1.

REAL NUMBERS
Prime Numbers:​
The natural numbers greater than 1 which are divisible by 1 and the number itself are called prime numbers,
Prime numbers have two factors i.e., 1 and the number itself For example, 2, 3, 5, 7 & 11 etc.
●​ 1 is not a prime number as it has only one factor.
Composite Numbers:
The natural numbers which are divisible by 1, itself and any other number or numbers are called composite
numbers. For example, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 etc.
Note: 1 is neither prime nor a composite number.
Fundamental theorem of Arithmetic
Every composite number can be expressed as a product of primes, and this expression is unique, apart from
the order in which they appear.
By Prime Factorisation Method
HCF=Product of the smallest power of each common prime factor in the numbers. LCM= Product of the
greatest power of each prime factor, involved in the numbers.
For any two positive integers a and b, HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b) = a × b.
Coprime: Two integers are called coprime if their HCF is 1.
To prove Irrationality of Numbers:
Rational Numbers: Real numbers of the form p/q, q ≠ 0, p, q ∈ I are rational numbers.
●​ All integers can be expressed as rational, for example, 5 =5/1.
●​ Decimal expansion of rational numbers terminating or non-terminating recurring.
Irrational numbers: Real numbers which cannot be expressed in the form p/q, q≠0 and p, q ∈ I are
irrational numbers.
●​ Roots of primes like √2, √3, √5 etc. are irrational.
●​ Their decimal expansions are non-terminating and non-recurring.
Theorem: Let p be a prime number. If p divides a, then p divides a, where a is a positive integer.
●​ The sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is irrational.
●​ The product or quotient of a non-zero rational number and an irrational number is irrational.
●​ The sum or difference of a rational and a rational number is rational.
●​ The product or quotient of a rational number and a rational number is rational.
[Link]
Polynomial is the algebraic expression whose each variable has the power of a whole number.
Degree of a Polynomial:
If p(x) is a polynomial in x, the highest power of x in p(x) is called the degree of the polynomial p(x). For
example, 4x + 2 is a polynomial in the variable x of degree 1
●​ A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear polynomial.
●​ A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic polynomial.
●​ A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial.
Value of a Polynomial:
If p(x) is a polynomial in x, and if k is any real number, then the value obtained by replacing x by k in p(x),
is called the value of p(x) at x = k, and is denoted by p(k).
E.g. the value of p(x) = x² –3x – 4 at x = –1 is given by p(–1) = (–1)²–{3 × (–1)} – 4 = 0
Zero of a Polynomial:
It is the value of variable for which the polynomial becomes equal to zero. For example,
if p(x) = 2x + 3, then p(x) = 0 gives us 2x+ 3 = 0, i.e., x = -3/2 is the zero.
Geometrical Meaning of the Zeroes of a Polynomial
●​ the linear polynomial ax + b, a≠0, has exactly one zero, namely, the x-coordinate of the point where
the graph of y = ax + b i.e. -b/a intersects the x-axis.
●​ For any quadratic polynomial ax² + bx + c, a≠0, the graph of the corresponding equation
y = ax²+ bx + c has one of the two shapes either open upwards like u or open downwards like n
depending on whether a > 0 or a < 0. (These curves are called parabolas.)
Remark: In general, given a polynomial p(x) of degree n, the graph of y = p(x) intersects the x-axis at at
most n points. Therefore, a polynomial p(x) of degree n has at most n zeroes.
Relationship between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial
A.​ For Linear Polynomial
●​ zero of a linear polynomial ax + b is -b/a.
B.​ For Quadratic Polynomial
❖​ sum of zeroes = - (Coefficient of x)/Coefficient of x² i.e. + =-b/a
❖​ product of zeroes = constant term/Coefficient of x² i.e. =c/a
​ Whenever sum of zeroes and product of zeroes are known,
quadratic polynomial = k {x² - (sum of zeroes) x + product of zeroes}, where k≠0.
3. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS: The equation corresponding to a quadratic polynomial P(x) is called a
quadratic equation in variable x. P(x):ax² + bx + c =0, a ≠ 0, a, b, c ∈ R is known as the standard form of
quadratic equation.
ROOT OR SOLUTION OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION:
A real number α is called a root of the quadratic equation ax² + bx + c =0, a ≠ 0 if aα²+ bα + c =0. In this
case, we also say x = α is a solution of the quadratic equation.
For instance, 1 is the root of the equation x² — 2x + 1 =0 because it satisfies the given equation.
NOTE:
1.​ The zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax² + bx + c and the roots of the quadratic equation
ax² + bx + c = 0 are the same.
2.​ Roots of the quadratic equation ax² + bx + c =0 can be found by factoring it into two linear
factors and equating each factor to zero.
DISCRIMINANT: The expression b² — 4ac is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation.
SOLUTION OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION BY DISCRIMINANT METHOD:
Let quadratic equation be ax²+ bx + c = 0
Step 1. Find D = b² — 4ac.
2
−𝑏± 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐
Step 2. (i) If D > 0, roots are given by x =(-b + √D) / 2a , (-b – √D) / 2a i.e. 𝑥 = 2𝑎

