PHYSICS LESSON NOTES

SHS YEAR 1 – YEAR 3 (FORM 1 – FORM 3)

Aligned to the Ghana Ministry of Education / NaCCA Physics Curriculum (September 2023)

With topic-end assessments and answer guides

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How to Use These Notes
These notes are organised around the four strands and sub-strands of the current Ghana SHS Physics
curriculum. They are designed for teacher-supported classroom use and independent learner revision.
Each topic contains learning objectives, key concepts, formulae where appropriate, examples/applications,
suggested practical work, and an assessment that deliberately includes recall, conceptual understanding,
application and higher-order reasoning.

The official curriculum emphasises active learning, inquiry, collaboration, problem-solving, ICT use,
formative and summative assessment, and the development of 21st-century competencies. Teachers
should adapt experiments to available school resources and local Ghanaian contexts.

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YEAR 1
1. Introduction to Physics
Learning objectives:

 Define physics and describe its major branches.

 Explain the importance of physics in everyday life and Ghanaian industry.
 Classify physical quantities as fundamental/derived and scalar/vector.
 Use SI units, prefixes, dimensions and appropriate measuring instruments.
 Explain measurement uncertainty, accuracy, precision and significant figures.

Lesson notes:

Physics is the study of matter, energy, motion and the interactions between them. Major areas include
mechanics, thermal physics, waves, electricity and magnetism, electronics, atomic and nuclear physics.

Fundamental SI quantities include length (m), mass (kg), time (s), temperature (K), electric current (A),
amount of substance (mol) and luminous intensity (cd). Derived quantities include velocity, acceleration,
force, pressure, density and energy.

Scalars have magnitude only; vectors have magnitude and direction. Measurements always have some
uncertainty. Accuracy describes closeness to the accepted value; precision describes agreement among
repeated measurements.

Dimensional analysis checks whether equations are physically consistent. For example, [velocity] = LT ⁻¹
and [force] = MLT⁻².

Suggested practical / activity:

 Measure the diameter of a wire with a micrometer screw gauge and discuss zero error.
 Use a metre rule, stopwatch and balance to collect repeated measurements and calculate averages.

Assessment:

1. 1. State two applications of physics in Ghana. (2)

2. 2. Distinguish between a scalar and a vector, giving one example of each. (2)
3. 3. Give the SI unit of force and its dimensions. (2)
4. 4. A student measures 10.2, 10.4 and 10.3 cm. Find the mean. (2)
5. 5. Explain why repeated measurements are useful. (2)
6. 6. [DOK 3] A learner obtains a value of 9.5 cm for an accepted value of 10.0 cm. Comment on the
accuracy. (2)
7. 7. [DOK 4] Design a simple method for determining the thickness of a sheet of paper using ordinary
laboratory equipment. (4)

Answer guide:

 Physics studies matter, energy, motion and interactions.

 Scalar: magnitude only; vector: magnitude and direction.
 Force: newton (N); dimensions MLT⁻².
 Mean = (10.2+10.4+10.3)/3 = 10.3 cm.

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 Repeating measurements reduces random error and helps estimate reliability.
 The result is not very accurate because it differs from the accepted value by 0.5 cm.
 One suitable method: measure a large number of sheets together with a micrometer/ruler, divide total
thickness by number of sheets, repeat and average.

2. Matter
Learning objectives:

 Describe states and properties of matter.

 Explain density, pressure and elasticity.
 Relate particle motion to changes of state.
 Use equations involving density, pressure and deformation.

Lesson notes:

Matter is composed of particles. In solids, particles are closely packed and vibrate about fixed positions;
liquids have particles that can move past one another; gases have widely separated particles with rapid
random motion.

Density is mass per unit volume: ρ = m/V. Pressure is normal force per unit area: P = F/A. In liquids,
pressure increases with depth and is related to P = ρgh for gauge pressure in a uniform liquid.

Elastic deformation is reversible; plastic deformation is permanent. Hooke's law applies within the elastic
limit: extension is proportional to applied force.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Determine the density of an irregular solid by displacement of water.

 Investigate extension of a spring as load is increased and plot load-extension data.

Assessment:

8. 1. Define density. (1)

9. 2. Calculate the density of a 0.50 kg object of volume 2.0×10⁻⁴ m³. (2)
10. 3. State two differences between solids and gases. (2)
11. 4. What is meant by elastic deformation? (2)
12. 5. Explain why a sharp knife exerts greater pressure than a blunt one for the same force. (2)
13. 6. [DOK 3] A liquid has density 1000 kg m⁻³. Find its gauge pressure at 2.5 m depth using g=10 m s ⁻².
(3)
14. 7. [DOK 4] Explain how the particle model accounts for expansion when a solid is heated. (4)

Answer guide:

 ρ = m/V = 0.50/(2.0×10⁻⁴) = 2500 kg m⁻³.

 Elastic deformation is deformation that disappears when the force is removed.
 Smaller area gives greater pressure for the same force.
 P = ρgh = 1000×10×2.5 = 25,000 Pa.
 Heating increases particle kinetic energy; average separation increases, causing expansion.

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3. Kinematics
Learning objectives:

 Distinguish distance and displacement.

 Distinguish speed and velocity.
 Interpret displacement-time and velocity-time graphs.
 Use equations of uniformly accelerated motion.
 Explain free fall and projectile motion.

Lesson notes:

Kinematics describes motion without focusing on its causes. Distance is total path length; displacement is
the directed change from initial to final position. Speed is scalar; velocity is vector.

For constant acceleration: v = u + at; s = ut + ½at²; v² = u² + 2as; s = ½(u+v)t. The gradient of a

displacement-time graph gives velocity; the gradient of a velocity-time graph gives acceleration, and the
area under a velocity-time graph gives displacement.

In free fall near Earth's surface, acceleration is approximately g = 9.8 m s ⁻² (often approximated as 10 m
s⁻² in school calculations). Projectile motion combines horizontal uniform motion and vertical accelerated
motion.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Use a ticker timer or motion sensor to determine velocity and acceleration.

 Investigate projectile range using a ball and a safe launch arrangement.

