large oceanic islands
- Divergent Plate boundary

Alkali Olivine Basalt:

- Continental Rifting
- Regions overlying deeply subducted

Norm and modal composition of a rock may or may not be the same.

Effect of Pressure and Fluid Composition on the Position of the Eutectic in Basalt System:

The Nepheline-Quartz-Olivine triangle represents the base of the tetrahedron.

At 2Gpa = 20kBar pressure:

▪ In 20kBar (high) pressure, in the presence of CO 2, the eutectic point is close to Nepheline.
Hence, generated melt composition will lie in the silica undersaturated field. Rocks that are
common here are Basanite, Carbonatite, Nephelinite.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ If the source rock is dry (devoid of CO2), the eutectic point shifts away from Nepheline and
more towards the critical plane of silica undersaturation (Plagioclase end).
▪ If the rock is H2O rich, then eutectic melt composition shifts more towards the critical plane
of silica undersaturation. Melt composition may cross the critical plane of silica
undersaturation, if H2O content is increased (giving more silicious melts)
▪ In high pressures, alkaline rocks may be converted to tholeiitic melts depending upon the
fluid composition.
▪ Partial melting in presence of CO2 gives Ne rich alkaline magma whereas; partial melting in
presence of water generates SiO2 rich tholeiitic magma.

Volatile Free-system:

▪ If however, the system is volatile free then, on increasing pressure, the eutectic point crosses
the critical plane of silica saturation and the critical plane of silica undersaturation and keeps
shifting towards Nepheline (away from SiO2).
▪ In volatile-free condition, tholeiitic rocks can generate alkaline magma if the pressure is
increased as there is no thermal divide.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

Experiments on Melting: Enriched vs. Depleted Mantle Samples

▪ Depleted lherzolitic mantle is the part of the mantle that has participated in crust formation
long before. All the incompatible elements have already escaped into the primary melt
generated by the once primordial mantle and has gone into crust formation. This depleted
mantle is the source rock for MOR.
▪ Based on the isotopic signature, 𝜀Nd value for DM is higher than the primitive mantle;
whereas 𝜀Sr for the DM is lower.
▪ Nearly at 20% partial melting of the depleted mantle, CPx is out and residual mantle rock is
Harzburgite.
▪ After 30% of partial melting, OPx is also exhausted and dunite remains as mantle residue.
▪ At relatively lower pressure (<15kbar), tholeiitic magmas are generated easily by 10-30%
partial melting. Tholeiitic magma is more silica saturated at lower P.
▪ With increasing pressure, magma composition changes from Quartz tholeiite (0.5GPa) to
Olivine tholeiite (1.5GPa) and Olivine content of magma increases.
▪ Picritic melt is generated at higher pressure by >20% partial melting. This melt is Olivine
rich (high Mg content - alkali enrichment).
▪ At higher pressure, tholeiitic magma grades toward alkali magma.
▪ With very high degree of partial melting (> 30%), komatiitic magma is result.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ Enriched mantle has either not participated in crust formation or it is contaminated by old
recycled oceanic crust. Thus it is enriched with incompatible elements.
▪ Alkali basalts are formed by very low degree of partial melting (10-15%) of enriched
mantle, and at higher pressures.
▪ While it is quite difficult to get alkaline magma by partial melting of depleted mantle,
enriched mantle is a good protolith for generation of this kind of melt.
▪ For enriched mantle, pressure range of tholeiitic basalts generation is much higher than for
depleted mantle.

Effects of pressure on Melting Lherzolite:

▪ Shallow melting, i.e., Lower pressures (30km)
produces tholeiites, as with increasing pressure
melting lines get increasingly curved towards
olivine i.e., composition goes away from the
plane of silica saturation.
▪ Extensive melting (> 10-25%) favors tholeiites
and picrite (at high P, i.e., greater depth and high
degree of partial melting)
▪ Small amount of melting produces alkali basalts;
less degree of partial melting.
▪ Melting at greater depth, i.e., higher P favors
alkali basalts (unless melting is extensive, if
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

excessive melting occurs, olivine tholeiite forms)

▪ If melting occurs in hydrous conditions, tholeiitic melt is yielded. If melting occurs in
situations with greater CO2 concentration, then alkaline basalt is result.

Summary:

▪ In volatile free condition, melting of fertile protolith at low P gives tholeiitic basalt. Under
high P, it yields Alkali Basalts. Depending on the type of fluid whether it is CO 2 or H2O,
alkali basalts or tholeiites are generated respectively.

▪ Tholeiites are favored by shallower melting and can be generated by partial melting of both
enriched and depleted mantle. For enriched mantle, tholeiites extend to higher pressures than
depleted mantle.
- Quartz tholeiites are formed at low pressures and high partial melting.
- Olivine tholeiites formed at relatively high P (~25% melting at 60km) and high degree
of partial melting.

