VNIT Nagpur MME Department

FOUNDRY
TECHNOLOGY
Lecture notes for undergraduates

Prepared by:

Mohan Pathak
Adhoc Assistant Professor, MME Dept., VNIT Nagpur.
[Link]/in/mohanpp
 Earlier, foundry was an Art and Craft.

It’s secrets were confined to certain families.

In 1540, Biringuccio produced literature on Metal Founding,

and thus, Foundry art and skill came to the door of common man.
 but Why is it called ‘Foundry’ ?

The term "foundry" has its origins in the old English word foundrie (or
foundry), which referred to a place where metals were melted or "found."

The root word found comes from the Old French fondre, meaning "to melt"
or "to pour," and ultimately traces back to the Latin fundere, meaning "to
pour out" or "to melt."
CASTING is one of the oldest
manufacturing methods known to
humankind and a very direct
method of producing metal parts.
Casting involves pouring molten
metal into a cavity that is close to the
final dimensions of the finished form.
 MOLTEN METAL

CAVITY

MOLTEN METAL IS CALLED AS HOT METAL/LIQUID METAL

THE CAVITY IS CALLED AS THE MOLD/MOLD CAVITY

 HOT
METAL

MOLD
MOLD
Cast(v): to take the form of

• Actors in a play/movie
• Liquid metal in a mold
Why Casting ??
✓ In terms of value and volume, metal casting ranks
second only to steel rolling in the metal-producing
industry.

✓ Metal casting is one of the ten largest industries

when rated on a value-added basis, and worldwide
casting shipments have continued to increase in
recent years.

Source:
ASM Handbook, Volume 15: Casting
Casting is used to
manufacture: Typical uses of cast components:
• infrastructure and structural components
many types of
• water distribution systems (pipes, pumps, and valves)

• automotive components (engine blocks, brakes, steering

complex components of and suspension components, etc.)

• prosthetics, jewelry, and gas turbine engine hardware.

any metal

ranging in weight from

90%
• of all manufactured goods
• of all capital goods machinery
less than an ounce to Use casting as a part of the process!
several hundred tons.
 low-volume, single part prototype to
highly reliable, cost-effective components
scale for millions of parts

formation of streamlined, intricate,

CASTING integral parts with varied shape and size
readily achieve an
BENEFITS capabilities for designers.
attractive appearance

design freedom: allows the designer to various surface finishes on a part are also
combine what would otherwise be possible
several parts of a fabrication into a
single piece.
In general, casting can provide various functional advantages:

✓ Design both internal and external contours independently to almost any

requirement.

✓ Place metal in exact locations where it is needed.

(for rigidity, wear, corrosion, or maximum endurance under dynamic stress).

✓ Produce a complex part as a single, dependable unit.

✓ Readily achieve an attractive appearance.

Source:
ASM Handbook,
Volume 15: Casting
What does this
data tell you?

Hint: Look at India.

Source:
ASM Handbook,
Volume 15: Casting
A Brief History
of ‘Casting’
 ❖ Metal casting is a prehistoric technology
with an uncertain origin.

❖ Cast iron appeared in China around 600 B.C.

❖ During medieval wars, metalcasters

produced cannons. In peacetime, they recast
metal into bells.

In the Middle Ages, church bells were cast by priests, abbots, or bishops who were also
trained metal founders. As metal was melted, the clergy recited psalms and prayers,
blessing the molten metal.
 ‘RECENT’ DEVELOPMENTS

▪ Centrifugal casting was developed by A.G. Eckhardt in 1809 in Soho, England.

▪ This method involves pouring molten metal into a rapidly rotating mold. Railroad
car wheels were spun cast in 1901 at 620 rpm.

▪ Slush casting, a permanent mold method, was introduced after centrifugal casting.

▪ The process allows a metal shell to freeze inside the mold, forming the shape of the
cavity wall.

▪ The first die casting machine named "Linotype" was patented in 1905 by H.H.
Doehler.
▪ In 1851, James Bogardus's factory in Chicago, built with cast iron supports, helped
pave the way for the development of the skyscraper.