Assessment:

15. 1. Define displacement. (1)

16. 2. A car travels 120 m in 10 s. Find its average speed. (2)
17. 3. A body starts from rest and accelerates at 2 m s⁻² for 5 s. Find its final velocity. (2)
18. 4. State what the gradient of a velocity-time graph represents. (1)
19. 5. Explain why a projectile has horizontal and vertical components of motion. (2)
20. 6. [DOK 3] A body has u=5 m s⁻¹, a=3 m s⁻² and t=4 s. Find s. (3)
21. 7. [DOK 4] Explain how an experiment could distinguish constant velocity from constant acceleration
using a motion graph. (4)

Answer guide:

 Average speed = 120/10 = 12 m s⁻¹.

 v = 0+2×5 = 10 m s⁻¹.
 Gradient of v-t graph = acceleration.
 s = 5×4 + ½×3×16 = 20+24 = 44 m.
 Projectile motion is resolved into perpendicular horizontal and vertical components; gravity acts
vertically downward.
 Constant velocity gives a straight-line x-t graph and zero gradient change; constant acceleration gives
a changing gradient on x-t and a straight-line v-t graph.

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4. Dynamics
Learning objectives:

 Explain force and its effects.

 Apply Newton's laws of motion.
 Distinguish mass and weight.
 Explain friction and its applications.
 Use equilibrium and moments in simple systems.

Lesson notes:

Dynamics deals with the causes of motion. Newton's first law describes inertia; the second law relates
resultant force to rate of change of momentum and, for constant mass, F = ma; the third law states that
interacting bodies exert equal and opposite forces on each other.

Mass is the amount of matter and is measured in kilograms. Weight is gravitational force: W = mg. Friction
opposes relative motion. A body is in translational equilibrium when the vector sum of forces is zero.

The turning effect of a force about a pivot is torque/moment. For a perpendicular force, moment = force ×
perpendicular distance from pivot.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Use a trolley and pulley to investigate F=ma.

 Balance a metre rule on a pivot and investigate moments.

Assessment:

22. 1. State Newton's first law. (2)

23. 2. Calculate the weight of a 60 kg learner using g=10 m s⁻². (2)
24. 3. A 5 kg object experiences a resultant force of 20 N. Find its acceleration. (2)
25. 4. State one advantage and one disadvantage of friction. (2)
26. 5. Explain the difference between mass and weight. (2)
27. 6. [DOK 3] A 10 N force acts 0.4 m from a pivot at right angles. Find its moment. (2)
28. 7. [DOK 4] Explain how seat belts demonstrate Newton's first law. (4)

Answer guide:

 Newton 1: a body remains at rest or uniform straight-line motion unless acted on by a resultant external
force.
 W=60×10=600 N.
 a=20/5=4 m s⁻².
 Advantage: walking/tyre grip. Disadvantage: wear/energy loss.
 Mass is intrinsic and measured in kg; weight is gravitational force and measured in N.
 Moment=10×0.4=4 N m.
 When a vehicle stops suddenly, passengers tend to continue moving forward due to inertia; the belt
provides the force that changes their motion and reduces injury.

5. Heat
Learning objectives:

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 Distinguish heat from temperature.
 Explain thermal expansion.
 Describe conduction, convection and radiation.
 Use specific heat capacity and latent heat equations.
 Apply thermal physics to Ghanaian daily life.

Lesson notes:

Temperature indicates the degree of hotness or average kinetic energy of particles; heat is energy
transferred because of a temperature difference. Heat transfer occurs by conduction, convection and
radiation.

Specific heat capacity is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K:
Q=mcΔT. Specific latent heat is the energy required to change the state of 1 kg without temperature
change: Q=mL.

Expansion on heating has applications and consequences in bridges, railway tracks, overhead wires,
thermometers and building design.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Compare heating rates of different materials.

 Determine the specific heat capacity of a solid using electrical heating or a calorimeter where available.

Assessment:

29. 1. Define specific heat capacity. (2)

30. 2. Calculate energy needed to heat 2 kg of water by 5 K if c=4200 J kg ⁻¹ K ⁻¹. (3)
31. 3. Name the three methods of heat transfer. (3)
32. 4. Why are metals good conductors? (2)
33. 5. Explain convection in a heated room. (2)
34. 6. [DOK 3] Why does temperature remain constant during melting? (2)
35. 7. [DOK 4] Suggest two ways to reduce heat loss from a Ghanaian home and explain the physics. (4)

Answer guide:

 c is energy required per kg per K.

 Q=mcΔT=2×4200×5=42,000 J.
 Conduction, convection, radiation.
 Metals contain mobile electrons that transfer energy efficiently.
 Warm air expands, becomes less dense and rises; cooler air sinks, producing circulation.
 Energy supplied changes the arrangement/bonds between particles rather than increasing average
kinetic energy.
 Examples: roof insulation reduces conduction; reflective surfaces reduce radiation; ventilation can
control convection; shaded windows reduce solar heating.

6. Waves
Learning objectives:

 Define wave motion.

 Distinguish transverse and longitudinal waves.
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 Use v=fλ.
 Explain reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.
 Describe sound and electromagnetic waves.

Lesson notes:

A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy without net transfer of matter. In transverse waves,
oscillations are perpendicular to propagation; in longitudinal waves they are parallel.

Key terms: amplitude, wavelength λ, frequency f, period T and wave speed v. The relationship is v=fλ.
Sound is a mechanical longitudinal wave and requires a medium. Electromagnetic waves are transverse
and can travel through vacuum.

Wave behaviour includes reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference. Sound applications include
communication, medical imaging and sonar.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Use a ripple tank or rope to observe reflection, refraction and diffraction.

 Measure sound frequency with a phone or computer spectrum app, where permitted.