(ii) If the D = 0 equation has equal roots and the root is given by x = -b / 2a.
(iii) If D < 0, the equation has no real roots.
NATURE OF ROOTS
(i) If b²— 4ac > 0, then the roots are real and distinct.
(ii) If b²— 4ac = 0, the roots are real and equal or coincident.
(iii) If b² — 4ac <0, the roots are not real (imaginary roots).
FORMATION OF QUADRATIC EQUATION WHEN TWO ROOTS ARE GIVEN
If α and β are two roots of equation, then the required quadratic equation can be formed as
x²— (α + β) x + αβ =0
NOTE:
Let α and β be two roots of the quadratic equation ax² + bx + c = 0 then
(i) Sum of Roots= - the coefficient of x / the coefficient of x² i.e. α + β = – b / a and
(ii) Product of Roots = constant term / the coefficient of x²⇒ αβ = c / a
METHOD OF SOLVING WORD PROBLEMS:
Step 1: Translating the word problem into Mathematical form (symbolic form) according to the given
condition
Step 2: Form the word problem into Quadratic equations and solve them.
4. PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES
Linear Equation in Two Variables:
It is an equation of the form ax+by+c=0 where a, b and c are real numbers and a, b are not zero together.
The behaviour of lines representing a pair of linear equations
​ ​ ​ ​
1.​ the lines may intersect in a single point. In this case, the pair of equations has a unique solution
(consistent pair of equations).
2.​ the lines may be parallel. In this case, the equations have no solution (inconsistent pair of equations).
3.​ the lines may be coincident. In this case, the equations have infinitely many solutions [dependent
(consistent) pair of equations].

Solution of a Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables:It is the value(s) of x and y which satisfies both
the equations simultaneously.
 S. Pair of lines 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 Compare the Graphical Algebraic
No. 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ratios representation interpretation
1 x-2y=0 1 −2 0 𝑎1 𝑏1 Intersecting lines Exactly one
3 4 −20 ≠
3x + 4y – 20 = 0
𝑎2 𝑏2 solution
(unique)
2 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 2 3 −9 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐 Coincident lines Infinitely many
4 6 −18 = = 𝑐1
4x + 6y – 18 = 0
𝑎2 𝑏2 2 solutions

3 x + 2y – 4 = 0 1 2 −4 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 Parallel lines No solution

