GEOGRAPHY — CHAPTER 2
CONTOURS — Class 10 ICSE | Exam-Friendly Notes
1. Representation of Relief Features
Relief is the actual configuration of land, including its altitude and slope. Major features are mountains, valleys, hills, plains and
plateaus.
Because maps are two-dimensional while relief has three dimensions, several methods are used to represent relief.
• Hachures
• Hill shading
• Form-lines
• Contours
2. Hachures
Hachures are short, disconnected lines following the direction of the slope.
• Close, thick hachures indicate steep slopes.
• Thin, widely spaced hachures indicate gentle slopes.
• They show slope, not actual height above sea level.
• Flat areas such as valley bottoms and plateau tops are generally left blank.
• They are difficult and time-consuming to draw and may obscure other map details.
3. Hill Shading
Hill shading represents relief through light and shadow, assuming a source of light illuminates the landform.
• Slopes facing the light appear lighter; slopes away from it appear darker.
• It is mainly used on small-scale maps.
• It does not show actual or relative height and may obscure other topographical features.
4. Form-Lines
Form-lines are broken contour lines joining places having the same height above sea level.
• They show the general ground pattern but not definite heights.
• Used when relief is complicated and accurate data is unavailable.
• They can be used with contour lines to show minor details of hilly or mountainous areas.
5. Contours
Contour lines are imaginary lines joining places having the same height above mean sea level.
Contours show
• Elevation of land — height is shown by figures inserted in breaks in the line.
• Steepness of slope — close contours mean steep; widely spaced contours mean gentle.
• Shape of land at various heights.
6. Contour Interval, V.I., H.E. and Gradient
Contour Interval (C.I.) is the difference in height between two consecutive contours. Example: 300 m and 320 m → C.I. = 20 m.
Vertical Interval (V.I.) is the vertical distance between two contour lines.
Horizontal Equivalent (H.E.) is the actual horizontal distance between two contour lines.
Gradient = V.I. ÷ H.E.
Example: V.I. = 150 m, H.E. = 3000 m → Gradient = 150/3000 = 1 : 20. A smaller second number generally indicates a steeper
gradient.
7. Principles of Contours
• Contour lines join places having the same height above mean sea level.
• Contours are curved lines whose shape depends on the configuration of land.
• Spacing of contours indicates the nature of the slope.
• Contours of different heights generally do not cross because one point cannot normally have two elevations at the same time.
• Contours show stream direction through V-shaped bends. The V points upstream, opposite to water flow.
• A contour either closes on itself or begins and ends at the map boundary. Ridge contours are elongated; valley contours point
upstream.
8. Identification of Landforms
Triangulated Height
A point accurately surveyed and shown with a triangle (■) is a triangulation point. Its height is determined trigonometrically.
Spot Height
A spot height gives the elevation of a particular point above mean sea level. It is shown by a dot followed by a number, e.g. •500. It
describes one specific point only.
Relative Height / Depth
Relative height may be shown by 'r', indicating the difference between maximum and minimum height. Example: 3r means 3 m
relative height. Relative depth indicates depth below the water surface.
Bench Mark
A Bench Mark (BM) is a mark on a stone or building showing an accurately surveyed height and serving as a reference for
surveyors.
Spot Height Bench Mark
Height of a specific point above MSL. Accurately surveyed reference height.
Dot + number. BM + number.
Mainly shown on maps. Marked on map and actual ground/object.
9. Contour Diagrams — Slopes and Landforms
Steep Slope
Land rises/falls suddenly; contours are very close together.
Gentle Slope
Elevation changes gradually; contours are widely spaced. About 1 : 25 is described as a gentle gradient in the text.
Conical Hill
Broad base, nearly equal slopes on all sides; contours are almost circular and values increase towards the centre.
Ridge
Long, narrow highland sloping steeply down on its sides; contours are elongated and closely spaced.
V-shaped Valley
Narrow valley, generally upper river course; contours form a V pointing upstream and values decrease towards the centre.
U-shaped Valley
Broad, flat-bottomed valley, formed in the middle course of a river or by glaciers.