Assessment:

36. 1. Define wavelength. (1)

37. 2. A wave has f=5 Hz and λ=2 m. Find its speed. (2)
38. 3. Distinguish transverse and longitudinal waves. (2)
39. 4. Why can sound not travel through a vacuum? (2)
40. 5. State two electromagnetic waves. (2)
41. 6. [DOK 3] Explain why diffraction is more noticeable when the gap is comparable with wavelength. (3)
42. 7. [DOK 4] Compare sound and light in terms of medium, speed and wave type. (4)

Answer guide:

 Wavelength is distance between successive points in phase.

 v=5×2=10 m s⁻¹.
 Transverse: vibration perpendicular; longitudinal: vibration parallel.
 Sound needs particles to transfer mechanical vibrations.
 Examples: radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma.
 Diffraction becomes significant when aperture/obstacle size is similar to wavelength.
 Sound is mechanical and needs a medium; light is electromagnetic and travels in vacuum; sound is
usually much slower than light.

7. Electrostatics
Learning objectives:

 Explain electric charge and charging.

 Describe electric fields and potential difference.
 Apply Coulomb's law qualitatively and quantitatively.
 Explain capacitance and common applications.

Lesson notes:

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Electric charge occurs as positive and negative charge. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
Charging can occur by friction, conduction and induction.

An electric field is a region where a charge experiences electric force. Electric field lines point away from
positive charges and toward negative charges. Electric potential difference is work done per unit charge.

Capacitance is the charge stored per unit potential difference: C=Q/V. Capacitors store electrical energy
and are used in timing, filtering, coupling and energy-storage circuits.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Charge plastic rods by friction and observe attraction/repulsion using lightweight objects.
 Investigate capacitor charging/discharging with a low-voltage circuit if equipment is available.

Assessment:

43. 1. State the law of charges. (2)

44. 2. Define electric field. (2)
45. 3. A 2 μF capacitor is charged to 10 V. Find Q. (2)
46. 4. Give two methods of charging. (2)
47. 5. What is potential difference? (2)
48. 6. [DOK 3] Explain why electric field lines never cross. (2)
49. 7. [DOK 4] Explain one practical use of a capacitor and the physics behind it. (4)

Answer guide:

 Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.

 Electric field is region in which a charge experiences electric force.
 Q=CV=2×10⁻⁶×10=20 μC.
 Friction, conduction, induction.
 Potential difference is work done per unit charge.
 A point cannot have two different field directions simultaneously.
 Example: camera flash—capacitor stores energy and releases it rapidly through the flash circuit.

8. Magnetostatics
Learning objectives:

 Describe magnetic fields and field patterns.

 Explain magnetic materials.
 Use simple rules for magnetic fields.
 Describe Earth's magnetic field and applications of magnets.

Lesson notes:

A magnet has north and south poles; isolated magnetic poles are not observed. Magnetic field lines
emerge from north and enter south outside a magnet. Iron, cobalt and nickel are strongly magnetic
materials.

A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field. The direction can be found with the right-hand grip
rule. Electromagnets are temporary magnets produced by current in a coil, often strengthened using a soft-
iron core.

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Suggested practical / activity:

 Map the field around a bar magnet with iron filings or a compass.
 Build a simple electromagnet and test factors affecting strength.

Assessment:

50. 1. Name two magnetic materials. (2)

51. 2. What happens when like poles are brought together? (1)
52. 3. State one use of an electromagnet. (1)
53. 4. Why is soft iron suitable for electromagnet cores? (2)
54. 5. Describe the field around a straight current-carrying wire. (2)
55. 6. [DOK 3] State two ways of increasing electromagnet strength. (2)
56. 7. [DOK 4] Explain how an electric bell uses electromagnetism. (4)

Answer guide:

 Iron and cobalt/nickel.

 They repel.
 Electric bell, relay, lifting scrap iron, speaker, etc.
 It magnetises and demagnetises readily.
 Concentric circles around the wire.
 Increase current; increase turns; use a suitable soft-iron core.
 Current magnetises the core, attracting an armature; contact opens, current stops, magnetism falls,
armature returns and contact closes repeatedly.

9. Analogue Electronics
Learning objectives:

 Explain conductors, insulators and semiconductors.

 Describe diodes and transistors.
 Interpret simple I-V characteristics.
 Explain transducers and analogue applications.

Lesson notes:

Semiconductors have conductivity between conductors and insulators. Doping produces n-type and p-type
materials. A PN junction diode conducts strongly in forward bias and has very small current in reverse bias
until breakdown.

LEDs emit light when forward biased. Zener diodes can regulate voltage. A bipolar junction transistor has
three regions and can act as an amplifier or switch. Transducers convert physical quantities into electrical
signals or vice versa.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Use a low-voltage LED circuit to demonstrate forward biasing.

 Investigate a simple light-dependent or temperature-sensitive sensor circuit.

Assessment:

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57. 1. Define semiconductor. (1)
58. 2. Distinguish n-type and p-type semiconductors. (2)
59. 3. What is the main function of a diode in a simple rectifier? (2)
60. 4. Give one use of an LED. (1)
61. 5. Name the three terminals of a BJT. (3)
62. 6. [DOK 3] Explain why an LED needs appropriate current limiting. (2)
63. 7. [DOK 4] Explain how a light sensor could be used to switch on a security light automatically. (4)

Answer guide:

 Semiconductor: material whose conductivity lies between that of conductors and insulators and can be
controlled.
 n-type has donor impurities and majority electrons; p-type has acceptor impurities and majority holes.
 It allows current mainly in one direction, converting AC to pulsating DC.
 Indicators, displays, lighting, etc.
 Emitter, base, collector.
 Excess current can damage the junction; a resistor controls current.
 A light-sensitive transducer changes resistance/signal with light; a transistor or comparator uses the
signal to switch a lamp when ambient light falls.

10. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

Learning objectives:

 Describe atomic structure.

 Explain isotopes and ionisation.
 Distinguish alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
 Explain half-life and nuclear applications.
 Discuss radiation safety.

Lesson notes:

Atoms contain a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons. Isotopes have the same proton
number but different neutron numbers. Ionisation occurs when an atom gains or loses electrons.

Nuclear radiation includes alpha particles (helium nuclei), beta particles (fast electrons/positrons) and
gamma rays (high-energy electromagnetic radiation). Half-life is the time required for half of a radioactive
sample to decay. Radiation has medical, industrial and energy applications, but exposure must be
controlled using time, distance and shielding.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Use simulations to compare penetration and deflection of alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
 Discuss radiation safety signs and safe handling procedures.