2 4 −12 𝑎2
= 𝑏2
≠ 𝑐2
2x + 4y – 12 = 0
Methods to solve a pair of linear equations
I.​ Graphical Method
1.​ Express y of any equation in terms of x.
2.​ Take three suitable integral values of y and put it in the above expression to get corresponding values
of x to make ordered pairs (x, y).
3.​ Plot these ordered pairs in the graph paper to get three collinear points.
4.​ Join these points to get a line corresponding to the equation.
5.​ Do the above steps for another equation to get its corresponding line in the graph paper.
6.​ Take the coordinates of the point of intersection of these lines as the solution i.e. the values of the x
and y respectively.
II.​ Substitution Method
1.​ Find the value of one variable, say y in terms of the other variable, i.e., x from either equation,
whichever is convenient.
2.​ Substitute (replace) this value of y in the other equation, and reduce it to an equation in one variable,
i.e., in terms of x, which can be solved.
3.​ Substitute the value of x (or y) obtained in Step 2 in the equation used in Step 1 to obtain the value of
the other variable.
Note: Finally, you may also get equations with no variable.
a.​ If this equation is true, you can conclude that the pair of linear equations has infinitely many
solutions. e.g. on solving 2x + 3y = 9 ; 4x + 6y = 18
b.​ If the equation is false, then the pair of linear equations is inconsistent i.e. having no solution. e.g.
on solving 2x + 3y = 8 ; 4x + 6y = 7
III.​ Elimination Method
1.​ First multiply both the equations by some suitable non-zero constants to make the coefficients of one
variable (either x or y) numerically equal.
2.​ Then add or subtract one equation from the other so that one variable gets eliminated (removed).
a.​ If you get an equation in one variable, go to Step 3.
b.​ If in Step 2, we obtain a true statement involving no variable, then the original pair of equations
has infinitely many solutions.
c.​ If in Step 2, we obtain a false statement involving no variable, then the original pair of equations
has no solution, i.e., it is inconsistent.
3.​ Solve the equation in one variable (x or y) so obtained to get its value.
 4.​ Substitute this value of x (or y) in either of the original equations to get the value of the other
variable.
5. Arithmetic Progression ( AP )
Arithmetic Progression (AP ): An arithmetic progression is a list of numbers in which each term is
obtained by adding a fixed number to the preceding term except the first term.
e.g. 45, 43, 41, 39, 37, 35, 33, 31
●​ This fixed number is called the common difference(d) of the AP.
●​ d can be positive, negative or zero.
The general form of an AP: a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . represents an arithmetic progression where a is the
first term and d the common difference.
●​ It is enough to find only one of a2– a1 , a3 – a2 , a4 – a3, . . . .to obtain d.
nth term of an AP: an= a + (n – 1) d
an is also called the general term or last term of the AP
𝑛 𝑛
the sum of the first n terms of an AP, Sn or S = 2
[2a + (n – 1)d] OR S = 2 (a + an)

the sum of first n positive integers, Sn =n(n+1)/ 2

Note:
a.​ The nth term from the end of an AP with last term l and common difference d is given by
l-(n-1)d.
a.​ Whenever the sum of some terms in AP is given
(i) for 3 terms, AP: a-d, a, a+d
(ii) for 4 terms, AP: a-3d, a-d, a+d, a+3d
(iii)for 5 terms, AP: a-2d, a-d, a, a+d, a+2d
6. TRIANGLES
Similar Figures: Two similar figures have the same shape but not necessarily the same size. e.g. all circles,
all squares etc.
●​ all congruent figures are similar but the similar figures need not be congruent.
Similar Polygons: Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if ∠A=∠P, ∠B=∠Q,
∠C=∠R, ∠D=∠S and AB/PQ=BC/QR=CD/RS=DA/SP=1/2
(i)​ their corresponding angles are equal and
(ii)​ their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or in
proportion).
∠A=∠P,∠B=∠Q,∠C=∠R,∠D=∠S​ and
AB/PQ=BC/QR=CD/RS=DA/SP=1/2
●​ the same ratio of the corresponding sides is referred to as the
scale factor (or the Representative Fraction) for the
polygons.
Remark: If one polygon is similar to another polygon and this second polygon is similar to a third polygon,
then the first polygon is similar to the third polygon.
Basic Proportionality Theorem (Thales Theorem): If a line is drawn
parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in distinct
points, the other two sides are divided in the same ratio. In the fig.
DEllBC=>
(I) AD/BD=AE/CE or (II) AD/AB=AE/AC or (III) BD/AB=CE/AC
Given: ∆ABC in which DEIIBC intersects other two sides AB and AC at D and E respectively.
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸
To prove: 𝐵𝐷
= 𝐶𝐸