• Tholeiites favored by shallower melting

- 25% melting at < 30km – Tholeiite
- 25% melting at 60km – Olivine Basalt
• Tholeiites favored by greater % partial melting (F)
- 20% melting at 60km – Alkaline Basalt
- 30% melting at 60km – Tholeiite

▪ Alkali Basalts are favored at low degrees of partial melting and higher pressures (~ <20%
melting at the depth of 60 km) and generated from enriched mantle (enriched in
incompatible elements as it undergoes lesser degrees of partial melting). Initially melts are
formed by low degree of partial melting and removed from the source rock after generation.
Alkali magmas have a lower CMF and this is particularly due to their density and viscosity
contrast with tholeiitic magma. They get enriched with alkalis and are formed at higher
temperatures because of which they are less viscous and have high fluidity and so, they
easily cross the permeability threshold and segregate from the solid source mantle residue.
High fluidity and greater ascent velocity makes them enriched in xenoliths.

The composition of the magma that ultimately segregates out from the mantle source rock solid
residue and gets emplaced is dependent on the depth at which it segregates from the source
rock.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

More recent experiments on melting of fertile (initially garnet-bearing) lherzolite confirm

that alkaline basalts are favored by high P and low F

▪ Quartz tholeiite: Continental rift

set-up; preferred at low degrees of
partial melting (>15%) at shallow
depths (low P, <0.75GPa) and have
low temperatures (<1200oC).
▪ Olivine tholeiite: MORB set-up;
preferred at higher degrees of partial
melting (~15-25%) than Quartz
tholeiite and the field gets tapered at
higher T and higher P, generated at
higher T (1200-1300oC) and higher P
(> ~ 1Gpa) than Quartz tholeiite.
▪ Alkali Basalt: Higher P (>1.5Gpa),
higher T (~1200 to 1400oC) and less
degree of partial melting (>15%)
▪ Picrite: High Mg content (18-25 wt%); hence, requires higher degrees of partial melting
(15-30%) and has higher temperature; higher degrees of partial melting for picritic magma
generation is justified by the fact that its high Mg content is more towards the fertile mantle
composition (39-42 wt%); Mg-rich end members have high melting points and so to melt
them, higher temperature at great depths (high P) needs to be attained.
▪ MORB basalt is not the primary magma but it is modified during the time of the
segregation, ascent and emplacement of the magma and undergoes compositional change
because of fractional crystallization or assimilation by crustal contamination. However, since
the thickness of oceanic crusts is less, extent of crustal contamination and differentiation is
comparatively low. Still, XMg of olivine in MORB was observed to be not in equilibration
with the mantle restitic solid. This indicates that MORB is not primary magma and has
undergone modification, specifically in the magma chamber (permanent in fast spreading
and ephemeral in slow spreading) that resides below the MOR vent where differentiation has
changed its composition.
▪ The primary magma from the mantle source below the MOR could be picritic basalt which
has later undergone compositional modification by differentiation and fractional
crystallization to become Low-K tholeiites and Olivine tholeiites.
▪ Picrite requires higher degree of partial melting than Low-K tholeiite.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

Note: To get a composition closer to the primitive mantle, we require higher degrees of partial
melting.

How are tholeiites produced?

Experimental petrology, trace element modeling and isotopic data indicate that tholeiitic
magmas are produced by relatively high degree of melting (20-25%) of normal mantle i.e.,
mantle that can range from depleted (MORB) to slightly enriched (some ocean islands which
are oceanic intra plate set-up and island arc which is ocean-ocean subduction zone tholeiites).

- Normal MORB (N-MORB)

- Enhanced/Enriched MORB (E-MORB)
- Depleted MORB (D-MORB)

At Iceland, the rate of magma production is so high that volcanism has built the oceanic ridge
above sea level. Iceland is located just above the Mid-Atlantic ridge which is the source of low-
K tholeiitic magmatism, the predominant type of basalts erupted here. High volcanic activity in
Iceland is not only related to the MOR but also because of plume related magmatic activity that
is somewhat different from N-MORBs, showing higher concentrations of incompatible trace
elements and are referred to as Enriched MORBs (E-MORBs).

How can we explain the range of comp from picritic tholeiites to quartz tholeiites to high
alumina tholeiites?

After making corrections for the effects of fractionation i.e., comparing only ‘primary magmas’,
experimental studies show that increasing pressure increases the MgO content of the melt
produced. At 25 Kbar, basalts with MgO contents 16wt% are formed, 14.5 wt% MgO produced
at 20 Kbar and 12.5wt% MgO at 15 Kbar. Quartz tholeiites are common in the CRB
(continental rift belt) province and appear to be the result of fractionation.