Assessment:

64. 1. Define isotope. (2)

65. 2. State the composition of an alpha particle. (2)
66. 3. Which radiation has the greatest penetrating power: alpha, beta or gamma? (1)
67. 4. Define half-life. (2)

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68. 5. Give two beneficial uses of radioisotopes. (2)
69. 6. [DOK 3] A sample has 8000 nuclei. How many remain after two half-lives? (2)
70. 7. [DOK 4] Explain why alpha radiation can be dangerous inside the body but has low external
penetration. (4)

Answer guide:

 Isotopes have same proton number but different neutron number.

 Two protons and two neutrons.
 Gamma.
 Time for half the radioactive nuclei to decay.
 Cancer treatment, tracers, sterilisation, thickness monitoring, dating.
 8000 → 4000 → 2000 nuclei.
 Alpha particles lose energy rapidly and have short range, but if radioactive material enters the body,
alpha particles deposit high energy over a very small distance in living tissue.

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YEAR 2
11. Advanced Mechanics and Matter
Learning objectives:

 Apply vector ideas to physical quantities.

 Analyse equilibrium and rotational motion.
 Explain circular motion and gravitation.
 Use torque and angular quantities in practical systems.

Lesson notes:

Vector quantities can be resolved into perpendicular components. Rotational motion is described using
angular displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration. For circular motion, centripetal
acceleration is directed toward the centre: a_c=v²/r, and centripetal force is F_c=mv²/r.

Torque is τ=rF sinθ. Equilibrium requires both net force and net torque to be zero. Newton's law of
universal gravitation gives F=Gm₁m₂/r². Orbital motion results from gravitational attraction providing
centripetal force.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Use a rotating object to estimate angular speed and period.

 Investigate torque balance with metre rules and masses.

Assessment:

71. 1. Define angular velocity. (2)

72. 2. Find centripetal force for m=2 kg, v=4 m s⁻¹, r=2 m. (3)
73. 3. State the condition for rotational equilibrium. (2)
74. 4. State Newton's law of universal gravitation. (2)
75. 5. Why is centripetal force not a new kind of force? (2)
76. 6. [DOK 3] A 20 N force acts 0.5 m from a pivot at 90°. Find torque. (2)
77. 7. [DOK 4] Explain why a satellite remains in orbit instead of falling straight to Earth. (4)

Answer guide:

 Angular velocity is rate of change of angular displacement.

 F=mv²/r=2×16/2=16 N.
 Net torque = 0 (and net force = 0 for full equilibrium).
 F=Gm₁m₂/r².
 It is the name for the required inward resultant force; it can be supplied by tension, gravity, friction, etc.
 τ=20×0.5=10 N m.
 Gravity continually accelerates the satellite toward Earth while its tangential velocity carries it forward,
producing continuous free fall around Earth.

12. Advanced Kinematics

Learning objectives:

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 Analyse non-uniform motion.
 Interpret motion graphs quantitatively.
 Solve multi-stage motion problems.
 Apply projectile and relative-motion ideas.

Lesson notes:

Advanced kinematics uses graphs and equations to analyse changing motion. For constant acceleration,
v²=u²+2as and s=ut+½at². The area under a velocity-time graph gives displacement, while the gradient
gives acceleration.

Projectile motion is resolved into horizontal and vertical components. Horizontal acceleration is
approximately zero when air resistance is neglected; vertical acceleration is g downward.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Analyse a real motion trace from a phone sensor or video.

 Estimate g from a safe projectile or free-fall investigation.

Assessment:

78. 1. What does the area under a v-t graph represent? (1)
79. 2. A body accelerates from 10 to 30 m s⁻¹ in 5 s. Find acceleration. (2)
80. 3. State the horizontal acceleration of an ideal projectile. (1)
81. 4. Why can two objects have the same acceleration but different velocities? (2)
82. 5. [DOK 3] A car changes speed from 20 to 5 m s⁻¹ in 3 s. Find acceleration. (2)
83. 6. [DOK 4] Explain how a v-t graph can show braking, stopping and subsequent acceleration. (4)

Answer guide:

 Displacement.
 a=(30-10)/5=4 m s⁻².
 Approximately zero.
 Acceleration is rate of change of velocity; objects may have different initial velocities.
 a=(5-20)/3=-5 m s⁻².
 A downward-sloping v-t segment indicates negative acceleration/braking; reaching v=0 indicates
stopping; a later positive slope indicates acceleration in the positive direction.

13. Advanced Dynamics and Momentum

Learning objectives:

 Define momentum and impulse.

 Apply conservation of momentum.
 Distinguish elastic and inelastic collisions.
 Relate momentum change to Newton's laws.

Lesson notes:

Momentum is p=mv. Impulse is change in momentum: J=Δp=FΔt for constant force. In an isolated system,
total momentum is conserved.

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In an elastic collision, total momentum and total kinetic energy are conserved. In an inelastic collision,
momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not necessarily conserved. Safety devices increase collision
time and thereby reduce average force for a given change in momentum.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Use carts or rolling objects to demonstrate momentum conservation.

 Analyse collision video data where safe and appropriate.

Assessment:

84. 1. Calculate momentum of a 3 kg object moving at 4 m s⁻¹. (2)

85. 2. Define impulse. (2)
86. 3. State the conservation of momentum principle. (2)
87. 4. Distinguish elastic and inelastic collisions. (2)
88. 5. Why do airbags reduce injury? (2)
89. 6. [DOK 3] A 0.5 kg ball changes velocity from +8 to -4 m s⁻¹. Find change in momentum. (3)
90. 7. [DOK 4] Explain how momentum conservation can be used to determine the speed of two objects
that stick together after collision. (4)

Answer guide:

 p=3×4=12 kg m s⁻¹.
 Impulse is change in momentum, equal to force × time for constant force.
 Total momentum before = total momentum after in an isolated system.
 Elastic conserves momentum and kinetic energy; inelastic conserves momentum but loses some
kinetic energy.
 They increase collision time, reducing average force for the same momentum change.
 Δp=0.5(-4-8)=-6 kg m s⁻¹.
 Set total initial momentum equal to final momentum: m₁u₁+m₂u₂=(m₁+m₂)v, then solve for v.