▪ Investment (lost-wax) casting, one of the oldest casting techniques, was

rediscovered in 1897 by B.F. Philbrook of Iowa for casting dental inlays.

▪ The industrial sector paid little attention to investment casting until World War I,
when urgent military demands strained the machine tool industry.

▪ During World War I, shortcuts were needed to produce finished tools and precision
parts, reducing time-consuming machining, welding, and assembly.

Look at the factors that drive the progress of science and technology!
Casting technology during the 20th century
advanced in many ways, with “more casting
progress since World War II than in the previous
3000 years.
Aluminum was first separated in 1825, Castings
were the first major commercial market for
aluminum, as the process was simple, low-cost,
and suited to limited product ranges.
• For over 400 years, foundry processes and materials often relied on
methods developed by Vannoccio Biringuccio, the 16th-century
"father of the foundry industry.“

• In the 1920s, the American Foundrymen’s Society formed a sand

research committee that developed sand test methods, and by 1924,
standards for molding sands were established.
• Current understanding of sand casting now focuses on clay
mineralogy, sand preparation, sand compaction, and the physical
properties of molding and core sands.

• Advances in molding sand technology have led to higher uniformity in

the preparation of green sand (clay-bonded) molding sand.

• This progress was made possible by significant advancements in sand

testing, driven by leading researchers and developers of sand testing
instrumentation.
Other contributions to the advancement of metal casting include:

• Foundry automation
• A scientific approach to gating and risering using computer simulation of
solidification
• Evaporative (lost)-foam casting and semisolid casting
• Computer-aided design and manufacturing of castings
• Integrated foundry systems
• Plasma arc cupola for metal melting
• Cast metal-matrix composites
• Argon oxygen decarburization for steel refining
Limitations/Disadvantages of Casting
While the casting technique has significant advantages,
it is not free from any limitations or challenges.
1. Complex production operations: Casting processes tend to be
more complex, making them harder to fully control compared to
other manufacturing methods.

This complexity arises from variables such as mold design,

material properties, and cooling rates, which can all influence
the final product.
2. Prone to casting defects: The nature of casting makes
it more susceptible to defects such as porosity, shrinkage,
misruns, and cold shuts. These defects can significantly
impact the quality of the final workpieces.
3. Dimensional consistency and accuracy: Castings often
suffer from lower dimensional consistency and accuracy
compared to other manufacturing methods like machining or
forging, due to the inherent variability in the casting process.
4. Inferior material properties: Compared to forgings of the
same size and shape, castings generally have weaker intrinsic
material properties. Castings tend to have lower strength and
load-bearing capacity because of the potential for internal
flaws and porosity.
5. Challenging working conditions: Casting operations often
take place in high-temperature environments with exposure to
molten metals, dust, and fumes, creating a difficult and
hazardous working environment. The labor intensity is also
high, requiring workers to manage the risks and demands of
the process.
 By material: ferrous and non-ferrous

Classification of foundries

By nature of operation:
captive, jobbing, production
Jobbing Foundry- A foundry having a physical plant
that usually contracts to produce a casting or a small
number of castings of a given type.
Production Foundry - Is a highly mechanized shop which
requires that large number of a given kind of casting be
made in order to produce them at low cost.
Captive Foundry - A foundry which is an integral part of a
manufacturing company and whose castings are consumed
mainly in the products of the parent company.
Basic steps in making sand castings
1. Melt the metal/alloy to be cast.
2. Pour the molten metal/alloy into the mould and remove
the casting from the mould after the metal solidifies.
3. Clean and finish the casting.
4. Test and inspect the casting.
5. Remove the defects if any.
6. Relieve the casting stresses by heat treatment.
7. Again inspect the casting.
8. The casting is ready for shipping.
Basic steps in making sand castings

Practically all the detailed operations that enter into the making of sand
castings may be categorized as belonging to one of five fundamental
steps of the process:

1. Patternmaking (including core boxes)

2. Core making
3. Molding
4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning
• Make the pattern out of wood, metal or plastic

• In case of sand casting select, test and prepare the necessary sand mixtures
for mould and core making

• With the help of patterns prepare the mold and necessary cores

• A mold is a container of sand or metal etc having a cavity of the shape to be cast

• A core is a body (of sand etc.) which is employed to produce a cavity in the casting
• Pattern is a replica of the final casting.
• It is slightly larger than the final casting, as it should consider for allowances.
• A pattern is required even for making a single casting.
• It can be made from plastic/wax/wood/metal or any other suitable material.
 PATTERN CASTING
Carries allowances, slightly larger Smaller than the pattern
Does not have holes and slots Has them, made by drilling
May be in two or three pieces Single piece
Made of simple materials like wood Made of the final desired alloy
Shrinkage Allowance: Compensates for the reduction in volume of the
material as it solidifies and cools after being poured into the mold.

All metals contract when they cool, so the pattern needs to be slightly
larger to accommodate this shrinkage. The amount of shrinkage depends
on the material being cast, such as aluminum, steel, or cast iron.
Machining Allowance: Provides extra material to the surface areas of the
casting that will be machined after casting.

This ensures that any imperfections, roughness, or excess material on the

surface can be removed during the finishing process to achieve the desired
dimensions and surface quality.

Typical Value: The machining allowance depends on the size and nature of the
part, but it may range from 1-5 mm.
Draft Allowance: Helps in the easy removal of the pattern from the mold.

A slight taper is given to the vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it can be
removed from the mold without damaging the part or the mold.

This is usually given as a small angle of about 1-3 degrees.

 Concept of ‘core’

Core

Casting Mold
Important units of
Foundry
Main Sections in a Foundry:

1. Raw material storage – Storage for sand, scrap metal, and alloys.
2. Pattern shop – Area for making and storing patterns.
3. Molding and core making – Includes sand preparation, molding, and core production.
4. Melting and pouring – Houses furnaces, ladles, and pouring stations.
5. Cooling and shakeout – Allows castings to cool before removing molds.
6. Cleaning and fettling – Removal of excess material, shot blasting, and grinding.
7. Inspection and testing – Quality control area for defect detection.
8. Finished goods storage – Warehouse for final cast products.
9. Waste disposal and recycling – Includes slag processing and environmental management.
Foundry Layout
What is Foundry Layout?

• Foundry layout refers to the systematic arrangement of different facilities,

machinery, and workspaces within a foundry to ensure smooth workflow,
efficient material handling, and safe operations.

• Foundry layout significantly impacts:

• productivity
• cost
• quality
 Layout of a
Manual Foundry
 Layout of a
Mechanized Foundry
Automated process in a mechanized foundry

• How sand, molding boxes, and molten metal move through different stages to
produce castings?

• What is the workflow?

The workflow in a mechanized foundry consists of sand preparation,
molding, pouring, cooling, and finishing, as well as the recycling of
empty molding boxes for continuous production.
In a mechanised foundry, sand is prepared in a separate unit from
where it reaches the hopper just above the moulding machine.
Empty moulding boxes are transported on roller conveyor to the
moulding machines where they are rammed, assembled and moved
to powering station after the molten metal has solidified.
The moulds pass through cooling zone and ultimately at checkout station
castings are taken out of the moulds castings go for fettling and finishing
whereas empty cold moulding boxes are roller conveyed to the moulding
machines and the new casting cycle begins.
Steps involved:

• Sand is prepared separately and sent to a hopper above the molding machine.
• Empty molding boxes move on a roller conveyor to the molding machine.
• Boxes are filled, assembled, and sent to the pouring station.
• After solidification, molds pass through a cooling zone.
• At the checkout station, castings are removed from the molds.
• Castings go for fettling and finishing.
• Empty molding boxes return to the machine to start a new cycle.
Foundry Materials
 Foundry
Materials