Boninite magma (>8wt% Mg) is generated by higher degree of partial melting and relatively
lower pressure than Picrite basalt and has higher temperature.

So, neither Quartz tholeiites nor olivine tholeiites can represent a primary magma. Picritic
tholeiite are better representatives of primary magma.

Can alkalic basalts be formed by fractionation of tholeiites or vice versa?

At higher pressure condition (volatile free), alkali magma is generated from the same protolith
from which tholeiitic magma is produced at lower pressure. So, alkali basalts can be found from
the tholeiites by fractionation.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

At low pressures, there is a thermal divide along the Forsterite-Albite join which has a
maximum temperature of 1118oC. Hence, eutectic melt generating at either side cannot cross
the Fo-Ab thermal barrier. So, alkali basalts (Nepheline normative) formed by fractionation of
tholeiitic basalts (Hypersthene or Quartz normative) or vice versa is not possible at low
pressures because as melting progresses from the eutectic point, temperature never rises, rather
only decreases as the system tries to cool down and attain stability.

1,3, and 4 are ternary eutectic points for (Fo, Ne, Ab), (Fo, En, Ab) and (En, Qtz, Ab)
respectively.

At higher pressures, the thermal barrier does not exist owing to higher T conditions.

Primary Magma

▪ Primordial magma formed by mantle melting at depth and is not modified later by fractional
crystallization or assimilation.
▪ Primary magma must have high Mg number [Mg# = 100Mg / (Mg + Fe)] at least around 70-
75.
▪ Experimental results of lherzolite melts:
- Mg# = 66-75
- Cr > 1000ppm
- Ni > 400-500ppm
- Multiply saturated
▪ Lot of minerals will reach saturation simultaneously and crystallize together in a narrow
range of temperature because of multiply saturated situation
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

Crystal Fractionation of Magmas:

▪ At higher pressures, minerals like

Olivine and OPx become enriched in
Al.
▪ Low-calcic pyroxenes or Opx are not
present in Alkali Basalt.
▪ Hypersthene normative picrite basalt
is found in between the tetrahedron
in between plane of silica saturation
and plane of silica undersaturation.
▪ From Hypersthene normative picrite,
if Ol-Ab-En are fractionated, then we
get low Al2O3 Olivine tholeiite
when pressure is decreased with
decreasing depth. With further
decrease in P, high alumina Ol-
tholeiite is result. From which we can
get high alumina basalts at MOR,
Olivine-tholeiites and Quartz-
tholeiites as well.
▪ From the same rock, we get alkali
picrite if fractional crystallization takes place at the same pressure/ depth.
▪ Even at intermediate depth, conversion from low alumina Olivine tholeiite to low alumina
alkali-Olivine basalt is possible by fractionation.
▪ But at lower pressure/ depth (within stability field of Plagioclase), change from tholeiite to
alkali magma is not possible anymore because of presence of thermal divide.
▪ Low K tholeiite – MOR set-up
▪ Tholeiitic basalt associated with alkaline basaltic rocks – Oceanic island or island arc set-up
▪ Tholeiitic basalt associated with calc alkaline basalts – subduction zone set-up

Multiply Saturation:

▪ It means magma can saturate with different minerals at a particular time.

▪ Primary magma will crystallize all the phases (Ol + Cpx + OPx + Plag +...) together. Figure
alongside suggests that 25 km is the depth (nearly 10GPa pressure) of last equilibrium of
crystals with the mantle.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ At shallower depth/ low P: Saturation of minerals happens step by step. Initially Olivine and
Plagioclase crystallize then CPx comes into the sequence as the melt cools. This happens in
a 70oC T range.
▪ This image shows a tholeiitic basalt with intergranular texture.

▪ At greater depth/ high P: Crystallization starts with CPx and then Plagioclase joins and lastly
comes Olivine (ophitic texture)

Summary:

▪ A chemically homogeneous mantle can yield a variety of basalt types depending in the depth
of melting, degree of melting etc.
▪ Alkaline basalts are favored over tholeiites by deeper melting and by low % partial melting.
▪ Fractionation at moderate to high depths can also create alkaline basalts from tholeiites.
▪ At low P, there is a thermal divide that separates the two series.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

Divergent Plate Margin Magmatism: MORB

▪ Mid-ocean ridges produce nearly 21km3 of lava per year

▪ Nearly 60% of the Earth’s surface is covered with oceanic crust
▪ Most voluminous melts are generated at MOR
▪ East Pacific Rise is very close to the continental part of North America and it may subduct
along with Pacific plate after few million years

▪ Elevation of ridge reduces with time as plate cools as shoen in the following diagram
▪ Older oceanic crusts are colder and hence thinner and thus have greater water depth
▪ Regions where water depth is less have relatively younger and hence, thicker oceanic crusts
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