Proof: In ∆ADE and ∆ABC

​ ​ ∠ADE=∠ABC (corresponding angles for parallel lines DE and BC) and
∠AED=∠ACB (corresponding angles for parallel lines DE and BC)
∆ADE ~ ∆ABC (AA- similarity)
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸
=> 𝐴𝐵
= 𝐴𝐶
(Corresponding sides of similar triangles)

Taking reciprocal on both sides,

𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
=> 𝐴𝐷
= 𝐴𝐸
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
=> 𝐴𝐷
− 1 = 𝐴𝐸
− 1
𝐴𝐵−𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐶−𝐴𝐸
=> 𝐴𝐷
= 𝐴𝐸
𝐵𝐷 𝐶𝐸
=> 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐴𝐸

Again taking reciprocal on both sides,

𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸
=> 𝐵𝐷
= 𝐶𝐸
​​ Hence proved.

Converse of Thales Theorem: If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is
parallel to the third side. In the fig.
(I) AD/BD=AE/CE or (II) AD/AB=AE/AC or (III) BD/AB=CE/AC => DEllBC
Criteria for Similarity of Triangles
(i)​ AAA Similarity:
If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then their
corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion) and
hence the two triangles. => Δ ABC ~ Δ DEF
OR
AA Similarity:
If two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another triangle (by the
angle sum property of a triangle their third angles will also be equal), then the two triangles are
similar.
(ii)​ SSS Similarity: If in two triangles, sides of one triangle
are proportional to (i.e., in the same ratio of) the sides of
the other triangle, then their corresponding angles are
equal and hence the two triangles are similar.
AB/DE=BC/EF=AC/DF=2/3 =>Δ ABC ~ Δ DEF
(iii)​ SAS Similarity: If one angle of a triangle is equal to
one angle of the other triangle and the sides including
these angles are proportional, then the two triangles
are similar. AB/DE=AC/DF=2/3 and∠ A (included
between the sides AB and AC) = ∠ D (included
between the sides DE and DF) =>Δ ABC ~ Δ DEF.
7. COORDINATE GEOMETRY
●​ The distance of a point from the y-axis is called its x-coordinate, or abscissa.
●​ The distance of a point from the x-axis is called its y-coordinate, or ordinate.
●​ The coordinates of a point on the x-axis are of the form (x, 0), and of a point on the y-axis are of the
form
(0, y).
Distance Formula:
the distance between the points P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) is
2 2 2 2
PQ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1) or (𝑥1 − 𝑥2) + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2)

​ For showing that the given vertices are of

a)​ A right triangle, show that (hypotenuse)2= sum of squares of rest two sides
b)​ An equilateral triangle, show that all sides are equal in length.
c)​ An isosceles triangle, show that its two sides are equal in length.
d)​ A scalene triangle, show that all sides are unequal in length.
e)​ A parallelogram, show that the midpoint of its diagonals coincide.
f)​ A rhombus, show that all sides are equal in length.
g)​ A rectangle, show that the midpoint of its diagonals coincide and the diagonals are equal.
h)​ A square, show that all sides are equal in length and the diagonals are equal OR all four sides
equal and one angle 900 .
​ AB + BC =AC => the points A, B and C are collinear.
Section Formula
the coordinates of the point P (x, y) which divides the line segment joining the points
A (x1, y1) and B(x2, y2), internally, in the ratio m : n are ( 𝑚𝑥2+𝑛𝑥1
𝑚+𝑛
,
𝑚𝑦2+𝑛𝑦1
𝑚+𝑛 ).
​ ​ ​ P
​ ​ A (x1, y1) B (x2, y2)
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ m: n
NOTE:

i)​ To find the ratio of division, let the ratio is k:1 and use the formula ( 𝑘𝑥2+𝑥1
𝑘+1
,
𝑘𝑦2+𝑦1
𝑘+1 ).
ii)​ The mid-point of a line segment divides the line segment in the ratio 1 : 1. So the mid-
point of the line segment joining (x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is ( 𝑥2+𝑥1
2
,
𝑦2+𝑦1
2 )
​ To bisect means to divide into two equal parts and to trisect means to divide into three equal
parts.
8. INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY
●​ The word ‘trigonometry’ is derived from the Greek words ‘tri’ (meaning three), ‘gon’ (meaning
sides) and ‘metron’ (meaning measure).
Trigonometry is the study of relationships between the sides and angles of a triangle.
 Trigonometric Ratios (T-ratios) of an acute angle in a right triangle express the relationship
between the angle and the length of its sides.

●​ Perpendicular (p) is the side opposite to the angle while base (b) is the side adjacent to the angle.
Hypotenuse (h) is the longest side.
Types of T-ratios
S No Trigonometric Ratios Abbreviation
1 sine of ∠ A sin A

2 cosine of ∠ A cos A

3 tangent of ∠ A tan A

4 cosecant of ∠ A cosec A

5 secant of ∠ A sec A

6 cotangent of ∠ A cot A

●​ sin A is used as an abbreviation for ‘the sine of the angle A’. sin A is not the product of ‘sin’ and A.
‘sin’ separated from A has no meaning. Same is applicable for other ratios.
●​ The Greek letters θ (theta), ɸ (phi) etc. are used to denote angles.
●​ sin θ=p/h, cos θ=b/h, tan θ=p/b {pandit badri prasad hare har bol}
cosec θ=1/sin θ = h/p, sec θ=1/cos θ=h/b, cot θ=1/tanθ=b / p
●​ the values of the trigonometric ratios of an angle do not vary with the lengths of the sides of the
triangle, if the angle remains the same.
●​ sin2 A, cos2 A, etc., are written in place of (sin A)2 , (cos A)2 , etc., respectively.
But cosec A = (sin A)-1 ≠ sin-1 A (it is called sine inverse A). sin-1 A has a different meaning.
●​ If in a right triangle ABC, sin A = 1/3, then this means that
BC/AC=1/3, i.e., the lengths of the sides BC and AC of the
triangle ABC are in the ratio 1: 3 (see Fig.). So if BC = k, then
AC=3k, where k is any positive number. To determine other
trigonometric ratios for the angle A, we need to find the length of
the third side AB.
●​ Since the hypotenuse is the longest side in a right triangle, the value of sin A or cos A is always less
than 1 (or, in particular, equal to 1).
Reciprocal Relation
1.​ (i)sin θ. cosec θ=1 ​ (ii)sinθ=1/ cosec θ ​ (iii) cosec θ=1/ sin θ
2.​ (i) cos θ. sec θ=1 ​ (ii) cos θ=1/ sec θ ​ (iii) sec θ=1/cos θ
3.​ (i) tan θ. cot θ=1 ​ (ii) tan θ=1/ cot θ ​ (iii) cot θ=1/tan θ
Quotient Relation
(i) tan θ= sin θ/ cos θ​ (ii) cot θ= cos θ/ sin θ
Trigonometric Ratios of Some Specific Angles
 ∠A 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
Sin A 0 1 1 2 1 3 3 4
4
=0 4
=2 4
= 4
= 2 4
=1
2

Cos A 1 3 1 1 0
2 2 2
TanA=SinA/CosA 0 1 1 3 Not
3 defined
Cosec A=1/sin A Not 2 2
2 1
defined 3

