2.

2 Rivers
Objectives

Be able to identify and describe river

terminologies
Be able to describe the water cycle
Be able to describe drainage basin
characteristics
Rivers and the water cycle

All rivers receive their water from precipitation -

that is rain, hail, snow and sleet. But the
relationship between precipitation and the
amount of water in a river, known as discharge,
is not straightforward. Only a small amount of
the water that falls reaches the river, which is just
part of the water, or hydrological, cycle.
Once clouds have released the precipitation,
many different routes and destinations are
possible for water. It may:
 evaporate back into the atmosphere
 be transpired by plants
 be kept by plants or in the soil
 stay for a time in lakes, glaciers or reservoirs
 infiltrate into the ground to become groundwater
 run off the surface immediately into rivers.

Through rivers, the water reaches the sea to be evaporated again and the
water cycle continues.
Changing-channel characteristics

Downstream changes

 Rivers have three main roles: to erode the river channel,

to transport materials, and to create new erosional and
depositional landforms.
 Most rivers have three main zones a zone of erosion, a
zone of transport and a zone of deposition.
 Erosion, transport and deposition are found in all parts of
a river, although one process tends to be dominant.
Downstream changes

For example, there is more erosion in the

upper part, while there is more deposition in
the lower course. This is related to the
changes in a river downstream.

The diagram shows that velocity, discharge

and load increase downstream, whereas
gradient and the size of load decrease
downstream.
Energy in a river
This determines a stream's ability to erode, transport or deposit.
There are two types of energy:
 » potential energy, provided by the weight and elevation of the
water
 » kinetic energy, produced by gravity and the flow of the water.
About 95% of energy is used to overcome friction with the bed and
banks.
The rougher the channel the more energy will be lost. In a smooth
channel there is very little frictional loss and therefore there is more
energy available for work.
Channel shape
 The efficiency of a stream's
shape is measured by its
hydraulic radius that is, the cross-
sectional area divided by wetted
perimeter. The higher the ratio the
more efficient the stream and the
smaller the frictional loss. The
ideal form is semi-circular.

 There is a close relationship

between velocity, discharge and
the characteristics of the channel
in which the water is flowing.
Channel roughness
 Channel roughness causes friction, which slows down the velocity of the
water. Friction is caused by irregularities in the riverbed, boulders, trees
and vegetation, and contact between the water and the bed and bank.
 Discharge is the volume of water passing a given point over a set time
Normally it is expressed in m3/sec (cumecs).
 It is found by multiplying the cross-sectional area and the mean velocity.
Steeper slopes should lead to higher velocities because of the influence
of gravity.
Discharge and Velocity

Discharge (Q) normally

increases downstream, as
does width, depth and
velocity.

By contrast, channel
roughness decreases. The
increase in channel width
downstream is normally
greater than that in channel
depth.
Factors affecting erosion
 The heavier and sharper the load the greater is the
potential for erosion. The greater the velocity and
discharge the greater is the potential for erosion.
Increased gradient increases the rate of erosion.

 Soft rocks, such as sand shale, chalk, or claystone, are

more easily eroded. Rates of solution are increased when
the water is more acidic. Human impact (for example,
deforestation, dams and bridges) interferes with the
natural flow of a river and frequently results in an increase
in the rate of erosion.
Transport

 The main types of transport include suspension, saltation, solution,

traction and flotation.
Deposition

 Deposition occurs due to a decline in energy or velocity. This may

happen because a river becomes shallower - for example, when a
flood spills onto a floodplain; the river gets trapped behind a dam or
enters a lake or the sea; vegetation slows down the river; or the
gradient becomes gentler.
 Drainage Basins
A drainage basin is an area within which water supplied by precipitation is
transferred to the ocean, a lake or larger stream.

 It includes all the area that is drained by a

river and its tributaries (smaller rivers that
join the larger river) and is the main unit for
the study of rivers.

 The confluence is the point where a smaller

river joins a larger river. Drainage basins
are divided by watersheds - imaginary
lines separating adjacent basins.