MORB Petrogenesis:

▪ Decompression partial melting associated with near-adiabatic rise of mantle takes place due
to plate separation.
▪ N-MORB melting initiates nearly at a depth of 60-80km (within Spinel peridotite field) in
upper depleted mantle where it inherits trace element and isotope signatures.
▪ Even if partial melting initiates at greater depth, the magma segregates out of the source rock
at a much shallower depth at around 25-30km. The magma rises up along with the
asthenosphere and after separating out from the source rock and due to buoyancy it moves in
upward direction and gets stored in a magma chamber in the lithospheric mantle and erupts
along a narrow vent.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

Corner flow theory tells about focused magmatism through the apex (vent) of the magma
chamber (triangular). Due to convection most of the magma flow out and get distributed within
the lithospheric mantle. Only a small part of the magma comes out through the narrow vent.

In case of cold ascending mantle, partial melting initiates at relatively shallower depth than for
hot ascending mantle (larger triangle indicates greater depth and hotter asthenospheric mantle).
Asthenospheric mantle material intersects solidus to generate partial melting and ultimately gets
emplaced.

▪ Degree of melting increases towards the apex of the triangle and decreases towards the base.
▪ Rising magma plume gets displaced along transform fault boundaries and so gets shifted
from the vent with time and escapes through some other channel. So, degree of partial
melting via which magma is generated deviates from what it would have been if it came out
from the original vent.
▪ Thus, basaltic rocks collected from the axis of MOR and from transform fault boundaries
differ in trace element and REE analyses though they may have same oxides.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ Though basaltic magma is generating at every MORs, but their composition varies from
each other depending upon whether it is fast spreading (> 4cm/ year) or sloe spreading (<
3cm/year).
▪ Highest spreading rate – East Pacific Rise
▪ Lowest spreading rate – Mid Indian Ocean Ridge
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ After the melt separates out from the source rock, it is

generally stored in semi-permanent magma chamber in
the lithospheric mantle part.
▪ From the magma chamber magma moves upward via
dykes that act as conduits through the extending or
faulting roof and ultimately erupts through the axis of
MOR.
▪ Within the magma chamber, early crystallization of
minerals like Olivine, Pyroxene and their fractional
crystallization causes differentiation of magma and it
becomes more SiO2 rich.
▪ Periodic reinjection of fresh, primitive magma enriches
the more differentiated magma.

▪ If we take a section from top to bottom (as shown on

the diagram below), we will get –
- Pillow lava
- Dolerite dykes
- Isotropic Gabbro (top and walls of magma chamber)
- Layered Gabbro (lower part of magma chamber)
- Ultramafic cumulates (not mantle originated)
- Harzburgite (mantle originated ultramafic cumulates)
▪ The boundary between magma chamber originated
ultramafic cumulates and mantle originated harzburgite rocks
demarcates the seismic Moho.

Model for Magma Chamber beneath a Slow-spreading Ridge:

▪ Dike like mush zone and a smaller transition zone is created beneath well-developed rift
valley.
▪ Mush is a mixture of solid rocks and liquid magma.
▪ No permanent or well-developed magma chamber is present.
▪ Most of the magma body is well below the liquidus temperature, so convection and mixing
is far less likely than at fast ridges.
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

▪ Nisbit and Fowler (1978) suggested that numerous, small

ephemeral magma bodies occur at slow ridges and this
model was termed as ‘infinite leak model’.
▪ Heat flow is maximum directly above the mush and
decreases away from the axial region into the surroundings.
▪ Slow ridges are generally less differentiated than fast ridges
and thus closer in composition to the primitive magma.
▪ No continuous liquid lenses are present, so magmas
entering the axial area are more likely to erupt directly to
the surface (hence more primitive) with some mixing of
mush (mixing is also less because the above lying oceanic
crust is also basaltic in composition).

Difference between Fast and Slow Spreading Centers:

Fast Spreading Center Slow Spreading Center

- Thermal structure is warmer - Thermal structure is cooler
- Crust is thicker due to extensive volcanism - Crust is thinner, lithosphere is thicker
that cools down to form thick crustal layer,
lithosphere is thinner due to large scale
extension and upwelling of asthenospheric
magma
- Topography is smooth and the rift is less - Rifting is more pronounced
prominent
- Higher degrees of melting - Lower degrees of melting
- Sustained magma chambers and volcanism - Ephimeral magma chambers and episodic
volcanism
- Less compositional diversity - Higher compositional diversity
- More differentiated magma - Less differentiated magma
PRACHI KAR SHREYA MUKHERJEE

- Example: East Pacific Rise - Example: Mid Atlantic Ridge