Metals and
Fuels Fluxes Refractories
alloys
 Carbon steel

Ferrous Cast steel Low alloy steel

High alloy steel

Stainless steel

White
Cast iron Malleable
Gray

Metals Ductile
CG

& Alloy cast iron

Cu-base
Heavy metals
Alloys Non- Pb-base
Ni-base
ferrous Zn-base
Al-base
Light metals
Mg-base
Ti-base
Cast Steels
Cast steels vs. Wrought steels

Cast Steels Wrought Steels

Mechanically worked
Manufacturing Process Melted and poured into a mold
(rolled, forged, extruded)

Microstructure Heterogeneous, may have porosity Refined, homogeneous grain structure

Ductility & Toughness Lower, can be improved with heat treatment Higher due to grain refinement

Strength & Hardness Can be high with alloying & heat treatment Generally stronger due to work-hardening

Fatigue Resistance Lower due to potential casting defects Higher due to uniform structure

Machinability Lower due to inclusions and porosity Better due to cleaner structure

Weldability Requires preheating/post-weld treatment Generally better and easier to weld

Complex, large, or heavy shapes High-performance parts

Application Suitability
(e.g., pump housings, valves) (e.g., gears, shafts, aerospace components)

Cost Consideration More economical for intricate designs Higher due to additional processing steps
Classification of Cast steels
Cast steels
Plain Carbon
Alloy steels
steels

Low carbon Low alloy steels High alloy steels

(≤0.2%) (≤8% AE) (>8% AE)

Medium carbon Stainless steels

(0.2-0.5%) Tool steels
(Cr, Cr+Ni)

High carbon Ferritic

(>0.5%)

Austenitic

Martensitic
Characteristics of Carbon steel castings:

• Tough and ductile

• Easily weldable
• Shrinkage is 1-2%

Typically used in:

• Automobiles: frames, gears, cylinder blocks etc.

• Electrical: base, housing, rotors, frames
• Rolling mill rolls
• Marine: anchor chains
Characteristics of Alloy steel castings:

• High yield point, high strength

• Stronger and tougher than carbon steels
• High fatigue resistance
• Easily formable, weldable
• Good corrosion and wear resistance

Typically used in:

• Structural applications
• Railroad cars
• Transmission towers
• Long span bridges
• Agriculture and earth moving equipment etc.
 Metal: cast iron
Fuels Coal Furnace: cupola, air/rotary furnace
(for For cast iron melting in Cupola
melting Coke Non-ferrous metals in crucible furnaces
metals) Non-ferrous metals in crucible furnaces

Gas steel in open hearth

Non-ferrous metals in crucible furnaces

Oil Iron/steel in open hearth furnaces

Expensive

Electricity Melting CI/steel

Non-ferrous alloys
Flux

• A flux is a low melting point material.

• When heated up it melts and combines with ash, viscous slag, sand, metallic
oxides etc. makes up fluid and easy flowing slag.

• The slag being lighter comes to the surface of the liquid metal from where it
can be easily skimmed away tapped or removed before pouring the molten
metal into the mould.

• Slag protects the molten metal from the furnace atmosphere.

Refractories

• Refractories are heat resistant materials.

• They can withstand high temperatures without melting.

• crucibles and furnace sides and bottoms containing molten metals are made of refractories.

• Refractories are used as ladles for pouring metal into the mould.

• Refractories constitute furnace walls and roofs and minimise the heat loss.

• The main constituents of foundry refractories are magnesia, silica, alumina and their mixtures.

• The newer refractory materials are magnesia and zirconia.

Text / Reference Books:

1. Heine R.W., Loper C. and Rosenthal P.C., Principles of metal casting, McGraw Hill Education
(2nd edition), 1967
2. Beeley P., Foundry technology. Elsevier, 2001
3. Campbell J., Complete Casting Handbook: Metal Casting Processes, Metallurgy, Techniques
4. and Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015
5. P. L. Jain, Principles of foundry technology, fifth edition, 2009.
6. O. P. Khanna, A textbook on foundry technology, 1996.
7. ASM Handbook, Volume 15-Casting, ASM International, 2008.