Sec A=1/Cos A 1 2
2 2 Not
3 defined
Cot A=1/Tan A Not 3 1 1 0
defined 3

Remark : From the table above you can observe that as ∠ A increases from 0° to 90°, sin A
increases from 0 to 1 and cos A decreases from 1 to 0.
Trigonometric Identities
●​ An equation is called an identity when it is true for all values of the variables involved.
●​ An equation involving trigonometric ratios of an angle is called a trigonometric identity, if
it is true for all values of the angle(s) involved.
Square Relation
1.​ (i)cos2 A + sin2 A = 1​ (ii) cos2 A=1- sin2 A​ (iii) sin2 A=1- cos2 A
2 2
2.​ (i) sec A-tan A=1​ (ii) sec2 A=1+ tan2 A​ (iii) tan2 A= sec2 A-1,for 0° ≤ A < 90°
2 2
3.​ (i)cosec A- cot A=1​ (ii) cosec2 A=1+ cot2 A(iii) cot2 A= cosec2 A-1,for 0°<A ≤90°
[Link] APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY

​ The line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point in the object viewed
by the observer.
​ The angle of elevation of an object viewed, is the angle formed by the line of sight with the
horizontal when it is above the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we raise our head to look at
the object.
​ The angle of depression of an object viewed, is the angle formed by the line of sight with the
horizontal when it is below the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we lower our head to look at
the object.

10. CIRCLES
In fig. (i), 𝑃𝑄⃡ is a non-intersecting line.
In fig. (ii), 𝑃𝑄⃡ is a secant i.e. the line intersecting a circle at two points.
In fig. (ii), 𝑃𝑄⃡ is a tangent to a circle i.e. the line that intersects the circle at only one point , where A is

called the point of contact.

#There is only one tangent at a point of the circle.
# The tangent to a circle is a special case of the secant, when the two end points of its corresponding chord

coincide fig.(iv). (iv) (v)

# There cannot be more than two tangents parallel to a given secant fig.(v).
Theorem: The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.
Given: A circle with centre O and a tangent XY to the circle at a
point P.
To prove: OP is perpendicular to XY.

To construct: Take a point Q on XY other than P and join OQ.

Proof: The point Q must lie outside the circle because if Q lies
inside the circle, XY will become a secant and not a tangent to the
circle.
Therefore, OQ > OP.
Since this is true for every point Q (except the point P) of line XY. Therefore, OP is the shortest distance
from the point O to XY and the shortest distance from a point to a line is perpendicular to the line. So OP is
perpendicular to XY. Hence proved.
Remarks: The line containing the radius through the point of contact is also sometimes called the ‘normal’
to the circle at the point.
Number of Tangents from a Point on a Circle

The length of the segment of the tangent from the external point P and the point of contact with the circle is
called the length of the tangent from the point P to the circle.
Theorem: The lengths of tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal.
Given: A circle with centre O, a point P lying outside the circle and two tangents
PQ, PR on the circle from P.
To prove: PQ = PR.
To construct: Join OP, OQ and OR.
Proof: ∠ OQP = ∠ ORP = 900 (The tangent is perpendicular to the radius.) Now in right triangles OQP and
ORP,
By Pythagoras Theorem,
PQ2 ​ = OP2 – OQ2
= OP2 – OR2 (As OQ = OR=Radius)
= PR2
⇨​ PQ = PR Hence proved.
Note: In right triangles OQP and ORP,
OQ = OR (Radii of the same circle) and
OP = OP (Common)
=>∆ OQP ≅ ∆ ORP (RHS)
=>PQ = PR (CPCT), ∠ OPQ = ∠ OPR(CPCT), i.e., OP is the angle bisector of ∠ QPR.
and ​ ​ ∠ POQ = ∠ POR(CPCT), i.e., OP is the angle bisector of ∠ QOR.​ ​
​ ​ ​ ​
11. AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES
●​ The portion (or part) of the circular region enclosed by
two radii and the corresponding arc is called a sector of
the circle and the portion (or part) of the circular region
enclosed between a chord and the corresponding arc is
called a segment of the circle.
●​ segment’ and ‘sector’ we will mean the ‘minor segment’
and the ‘minor sector’ respectively, unless stated
otherwise.
θ 2
●​ Area of the sector of angle θ = 360°
𝑋 π𝑟
θ
●​ Length of an arc of a sector of angle θ = 360° 𝑋 2πr
●​ Area of the segment APB = Area of the sector OAPB – Area of Δ OAB
360°−θ 2
●​ Area of the major sector OAQB = πr2 – Area of the minor sector OAPB = 360°
𝑋π𝑟
●​ Area of major segment AQB = πr2 – Area of the minor segment APB
[Link] AREAS AND VOLUMES
●​ TSA of new solid = CSA of one hemisphere + CSA of cylinder + CSA of other hemisphere

