1.
Matter and Its Properties
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space (volume).
States of Matter
* Solid: Definite shape and definite volume. Particles are tightly packed in fixed positions.
* Liquid: Indefinite shape (takes the shape of its container) and definite volume. Particles are close
together but can flow past one another.
* Gas: Indefinite shape and indefinite volume. Particles are far apart and move rapidly.
Classification of Matter
MATTER
+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| |
Pure Substances Mixtures
| |
+------+------+ +------+------+
| | | |
Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous
(e.g., C, O₂) (e.g., H₂O, NaCl) (e.g., Air, (e.g., Salad,
Saltwater) Oil + Water)
* Physical Changes: Alter the form or appearance of matter without changing its chemical identity (e.g.,
melting ice, dissolving sugar in water).
* Chemical Changes: Transform a substance into a chemically different substance via a chemical
reaction (e.g., rusting iron, burning wood).
2. Atomic Structure and Subatomic Particles
An atom is the basic unit of a chemical element. It consists of a dense nucleus surrounded by an electron
cloud.
Subatomic Particles
| Particle | Charge | Relative Mass | Location |
|---|---|---|---|
| Proton (p^+) | +1 | 1\text{ amu} | Nucleus |
| Neutron (n^0) | 0 (Neutral) | 1\text{ amu} | Nucleus |
| Electron (e^-) | -1 | \sim 0\text{ amu} (\frac{1}{1836}) | Electron cloud |
Atomic Notation Key
* Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons. Identifies the element. (In a neutral atom, Protons =
Electrons).
* Mass Number (A): Total number of protons + neutrons.
* Isotopes: Atoms of the same element (same Z) with different numbers of neutrons (different A).
* Ions: Charged atoms formed by gaining or losing electrons.
* Cation: Positively charged ion (lost electrons).
* Anion: Negatively charged ion (gained electrons).
3. The Periodic Table
Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number (Z).
Table Organization
* Periods: Horizontal rows (1 through 7). Indicate the number of electron energy levels.
* Groups / Families: Vertical columns (1 through 18). Elements in the same group have similar chemical
properties because they have the same number of valence electrons (outermost electrons).
Major Element Groups
* Group 1 (1A): Alkali Metals (highly reactive, 1 valence electron)
* Group 2 (2A): Alkaline Earth Metals (2 valence electrons)
* Group 17 (7A): Halogens (highly reactive nonmetals, 7 valence electrons)
* Group 18 (8A): Noble Gases (inert/unreactive, full valence shell of 8 electrons)
4. Chemical Bonding
Atoms bond to achieve a stable octet (8 valence electrons, similar to noble gases).
Types of Bonds
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| IONIC BOND | COVALENT BOND |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| • Metal + Nonmetal | • Nonmetal + Nonmetal |
| • Transfer of electrons | • Sharing of electrons |
| • Forms positive and negative ions| • Forms discrete molecules |
| • Example: NaCl (Table Salt) | • Example: H₂O, CO₂ |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
* Polar Covalent vs. Nonpolar Covalent:
* Nonpolar Covalent: Electrons are shared equally between atoms (e.g., \text{O}_2, \text{CH}_4).
* Polar Covalent: Electrons are shared unequally due to a difference in electronegativity (e.g., \
text{H}_2\text{O}).
5. Chemical Reactions and Balancing Equations
Law of Conservation of Mass
Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. The number of atoms of each element on
the reactants side must equal the number on the products side.
Types of Reactions
* Synthesis / Combination: A + B \rightarrow AB
* Decomposition: AB \rightarrow A + B
* Single Replacement: A + BC \rightarrow AC + B
* Double Replacement: AB + CD \rightarrow AD + CB
* Combustion: \text{Hydrocarbon} + \text{O}_2 \rightarrow \text{CO}_2 + \text{H}_2\text{O}
> Example (Balancing an Equation):
> Unbalanced: \text{H}_2 + \text{O}_2 \rightarrow \text{H}_2\text{O}
> * Reactants: 2\text{ H}, 2\text{ O}
> * Products: 2\text{ H}, 1\text{ O}
> Balanced: 2\text{H}_2 + \text{O}_2 \rightarrow 2\text{H}_2\text{O}
>
6. Acids, Bases, and pH
Definitions
* Arrhenius Acid: Produces hydrogen ions (\text{H}^+) in aqueous solutions.
* Arrhenius Base: Produces hydroxide ions (\text{OH}^-) in aqueous solutions.
The pH Scale
Measures the acidity or basicity of a solution (0 to 14):
0 <--------------------------> 7 <--------------------------> 14
ACIDIC NEUTRAL BASIC
(e.g., Lemon Juice) (Pure Water) (e.g., Bleach, Soap)