14. Heat and Thermal Processes

Learning objectives:

 Analyse thermal expansion.

 Use calorimetry equations.
 Explain gas laws qualitatively and quantitatively.
 Explain efficiency of thermal devices.

Lesson notes:

Thermal processes involve energy transfer and changes in temperature, volume or state. Q=mcΔT and
Q=mL are central calorimetry relationships. For an ideal gas, pressure, volume and temperature are
related; at constant temperature, pressure is inversely related to volume, while at constant pressure
volume is proportional to absolute temperature.

Thermal efficiency compares useful output energy to input energy. Real machines lose energy through
conduction, convection, radiation and friction.

Suggested practical / activity:

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 Perform a calorimetry experiment where equipment permits.
 Investigate gas compression qualitatively with a syringe.

Assessment:

91. 1. State the SI unit of absolute temperature. (1)

92. 2. What is thermal efficiency? (2)
93. 3. Why must gas temperature be measured in kelvin for gas-law calculations? (2)
94. 4. Calculate Q for m=0.2 kg, c=900 J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹, ΔT=10 K. (3)
95. 5. State one source of energy loss in a heat engine. (1)
96. 6. [DOK 3] Explain what happens to pressure when the volume of a fixed mass of gas decreases at
constant temperature. (3)
97. 7. [DOK 4] Suggest engineering methods for improving thermal efficiency and justify them. (4)

Answer guide:

 Kelvin (K).
 Useful output energy/input energy ×100% (or the corresponding power ratio).
 Kelvin is an absolute temperature scale suitable for proportional gas-law relationships.
 Q=0.2×900×10=1800 J.
 Friction, heat loss, sound, etc.
 Pressure increases because gas particles collide with the container walls more frequently per unit time.
 Insulation reduces heat loss; lubrication reduces friction; heat exchangers recover waste heat; good
combustion/control improves useful conversion.

15. Electromagnetism
Learning objectives:

 Explain force on current-carrying conductors.

 Use Fleming's left-hand rule.
 Explain motors and loudspeakers.
 Describe electromagnetic effects of current.

Lesson notes:

A current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force. Direction is found using Fleming's
left-hand rule. The motor effect converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. A simple motor uses a
current-carrying coil in a magnetic field; a split-ring commutator reverses current every half-turn to maintain
rotation.

The force on a straight conductor is related to F=BIL sinθ.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Build or demonstrate a simple DC motor.

 Use a current-carrying wire and magnet to observe the motor effect at safe low voltage.

Assessment:

98. 1. State Fleming's left-hand rule. (2)

99. 2. What energy conversion occurs in a motor? (2)

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100. 3. Name the device that reverses current in a simple DC motor. (1)
101. 4. A wire carries 2 A in a 0.5 T field over 0.4 m at 90°. Find force. (3)
102. 5. Why does reversing current reverse the force? (2)
103. 6. [DOK 4] Explain how increasing magnetic field strength affects motor force and practical
performance. (4)

Answer guide:

 First finger = field, second finger = conventional current, thumb = force/motion.

 Electrical to mechanical.
 Split-ring commutator.
 F=BIL=0.5×2×0.4=0.4 N.
 The force direction depends on the current direction relative to the magnetic field.
 For fixed current and conductor length, greater B gives greater force; this can increase torque, though
heating, saturation and mechanical limits constrain performance.

16. Digital Electronics

Learning objectives:

 Explain binary digital signals.

 Describe logic gates and truth tables.
 Explain semiconductor switching.
 Design simple logic circuits.

Lesson notes:

Digital electronics uses discrete logic levels, commonly represented by 0 and 1. Basic gates include NOT,
AND, OR, NAND and NOR. A truth table lists output for every possible input combination.

Transistors can operate as switches: cutoff corresponds approximately to OFF and saturation to ON in a
simplified switching model. Digital systems underpin computers, control systems and many modern
devices.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Construct truth tables for basic gates.

 Simulate or build a simple logic circuit using a digital simulator or trainer.

Assessment:

104. 1. What are the two basic logic states? (2)

105. 2. State the output of an AND gate when both inputs are 1. (1)
106. 3. What does a NOT gate do? (1)
107. 4. Give the truth table for OR in words. (2)
108. 5. [DOK 3] Explain why NAND and NOR are called universal gates. (2)
109. 6. [DOK 4] Design a logic condition for a warning lamp that turns on if either of two safety switches
is activated. (4)

Answer guide:

 0 and 1.

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 1.
 It inverts the input.
 Output is 0 only when both inputs are 0; otherwise output is 1.
 Either gate can be combined to construct the basic NOT, AND and OR functions.
 Use an OR gate: lamp output = A OR B, so activation of either switch gives output 1.

17. Atomic and Nuclear Physics II

Learning objectives:

 Explain atomic spectra.

 Describe photons and energy levels.
 Explain nuclear decay equations.
 Discuss fission, fusion and radiation protection.

Lesson notes:

Electrons in atoms occupy quantised energy levels. When an electron changes level, electromagnetic
radiation may be emitted or absorbed with photon energy E=hf. Atomic spectra provide evidence for
quantised energy levels.

Nuclear decay changes the nucleus and can be represented using conservation of nucleon number and
charge. Fission splits a heavy nucleus; fusion combines light nuclei. Both can release large amounts of
energy, but require careful control and safety.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Use emission-spectrum simulations or diffraction gratings where available.

 Compare fission and fusion using concept maps.

Assessment:

110. 1. What is a photon? (2)

111. 2. State the relationship between photon energy and frequency. (1)
112. 3. Why are atomic spectra discrete? (2)
113. 4. Distinguish fission and fusion. (2)
114. 5. Give two radiation protection methods. (2)
115. 6. [DOK 3] What happens to photon energy when frequency doubles? (2)
116. 7. [DOK 4] Explain why fusion is attractive as an energy source but technologically difficult. (4)

Answer guide:

 A quantum/packet of electromagnetic radiation.

 E=hf.
 Only specific energy differences between quantised levels are allowed.
 Fission splits heavy nuclei; fusion combines light nuclei.
 Reduce time, increase distance, shielding.
 It doubles.
 Fusion can release large energy and potentially has abundant fuel, but requires extremely high
temperatures/densities and confinement, and sustained net-energy production is difficult.