Hanging Valley
A tributary valley that meets the main glacier/valley at a higher level.
Gorge / Canyon
Deep, narrow valley with very steep sides; contours are very close and form a narrow V.
Water Divide / Watershed
A ridge separating tributaries draining towards different sides. Steeper side has close contours; gentler side has far-apart contours.
Escarpment
Abrupt, long, regular steep face of a hill, ridge or plateau. It has a steep scarp and a gentle dip. A ridge with scarp on one side and
dip on the other is a cuesta.
Dissected Scarp
An escarpment whose dip side is cut by V-shaped valleys formed by running water.
10. Drainage Systems
A river course is divided into three stages:
Upper Course Middle Course Lower Course
Steep slopes Gentle slopes Gentle slopes
Valley formation Flood plains Deltas
Meanders & oxbow lakes
11. Drainage Patterns
Dendritic Drainage
Tree-like branching pattern, generally found on flat lands; common in the Indo-Gangetic Plains.
Trellised Drainage
Streams flow roughly parallel and join the main stream at approximately right angles; found in areas of alternating hard and soft rocks
or limestone.
Radial Drainage
Streams spread outward in all directions like spokes of a wheel; generally around conical hills or volcanoes.
Disappearing Streams / Underground Drainage
Streams may dry up or disappear into sand when they lack sufficient water. This is shown as underground drainage on topographical
maps.
12. Conventional Signs and Symbols
Topographical maps use standardised signs and symbols to represent relief features and human activities. The key or legend
explains their meanings.
13. Hindi Terms Used in Survey Maps
Term Meaning
Nadi River
Nala Small stream
Phar Hill
Parbat Hill or mountain
Piao Place where drinking water is available
Police Chowki Police outpost
Talab Tank / reservoir / pond
Khera Kiln for baking bricks
Tahsil / Taluk Part of a district under a tehsildar
Dak Bungalow Government bungalow for travellers
14. Colours Used in Contour Maps
• Black: names; latitude/longitude; surveyed trees and numbering; river banks; broken ground; dry streams; railway, telephone and
telegraph lines.
• Blue: water-related features; perennial rivers; perennial wells.
• Green: forests, grasslands, orchards, scattered trees/shrubs and forest footpaths.
• White: rocky/badlands, broken grounds and uncultivated land.
• Yellow: cultivable lands.
• Brown: sand features such as dunes and hills; contours, contour numbering and form-lines.
• Red: grid lines (Eastings and Northings) and their numbering; man-made features such as roads, cart tracks, buildings, huts,
temples, chhatris, hospitals and aerodromes.
15. Super-Important Exam Revision
• Contours close → steep slope.
• Contours far apart → gentle slope.
• V-shaped contours → valley; V points upstream.
• Circular contours + increasing values towards centre → hill.
• Elongated contours → ridge.
• Very narrow V + close contours → gorge/canyon.
• Broad U → U-shaped valley.
• Streams flowing outward → radial drainage.
• Tree-like branching → dendritic drainage.
• Parallel streams joining at right angles → trellised drainage.
• Scarp → steep slope; Dip → gentle slope.
• Blue → water; Green → vegetation; Brown → contours; Yellow → cultivable land; Red → grid/man-made features; Black → names
and various map features.
16. Must-Remember Formulae
Contour Interval: C.I. = difference in height between consecutive contours.
Gradient: Gradient = V.I. / H.E.
Example: 150 m / 3000 m = 1 : 20.
17. Likely Exam Questions
• Define contour lines and contour interval.
• What are Vertical Interval and Horizontal Equivalent?
• What is gradient? Give its formula.
• How are steep and gentle slopes identified from contours?
• Differentiate between spot height and bench mark.
• Explain V-shaped and U-shaped valleys.
• What is a water divide?
• What is an escarpment? Explain scarp, dip and cuesta.
• Explain dendritic, trellised and radial drainage patterns.
• State the colours used for water, vegetation, contours, cultivable land and man-made features.
• Why do contour lines generally not cross?
• How do contours indicate stream direction?