●​ Volume of new solid = Volume of one hemisphere + Volume of cylinder + Volume of other
hemisphere
 Volume=
Lateral/ Curved Total Surface
Ar (cross Length of
Solids Figures Surface Area Area(TSA) OR
section)x longest rod
(L/CSA) Surface Area
height

Ar(four side
Area of four rectangles)
Ar(rectangle) x Diagonal=
side +Ar(top and
Cuboid height=
rectangles= bottom 2
𝑙 +𝑏 +ℎ
2 2
lbh
2h(l+b) rectangles)=
​ 2(lb+bh+hl)

Cube l=b=h=a 4a2 6a2 a3 Diagonal=a 3

CSA+ Ar(top
Circumference and bottom Ar(circle)x
Cylinder 2 2 2
x height=2πrh circles)= height= π𝑟 ℎ 4𝑟 + ℎ
2πr(h+r)

One-third of
CSA+ volume of Slant height, l=
Cone πrl Ar(bottom cylinder= 2 2
circle)= πr(l+r) 1 2 𝑟 +ℎ
3
π𝑟 ℎ

4 times area of 2 3
Sphere 2 4 π𝑟 4
π𝑟 2r
circle=4 π𝑟 3

CSA+
Half of CSA of
Hemisphere 2 Ar(bottom 2
π𝑟
3
2r
sphere= 2 π𝑟 2 3
circle)= 3 π𝑟

[Link]
Measures of Central Tendency
(i)​ Mean: The mean (or average) of observations is the sum of the values of all the observations
divided by the total number of observations.
Direct Method: If x1, x2,..., xn are observations(class marks or mid values) with respective frequencies f1 , f2
, . . ., fn , then this means observation x1 occurs f1 times, x2 occurs f2 times, and so on.
Now, the sum of the values of all the observations = f1 x1 + f2 x2 + . . . + fnxn, and the number of observations
= f1 + f2 + . . . + fn. So, the mean,
𝑛

𝑓1𝑥1+𝑓2𝑥2+…+𝑓𝑛𝑥𝑛 ∑ 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑖 Σ𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑖

𝑥= 𝑓1+𝑓2+…+𝑓𝑛
= 𝑖=1𝑛 or Σ𝑓𝑖
where
∑ 𝑓𝑖
𝑖=1

𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡+𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

Class mark or mid-value, xi= 2
 𝑛
NOTE: Greek letter ∑ 𝑂𝑅 Σ(capital sigma) means summation, where i varies from 1 to n.
𝑖=1
Σ𝑓𝑖𝑑𝑖
Assumed Mean Method: Mean, 𝑥= a+ Σ𝑓𝑖
where

assumed mean, a= any xi (middle xi is preferred ) and

deviation, di= xi-a .
Remark: If xi and fi are sufficiently small, then the direct method is an appropriate choice. If xi and fi are
numerically large numbers, then we can go for the assumed mean method.
●​ The mean takes into account all the observations, and lies between the extremes, i.e., the largest and
the smallest observations of the entire data.
●​ It also enables us to compare two or more distributions.
(ii)​ Mode: The observation having the maximum frequency is the mode of the given data.
Modal Class: A class with the maximum frequency
𝑓 −𝑓
Mode = l+ 2𝑓 −𝑓
1 0
−𝑓
X h where l = lower limit of the modal class,
1 0 2