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19
YEAR 3
18. Simple Harmonic Motion
Learning objectives:

 Define SHM.
 Describe displacement, velocity and acceleration in SHM.
 Analyse energy changes.
 Determine period of a spring and simple pendulum.

Lesson notes:

Simple harmonic motion occurs when acceleration is proportional to displacement from equilibrium and
directed toward equilibrium. A spring obeys F=-kx within its elastic limit. For a mass-spring system
T=2π√(m/k). For a simple pendulum at small amplitude, T≈2π√(L/g).

At equilibrium, speed and kinetic energy are maximum while displacement and potential energy are
minimum. At extreme positions, speed is zero and potential energy is maximum.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Investigate T² against L for a simple pendulum to estimate g.

 Investigate T against √m for a spring-mass system.

Assessment:

117. 1. Define SHM. (2)

118. 2. Where is speed maximum in SHM? (1)
119. 3. State the period equation for a simple pendulum. (2)
120. 4. What happens to acceleration at equilibrium? (1)
121. 5. Explain energy exchange during SHM. (3)
122. 6. [DOK 3] A pendulum has L=1.0 m. Estimate T using g=9.8 m s ⁻². (3)
123. 7. [DOK 4] Explain why increasing pendulum length increases its period. (4)

Answer guide:

 Acceleration is proportional to displacement and directed toward equilibrium.

 At equilibrium.
 T≈2π√(L/g).
 Zero.
 Kinetic and potential energies continually interchange while total mechanical energy remains
approximately constant in an ideal system.
 T≈2π√(1/9.8)≈2.01 s.
 A longer pendulum requires a larger path/time for the bob to complete each oscillation; the
mathematical relationship shows T is proportional to √L.

19. Advanced Dynamics, Rotational Motion and Gravitation

Learning objectives:

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 Analyse angular momentum.
 Explain rotational inertia qualitatively.
 Apply gravitational concepts to satellites and planetary motion.
 Relate torque to angular acceleration qualitatively.

Lesson notes:

Rotational systems have angular displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration. Torque changes
rotational motion. Moment of inertia measures resistance to angular acceleration and depends on mass
distribution.

Gravitation governs planetary and satellite motion. For circular orbits, gravitational attraction supplies the
required centripetal force. Orbital speed and period depend on orbital radius and central mass.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Use rotating stools/wheels only under safe supervised conditions to discuss angular momentum.
 Use simulations to compare satellite orbits.

Assessment:

124. 1. What is angular momentum? (2)

125. 2. What does moment of inertia describe? (2)
126. 3. Why does a skater spin faster when drawing arms inward? (3)
127. 4. State one factor affecting gravitational force. (1)
128. 5. [DOK 3] Explain why orbital speed changes with orbital radius. (3)
129. 6. [DOK 4] Explain how conservation of angular momentum applies to a rotating system with
negligible external torque. (4)

Answer guide:

 Angular momentum is rotational analogue of linear momentum; for simple rigid rotation L=Iω.
 Resistance of a body to change in rotational motion.
 Drawing arms inward reduces moment of inertia; with angular momentum approximately conserved,
angular velocity increases.
 Masses and separation.
 For circular orbits, gravitational force provides centripetal force; changing radius changes the required
orbital speed.
 If external torque is negligible, angular momentum remains constant. A decrease in I therefore
produces an increase in ω so that Iω remains approximately constant.

20. Heat, Thermodynamics and Energy

Learning objectives:

 Explain energy transfer in thermal systems.

 Analyse efficiency and energy conservation.
 Describe basic heat engines and refrigerators.
 Apply thermal ideas to sustainable energy use.

Lesson notes:

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Energy is conserved but can be transferred or transformed. Thermal systems may exchange energy
through work and heat. A heat engine converts part of thermal energy into useful work; no real engine
converts all input energy into useful work.

Refrigerators use work to transfer thermal energy from a colder region to a warmer environment. Efficiency
and coefficient of performance help evaluate devices. Sustainable design aims to reduce waste and use
energy efficiently.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Compare efficiencies of simple electrical heating arrangements.

 Investigate insulation materials used in local buildings.

Assessment:

130. 1. State the law of conservation of energy. (2)

131. 2. Define efficiency. (2)
132. 3. Why can no practical heat engine be 100% efficient? (2)
133. 4. Give one example of energy waste in a household. (1)
134. 5. [DOK 3] A machine receives 500 J and gives 350 J useful output. Find efficiency. (3)
135. 6. [DOK 4] Propose a physics-based plan to reduce electricity use in a school. (5)

Answer guide:

 Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it changes form or is transferred.

 Useful output/input ×100%.
 Some energy is inevitably transferred to less useful forms such as waste heat due to
irreversibility/friction.
 Examples: standby power, inefficient bulbs, heat loss from poorly insulated rooms.
 70%.
 Examples: LED lighting, daylight sensors, efficient fans, insulation, switching-off schedules, solar PV
where appropriate, monitoring with meters, and learner-led energy audits.

21. Direct Current Circuits

Learning objectives:

 Explain current, potential difference and resistance.

 Use Ohm's law.
 Analyse series and parallel circuits.
 Calculate electrical power and energy.
 Apply Kirchhoff ideas qualitatively.

Lesson notes:

Electric current is rate of charge flow: I=Q/t. Potential difference is energy transferred per unit charge.
Resistance opposes current. Ohm's law states V=IR for an ohmic conductor under constant physical
conditions.

Electrical power is P=VI=I²R=V²/R and electrical energy E=Pt. In series, current is the same through
components and resistances add. In parallel, potential difference is the same across branches and total
current is the sum of branch currents.
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Suggested practical / activity:

 Measure I-V characteristics of a resistor or lamp.

 Build series and parallel circuits and compare brightness/current.