 The basin cycle is an open system: the

main input is precipitation, which is
regulated by various means of storage.
Components of Hydrological Cycle

 The hydrological cycle refers to the movement of water between

atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. At a global scale, it can be
thought of as a closed system with no losses from the system.

 In contrast, at a local scale the

cycle has a single input,
precipitation (PPT), and two major
losses (outputs), evapotranspiration
(EVT) and runoff.
Components of Hydrological Cycle
Precipitation
The main characteristics that affect local hydrology are the amount of
precipitation, seasonality, intensity, type (snow, rain (Cyclonic,
Orographic and Convectional) etc.), geographical distribution and
variability. For rain to occur, three factors must be in place:
 Air is saturated that is, it has a relative humidity of 100 per cent.
 It contains particles of soot, dust, ash, ice etc.
 Its temperature is below dew point - that is, the temperature is at the
level where the relative humidity is 100 per cent, saturation is
complete and clouds form.
Components of Hydrological Cycle
Interception
Interception refers to water stored by vegetation. There are three
main components:
 Interception loss - water that is retained by plant surfaces and
later evaporated away or absorbed by the plant
 Through fall - water that either falls through gaps in the
vegetation, or drops from leaves, twigs or stems
 Stem flow - water that trickles along twigs and branches and
finally down the trunk.
Components of Hydrological Cycle
Infiltration
 Infiltration is the process by which water soaks into the ground. The
infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which rain can enter the
soil/ground. Infiltration capacity decreases with time through a period of
rainfall until a more or less constant value is reached.

 On bare soils, infiltration rates may reach 10 mm/hour. On similar soils

covered by vegetation, rates of between 50 and 100 mm/hour have been
recorded.
 Infiltrated water is chemically rich as it picks up minerals and organic acids
from vegetation and soil.
Infiltration
 Components of Hydrological Cycle
Evaporation

 Evaporation is the process by which a liquid or a solid is changed into a

gas. Its most important source is from oceans and seas. Evaporation
increases under warm, dry, windy conditions.

 Factors affecting evaporation include temperature, humidity, and wind

speed. Of these, temperature is the most important factor. Other factors
include water quality, depth of water, size of water body, vegetation cover
and colour of the surface (albedo or reflectivity of the surface)
 Components of Hydrological Cycle

Evapotranspiration

 Transpiration is the process by which water vapour is transferred from

vegetation to the atmosphere. The combined effects of evaporation and
transpiration are normally referred to as evapotranspiration (EVT).

 EVT represents the most important aspect of water loss, accounting for the
removal of nearly 100 per cent of the annual precipitation in arid areas and 75
per cent in humid areas. Only over ice and snow fields, bare rock slopes,
desert areas, water surfaces and bare soil will purely evaporative losses occur.
 Components of Hydrological Cycle
Overland flow
 Overland flow refers to water
moving over the surface. It is
also called surface runoff.
Overland flow occurs in two
main ways: when precipitation
exceeds the infiltration rate,
and when the soil is saturated.

Through flow
 Through flow refers to water flowing through the soil in natural pipes and
between soil horizons.
Components of Hydrological Cycle
Groundwater

 Groundwater refers to subsurface water. Most groundwater is found within a

few hundred metres of the surface, but has been found at depths of up to 4
km beneath the surface.

 Groundwater accounts for 96.5 per cent of all freshwater on Earth. However,
while some soil water may be recycled within a matter of days or weeks,
groundwater may not be recycled for as long as 20,000 years. Hence, in
some places, groundwater is considered a non-renewable resource.