h = size of the class interval (assuming all class sizes to be equal),

f1 = frequency of the modal class, f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class,
f2= frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.
●​ In situations which require establishing the most popular item, the mode is the best choice, e.g., to
find the most popular T.V. programme being watched, the colour of the vehicle used by most of the
people, etc.
(iii)​ Median: It is the middle-most observation in the data.
For finding the median of ungrouped data
a.​ arrange the data values of the observations in ascending order.
𝑛+1
b.​ if n is odd, the median is the 2 th observation.
𝑛
c.​ if n is even, then the median will be the average of the n/2 th and the ( 2 + 1)th observations.
●​ The median marks convey the information that about half of students obtained marks less than it
and another half of students obtained marks more than it.
Median Class: The class, whose cumulative frequency is JUST greater than n/2 ⋅
𝑛
− 𝐶𝐹
Median = l+ 2
𝐹
𝑋 ℎ where l = lower limit of median class, n = number of observations,

F = frequency of median class, CF = cumulative frequency of class JUST preceding the median class,
h = class size (assuming class size to be equal)
Remarks: The data needs to be converted to continuous (exclusive) classes for finding the median and
mode.
Empirical Relationship: 3 Median = Mode + 2 Mean
[Link]
Outcome means a result. Event(E) is the collection of outcome(s).
Experiment: An action which gives a result.
Random Experiment: An experiment with following two conditions:
(i)​ it must have outcomes ​ and​ (ii) the outcomes cannot be predicted in advance.
Equally Likely Outcomes: The outcomes which have same chance to occur.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
The probability of an event E, P(E) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

Remarks:
1.​ An event having only one outcome of the experiment is called an elementary event.
2.​ The sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is 1.
3.​ The event 𝐸, representing ‘not E’, is called the complement of the event E. We also say that 𝐸 and E
are complementary events. P(E) + P(𝐸) = 1
4.​ The probability of an event which is impossible to occur is 0. Such an event is called an impossible
event.
5.​ The probability of an event which is sure (or certain) to occur is 1. Such an event is called a sure
event or a certain event.
6.​ The number of favourable outcomes is always less than or equal to the number of all possible
outcomes. Therefore, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
Playing Cards (52)
COLOUR:​ ​ Red (26)​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Black (26)

SUITS: Diamonds (♦)(13)​ Hearts (♥)(13) Spades ( )(13). Clubs ( )(13)

​ I. ACE (A)​ ​ I. ACE (A)​ ​ I. ACE (A)​ ​ ​ I. ACE (A)
​ II.2​ ​ ​ II. 2​ ​ ​ II.2​ ​ ​ ​ II. 2
​ III.3​ ​ ​ III. 3​ ​ ​ III.3​ ​ ​ ​ III. 3
​ IV.4​ ​ ​ IV. 4​ ​ ​ IV.4​ ​ ​ ​ IV. 4
​ V.5​ ​ ​ V. 5​ ​ ​ V.5​ ​ ​ ​ V. 5
​ VI.6​ ​ ​ VI. 6​ ​ ​ VI.6​ ​ ​ ​ VI. 6
​ VII. 7​ ​ ​ VII. 7​ ​ ​ VII. 7​ ​ ​ ​ VII. 7
​ VIII. 8​​ ​ VIII. 8​​ ​ VIII. 8​​ ​ ​ VIII. 8
​ IX. 9​ ​ ​ IX. 9​ ​ ​ IX. 9​ ​ ​ ​ IX. 9
​ X. 10​ ​ ​ X. 10​ ​ ​ X. 10​ ​ ​ ​ X. 10
​ XI. King(K)​ ​ XI. King(K)​ ​ XI. King(K)​ ​ ​ XI. King(K)
​ XII. Queen (Q)​ XII. Queen (Q)​ XII. Queen(Q)​ XII. Queen (Q)
​ XIII. Jack (J)​ ​ XIII. Jack (J)​ ​ XIII. Jack (J)​ ​ XIII. Jack (J)
●​ Kings, queens and jacks are called face cards. So there are 12 face cards in total.