Assessment:

136. 1. Define electric current. (2)

137. 2. A 6 V supply drives 2 A through a resistor. Find R. (2)
138. 3. State one difference between series and parallel circuits. (2)
139. 4. Calculate power for V=12 V and I=3 A. (2)
140. 5. [DOK 3] A 100 W appliance operates for 5 h. Find energy in kWh. (2)
141. 6. [DOK 4] Explain why domestic appliances are connected in parallel. (4)

Answer guide:

 I=Q/t.
 R=V/I=3 Ω.
 Series has one current path; parallel has multiple branches.
 P=VI=36 W.
 Energy=100 W×5 h=500 Wh=0.5 kWh.
 Each appliance receives the supply voltage, can be switched independently, and failure of one branch
does not normally stop the others.

22. Alternating Current

Learning objectives:

 Distinguish AC and DC.

 Describe RMS and peak values.
 Explain transformers.
 Analyse domestic AC safety.

Lesson notes:

Direct current flows in one direction; alternating current periodically reverses direction. AC is commonly
represented by a sinusoidal waveform. For a sinusoidal supply, V_rms=V_peak/√2.

A transformer works by electromagnetic induction and changes AC voltage. For an ideal transformer,
Vp/Vs=Np/Ns. Step-up transformers increase voltage; step-down transformers decrease it. High-voltage
transmission reduces current for a given power, reducing I²R losses.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Observe AC waveforms with a simulation or oscilloscope where available.

 Use a transformer model to demonstrate voltage transformation safely.

Assessment:

142. 1. Define alternating current. (2)

143. 2. What is RMS voltage used for? (2)
144. 3. A transformer has Np=1000 and Ns=100. If Vp=240 V, find Vs. (3)

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145. 4. Why are transformers not used directly with steady DC in the same way? (2)
146. 5. [DOK 3] Explain why high-voltage transmission reduces power loss. (3)
147. 6. [DOK 4] State and explain three domestic electrical safety measures. (4)

Answer guide:

 Current that changes magnitude and direction periodically.

 It represents the equivalent DC value for heating/power effects.
 Vs=240×100/1000=24 V.
 A transformer needs changing magnetic flux to induce an output emf; steady DC does not provide
continuous changing flux.
 For fixed transmitted power P=VI, higher V means lower I; resistive loss P_loss=I²R therefore falls.
 Examples: earthing, correct fuses/breakers, insulation, dry hands, avoiding overloaded sockets, proper
polarity and qualified installation.

23. Electromagnetic Induction and Applications

Learning objectives:

 Explain Faraday's law qualitatively.

 Use Lenz's law.
 Describe generators and transformers.
 Explain practical applications of induction.

Lesson notes:

Electromagnetic induction occurs when magnetic flux linking a conductor changes, producing an induced
emf. Faraday's law states that induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage.
Lenz's law gives the direction: the induced effect opposes the change producing it.

Generators convert mechanical energy to electrical energy. Alternators produce AC; commutators can
produce DC output in suitable generator designs.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Move a magnet through a coil and observe induced current with a galvanometer.
 Demonstrate generator principles using a hand-crank generator if available.

Assessment:

148. 1. Define electromagnetic induction. (2)

149. 2. State Lenz's law. (2)
150. 3. What energy conversion occurs in a generator? (2)
151. 4. Name one factor that increases induced emf. (1)
152. 5. [DOK 3] Explain why moving a magnet faster through a coil increases induced emf. (3)
153. 6. [DOK 4] Explain how a bicycle dynamo produces electrical energy. (4)

Answer guide:

 Production of emf/current due to changing magnetic flux linkage.

 The induced effect opposes the change producing it.
 Mechanical to electrical.

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 Increase speed of change, turns, or magnetic field strength.
 Faster motion changes magnetic flux linkage more rapidly, increasing the rate of change and hence
induced emf.
 Wheel rotation turns a magnet/coil arrangement, changing magnetic flux through the coil and inducing
an emf that supplies current to the lamp.

24. Applications of Electronics and Modern Physics

Learning objectives:

 Explain sensors, transducers and control systems.

 Describe communication and signal processing applications.
 Relate electronics to everyday technology.
 Evaluate benefits and limitations of electronic systems.

Lesson notes:

Electronic systems commonly contain inputs (sensors), processing/control elements and outputs
(actuators/displays). Transducers convert one form of energy/signal to another. Examples include
microphones, speakers, thermistors, LDRs, pressure sensors and digital controllers.

Electronics enables communication, automation, medical equipment, transportation, agriculture and

industry. Reliable systems require appropriate power supply, signal conditioning, protection and feedback.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Identify sensors and actuators in household devices.

 Design a simple block diagram for an automatic system such as a water-level controller.

Assessment:

154. 1. Define a transducer. (2)

155. 2. Give two examples of sensors. (2)
156. 3. Distinguish input and output in an electronic control system. (2)
157. 4. Give one application of feedback. (1)
158. 5. [DOK 3] Explain how a thermostat can control room temperature. (3)
159. 6. [DOK 4] Design a block diagram for an automatic street-light system and explain each block. (5)

Answer guide:

 A device that converts a physical quantity/energy form into another useful signal/form.
 Thermistor, LDR, microphone, pressure sensor, etc.
 Input is sensed information; output is the controlled response.
 Temperature control, speed control, audio amplification, etc.
 A temperature sensor measures temperature; a controller compares it with a set value and switches
heating/cooling accordingly.
 Light sensor → signal conditioning/comparator → transistor/relay switch → lamp; power supply
supports the circuit.

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25. Atomic Physics and Quantum Ideas
Learning objectives:

 Explain photons and quantisation.

 Describe photoelectric effect qualitatively.
 Relate frequency, wavelength and photon energy.
 Explain applications of atomic physics.

Lesson notes:

Electromagnetic radiation can be described in terms of photons. Photon energy is E=hf=hc/λ. The
photoelectric effect occurs when light of sufficient frequency causes electrons to be emitted from a
material. Increasing frequency increases photon energy; increasing intensity at fixed frequency increases
the number of photons, provided the threshold frequency is exceeded.

Atomic physics supports lasers, spectroscopy, solar cells, medical imaging and communications.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Use a simulation to investigate threshold frequency and electron emission.

 Analyse simple emission spectra using a diffraction grating or simulation.