 Aquifers (rocks that contain significant quantities of water) provide a great

reservoir of water. Aquifers are permeable rocks such as sandstones and
limestones. This water moves very slowly and acts as a natural regulator in
the hydrological cycle by absorbing rainfall, which otherwise would reach
streams rapidly.
Erosion
 The long profile

A number of processes, such as weathering and mass movement, interact to

create variations in cross- and long profiles. Irregularities, or knick- points, may
be due to:
» geological structure, for example hard rocks erode slowly, which can result in
the formation of waterfalls and rapids

» variations in the load, for example a tributary with a coarse load might lead to a
steepening of the gradient of the main valley

» sea level changes - a relative fall in sea level will lead to renewed down
cutting, which enables the river to erode former floodplains and form new
terraces and knick-points.
Cross-profiles – Upper course

 The cross-profile of the upper part of a river is often described as V-

shaped Rivers in their upper course typically have a steep gradient
and a narrow valley. The rivers are shallow and fast flowing.

 There is normally much friction with large boulders, and much

energy is used to overcome friction. The processes likely to occur
are vertical erosion, weathering on the slopes, mass movement and
transport. Features likely to be found include waterfalls, rapids,
potholes, gorges and interlocking spurs.
Cross-profiles – Middle course

 In the middle course of the river, the valley is still V-shaped

but is less steep. Slopes are more gentle.

 A floodplain is beginning to form and meanders are visible.

Processes in the middle course include erosion (both
vertical and lateral), meandering, transport and some
deposition on the inner bends of the meanders.
Cross-profiles – Lower course
 In contrast, in the lower course the cross-profile is much
flatter.

 Processes include erosion (on the outer banks), transport

and deposition (especially on the inner bends and on the
floodplain). Characteristic features include levées, oxbow
lakes, floodplains, deltas and terraces.
River process –Erosion – Transportation- Deposition
Erosion
There are many factors affecting erosion.
These include:
load
velocity and discharge
gradient
Geology
pH
Human impact
River process –Erosion – Transportation- Deposition

Erosion
The main types of erosion include:
 Abrasion (or corrasion) - the wearing away of
the bed and bank by the load carried by a
river
 Attrition - the wearing away of the load carried
by a river, which creates smaller, rounder
particles
 Hydraulic action - the force of air and water
on the sides of rivers and in cracks
 Solution (or corrosion) the removal of chemical
ions, especially calcium, which causes rocks to
dissolve.
River process
Transport
The main types of transport in a river
include:
 Suspension - small particles are held
up by turbulent flow in the river
 Saltation - heavier particles are
bounced or bumped along the bed
of the river
 Solution – the chemical load is dissolved in the water
 Traction - the heaviest material is dragged or rolled along the bed of
the river
 Flotation - leaves and twigs are carried on the surface of the river.
Deposition
 Deposition occurs as a river slows down and it
loses its energy. Typically, this occurs as a river
floods across a floodplain or enters the sea, or
behind a dam. It is also more likely during low
flow conditions (such as in a drought) than
during high flow (flood) conditions as long as
the river is carrying sediment.
 The larger, heavier particles are deposited first,
the smaller, lighter ones later.
 Features of deposition include deltas, levées,
slip-off slopes (point bars), oxbow lakes,
braided channels and floodplains.
Features of Erosion
 Localised erosion by
hydraulic action and
abrasion, especially by
large pieces of debris,
may lead to the
formation of potholes .

 These are typically seen

in the upper course of a
river when the load is
larger and more rugged.
Features of Erosion

 Waterfalls frequently occur on

horizontally bedded rocks. The soft
rock is undercut by hydraulic
action and abrasion.
 The weight of the water and the
lack of support cause the waterfall
to collapse and retreat. Over
thousands of years the waterfall
may retreat enough to form a
gorge of recession. Where there are
small outcrops of hard and soft
rock, rapids may develop rather
than a waterfall.
Features of Erosion

Gorges and waterfalls

 Gorge development is common, for

example where the local rocks are very
resistant to weathering but susceptible to
the more powerful river erosion.
 Similarly, in arid areas where the water
necessary for weathering is scarce, gorges
are formed by episodes of fluvial erosion.
A rapid acceleration in down cutting is also
associated when a river is rejuvenated,
again creating a gorge-like landscapes.
Features of Erosion/deposition