Assessment:

160. 1. Write the photon-energy equation. (1)

161. 2. What happens to photon energy when wavelength decreases? (2)
162. 3. Define threshold frequency. (2)
163. 4. Why does increasing light intensity not necessarily eject electrons if frequency is below
threshold? (2)
164. 5. [DOK 3] Compare two photons with frequencies f and 2f. (2)
165. 6. [DOK 4] Explain one application of the photoelectric effect. (4)

Answer guide:

 E=hf=hc/λ.
 Energy increases because E is inversely proportional to wavelength.
 Minimum frequency needed to eject electrons from a given surface.
 Each photon lacks sufficient energy to overcome the work function.
 The 2f photon has twice the energy.
 Example: solar cells convert photon energy into electrical energy; or light sensors use
photoelectric/semiconductor effects to generate a measurable electrical response.

26. Nuclear Physics and Radiation

Learning objectives:

 Analyse radioactive decay mathematically.

 Explain decay series and nuclear stability.
 Compare fission and fusion.
 Evaluate radiation risks and benefits.

Lesson notes:
26
Radioactive decay is spontaneous and random for individual nuclei, but predictable statistically. The
activity decreases with time according to the decay constant; half-life provides a practical measure of
decay rate.

Nuclear stability depends on the balance of forces and neutron/proton ratio. Fission can produce chain
reactions; fusion requires extreme conditions. Radiation safety follows ALARA-type thinking: keep
exposure as low as reasonably achievable using reduced time, increased distance and suitable shielding.

Suggested practical / activity:

 Use a decay simulation to plot number of nuclei against time.

 Debate nuclear energy using evidence-based risk/benefit arguments.

Assessment:

166. 1. Define radioactive decay. (2)

167. 2. What is half-life? (2)
168. 3. A sample starts at 1600 counts per minute and has a half-life of 2 h. What is its count rate after 6
h? (3)
169. 4. State two radiation hazards. (2)
170. 5. State two radiation safety measures. (2)
171. 6. [DOK 4] Give a balanced argument for and against nuclear power in Ghana, using physics
principles. (5)

Answer guide:

 Spontaneous transformation of unstable nuclei with emission of radiation.

 Time for half the unstable nuclei in a sample to decay.
 Three half-lives: 1600→800→400→200 counts/min.
 Cell damage, mutations, cancer risk, etc.
 Reduce time, increase distance, shielding, monitoring.
 For: high energy density, reliable low-carbon electricity, medical/industrial expertise. Against:
radioactive waste, accident consequences, high capital/technical requirements, security and regulatory
needs.

27. Revision, Practical Physics and Data Analysis

Learning objectives:

 Plan and evaluate experiments.

 Identify variables and controls.
 Process data and estimate uncertainty.
 Present conclusions supported by evidence.

Lesson notes:

Experimental physics requires a clear aim, apparatus, procedure, controlled variables, measurements,
data tables, graphs, calculations, uncertainty discussion and evidence-based conclusions.

Independent variable is deliberately changed; dependent variable is measured; controlled variables are
kept constant. Good graphs have labelled axes, units, suitable scales and a best-fit line where appropriate.
Anomalous results should be identified and investigated rather than simply discarded without justification.
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Suggested practical / activity:

 Carry out one investigation from mechanics, heat, waves or electricity and produce a full laboratory
report.
 Practise plotting graphs and calculating gradients/intercepts.

Assessment:

172. 1. Define independent variable. (1)

173. 2. What is an anomalous result? (2)
174. 3. State two features of a good scientific graph. (2)
175. 4. Why should controlled variables be kept constant? (2)
176. 5. [DOK 3] A graph of y against x has gradient 4 and intercept 2. Write its equation. (2)
177. 6. [DOK 4] Outline how you would investigate the relationship between pendulum length and
period, including variables, measurements, graph and conclusion. (6)

Answer guide:

 The variable deliberately changed.

 A result that differs markedly from the general pattern.
 Labelled axes with units; sensible scale; accurate plotting; best-fit line where appropriate.
 To ensure changes in the dependent variable are attributable mainly to the independent variable.
 y=4x+2.
 Measure several lengths; keep amplitude small and mass/bob consistent; time 20 oscillations for each
length; calculate T; repeat and average; plot T² against L; gradient =4π²/g, so g=4π²/gradient; discuss
uncertainties and conclusion.

28
Formula Sheet – Core SHS Physics
 Density: ρ = m/V
 Pressure: P = F/A; liquid pressure (gauge): P = ρgh
 Speed: v = d/t
 Acceleration: a = (v-u)/t
 Uniform acceleration: v=u+at; s=ut+½at²; v²=u²+2as; s=½(u+v)t
 Force: F=ma; weight W=mg
 Momentum: p=mv; impulse J=Δp=FΔt
 Moment/torque: τ=rF sinθ
 Centripetal acceleration: a_c=v²/r; centripetal force F_c=mv²/r
 Gravitation: F=Gm₁m₂/r²
 Work: W=Fd cosθ
 Power: P=W/t
 Kinetic energy: KE=½mv²
 Gravitational potential energy: PE=mgh
 Heat: Q=mcΔT; latent heat Q=mL
 Wave speed: v=fλ; period T=1/f
 Spring: F=-kx; spring-mass period T=2π√(m/k)
 Simple pendulum: T≈2π√(L/g) for small amplitude
 Current: I=Q/t; Ohm's law V=IR
 Electrical power: P=VI=I²R=V²/R; electrical energy E=Pt
 Capacitance: C=Q/V; capacitor energy E=½CV²
 Motor effect: F=BIL sinθ
 Transformer (ideal): Vp/Vs=Np/Ns
 Photon energy: E=hf=hc/λ

Recommended Assessment Pattern

At the end of each topic, teachers can combine short-answer questions, calculations, practical tasks, graph
work, oral questioning, group presentations and project/problem-solving tasks. The assessment should
move beyond recall toward conceptual understanding, strategic reasoning and extended critical thinking,
consistent with the curriculum's four-level assessment approach.

Official Curriculum Reference

National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA), Physics Curriculum for Secondary Education
(SHS 1–3), September 2023.

Ministry of Education / NaCCA curriculum and learning-resource portal:

[Link]

NaCCA Physics Curriculum PDF: [Link]

[Link]

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