Meanders
 Rivers typically meander. This means
that the water does not follow a
straight line but takes a curving
route.
 As a result of this there are variations
in the speed across a river. Velocity
is fastest on the outside bank and
slowest on the inside bank, so there
is erosion on the outer bank and
deposition on the inner bank. This
produces a steep river cliff on the
outer bank of a meander and a
gentle slip-off slope on its inner
bank.
Features of Erosion/deposition
Features of Erosion/deposition

Oxbow lakes
Floodplains
 Oxbow lakes are the result of erosion
and deposition. Lateral erosion,  The area covered by water when
caused by fast flow in the meanders, a river floods is known as its
is concentrated on the outer, deeper floodplain. When a river's
discharge exceeds the capacity
bank. During times of flooding, of the channel, water rises over
erosion increases. the river banks and floods the
 The river breaks through and creates surrounding low-lying area.
a new, steeper channel. In time, the  Sometimes a floodplain will itself
old meander is closed off by be eroded following a fall in sea
deposition to form an oxbow lake. level. When this happens, the
remnants of the old floodplain are
left behind as river terraces.
These are useful for settlement as
they are above the new level of
the floodplain and are free from
flooding.
Features of Erosion/deposition
Features of Erosion/deposition
Levées
 When a river floods its speed is reduced,
slowed down by friction caused by
contact with the floodplain. As its velocity
is reduced the river has to deposit some of
its load. It drops the coarser, heavier
material first to form raised banks, or
levées, at the edge of the river.
 This means that, over centuries, the levées
are built up of coarse material, such as
sand and gravel, while the floodplain
consists of fine silt and clay.
Features of Erosion/deposition

Braided channels
 Braiding occurs when a river transports a very heavy load in relation
to its velocity. If a river's discharge falls its competence and
capacity are reduced. This forces the river to deposit large amounts
of its load and multi-channels, or braided channels, are formed.
 Braiding is common in rivers that experience seasonal variations in
discharge. For example, in proglacial and periglacial areas such as
southern Iceland, most of the discharge occurs in late spring and
early summer, when snow and ice melt. This enables rivers to carry
very large loads, which are quickly deposited as discharge
decreases.
 Features of Erosion/deposition

Deltas
A delta is a flat, low-lying deposit of sediment that is
found at a river's mouth. For deltas to be formed a river
needs to:
 carry a large volume of sediment for example, rivers
in semi-arid regions and in areas of intense human
activity
 enter a still body of water, which causes velocity to
fall; the water loses its capacity and competence,
hence deposition occurs, with the heaviest particles
deposited first and the lightest last.
Deposition is increased if the water is salty, as this causes salt particles to group
together, become heavier, and be deposited. Vegetation also increases the rate of
deposition by slowing down the water.
Opportunities presented by rivers

Rivers are very attractive to people for a variety of reasons.

Rivers provide:
 a source of drinking water
 fertile silt for agriculture
 a line of communications and navigation
 a source of power
 fishing
 recreation.
Opportunities presented by rivers
Rivers are affected by the building
of dams, which:
 reduce the speed of water flow
 control the amount of water in a river
 cause deposition behind the dam
 increase the amount of erosion
downstream of the dam change
ecosystems
 increase pressure on rocks and may But dams provide:
cause earthquakes.  reliable water throughout the
year
 navigation
 hydro-electric power
 water for irrigation
 safety from flooding.
Managing the impacts of river flooding

There are many ways in which people can

manage the impacts of flooding.
These include:
 building dams or reservoirs to hold back excess
water
 raising the banks of rivers
 dredging the river channel so that it can hold more
water
 diverting streams and creating new flood relief
channels
 using sandbags to prevent water getting into
houses
 building houses on stilts so that water can pass
underneath
Managing the impacts of river flooding

There are many ways in which people can manage the impacts of flooding.
These include:
 land use planning (i.e. build only on land that is free from flooding)
 afforestation (plant forests) to increase interception and reduce overland
flow
 have insurance cover for vulnerable areas and communities
 improved forecasting and warning
 river restoration and allowing rivers to flood naturally.

Even with all these measures flooding cannot be prevented. However, the
impacts can be minimized.