CONTENTS CONTENTS

7 Chapter Summary and Formula Sheet 18

Lecture Notes
Part I: Sets, Relations, and Functions

Undergraduate Mathematics — First Year

Foundations for Calculus

How to use these notes. This is Part I of a two-part lecture series. Part I
builds the logical foundation — sets, Cartesian products, relations, number sys-
tems, and the formal idea of a function, including domain and range. Part II (a
separate file) covers graph-sketching techniques: translations, reflections, stretch-
ing/compressing, symmetry, families of functions, and inverse functions, with a
complete step-by-step sketching method. Work through every solved Example,
then attempt every Practice Task before checking your work.

Contents

1 Sets: The Building Blocks of Mathematics 2

1.1 What is a set? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Set vs. Collection — what is the real difference? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Basic set terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Operations on sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Cartesian Products and Relations 4

2.1 Ordered pairs and the Cartesian product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Relations vs. Functions 5

4 A Quick Tour of the Number Systems 6

5 Functions: Definitions, Notation, and Vocabulary 7

5.1 The modern definition (Euler’s notation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2 Independent and dependent variables; value, image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.3 Domain, range, and the crucial distinction: natural domain vs. domain . . . . . . . . 7
5.3.1 Standard restrictions to check when finding a natural domain . . . . . . . . . 8
5.4 Piecewise-defined functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.5 Absolute value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

6 Classification of Functions 11
6.1 Injective (one-to-one) functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.2 Surjective (onto) functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.3 Bijective functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.4 Composite functions, revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.5 Inverse functions, revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.6 Classification by algebraic form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.7 Summary: the full classification picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2
1 SETS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATHEMATICS 1 SETS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATHEMATICS 1.3 Basic set terminology

1 Sets: The Building Blocks of Mathematics Term Meaning Example

Collection Any grouping of objects (infor- “the collection of all sets” (not
1.1 What is a set?
mal, may or may not be a set) a set!)
Definition 1.1 Set Set A well-defined collection, con- {1, 2, 3}, N, the set of all stu-
sistent with set-theory axioms dents in a class
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects, called elements or members. “Well-
defined” means that given any object, we can decide unambiguously whether it belongs to
1.3 Basic set terminology
the collection or not.
Definition 1.2 Cardinality, empty set, finite/infinite sets
We write a ∈ A to mean “a is an element of A,” and a ∈ / A to mean “a is not an element of A.”
Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, . . . and elements by lowercase letters a, b, c, . . . . ❼ The number of elements in a set A is its cardinality, written n(A) or |A|.
Ways of describing a set. ❼ A set with no elements is the empty set (or null set), denoted ∅ or {}; n(∅) = 0.
❼ A set is finite if its cardinality is a nonnegative integer; otherwise it is infinite.
❼ Roster (tabular) form: list all elements, e.g. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
❼ Two sets A, B are equal, A = B, if they contain exactly the same elements.
❼ Set-builder (rule) form: state a defining property, e.g. A = {x : x ∈ N, x ≤ 5}, read “the set of ❼ A is equivalent to B if n(A) = n(B) (same size, not necessarily same elements).
all x such that x is a natural number and x ≤ 5.”
❼ Venn diagram: a pictorial representation using closed curves. Definition 1.3 Subset, superset, power set

Example 1.1 Describing sets A is a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if every element of A is also an element of B. If
additionally A ̸= B, we call A a proper subset, written A ⊊ B. In this case B is a
Write the set of all even natural numbers less than 12 in (a) roster form and (b) set-builder superset of A, written B ⊇ A. The power set of A, P(A), is the set of all subsets of A; if
form. n(A) = n then n(P(A)) = 2n .

Solution. (a) A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. (b) A = {x : x ∈ N, x is even, x < 12}.

Example 1.2 Subsets and power sets
1.2 Set vs. Collection — what is the real difference? Let A = {1, 2, 3}. List all subsets of A, and verify n(P(A)) = 23 .
In everyday language, “set” and “collection” are often used interchangeably, but in mathematics
Solution. P(A) = ∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3} . There are 8 = 23 subsets,

they are not always the same idea, and understanding the distinction avoids a classical paradox.
confirming the formula. Note ∅ ⊆ A and A ⊆ A always hold.
❼ A collection is the most general term: any gathering of objects, whether or not membership
is unambiguous, and whether or not the gathering is “small enough” to be treated consistently
inside set theory.
1.4 Operations on sets

❼ A set is a collection that satisfies the axioms of set theory (informally: it is well-defined, and — Definition 1.4 Union, intersection, difference, complement
in standard ZFC set theory — it cannot be “too large” or “self-referential” in a contradictory
way). For sets A, B (subsets of a universal set U ):
❼ Union: A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
Caution ❼ Intersection: A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
❼ Difference: A − B (or A \ B) = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈/ B}
Not every collection is a set. The classical example is Russell’s Paradox : consider the “col-
❼ Complement: Ac = U − A = {x ∈ U : x ∈ / A}
lection of all sets that do not contain themselves.” If this collection were itself a set R, then
❼ A, B are disjoint if A ∩ B = ∅.
R ∈ R if and only if R ∈ / R — a contradiction. Such an object is called a proper class, a
collection too large/inconsistent to be a set. For the purposes of this course (and essentially
all of undergraduate mathematics), every collection you will work with — numbers, points,
functions, matrices — is a perfectly good set, so you may safely treat “set” and “collection A B A B
of well-defined objects” as synonyms. The distinction above is mentioned only so that you A ∪ B (shaded) : A∩B A − B (shaded) :
are aware such subtleties exist in the foundations of mathematics.

Practical summary:
Example 1.3 Set operations

Let U = {1, . . . , 10}, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A − B, and Ac .

Solution. A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}; A ∩ B = {4, 5}; A − B = {1, 2, 3}; Ac = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

3 4
2 CARTESIAN PRODUCTS AND RELATIONS 3 RELATIONS VS. FUNCTIONS

Practice Task 1.1 Practice Task 2.1

Let U = {1, . . . , 12}, P = {multiples of 3}, Q = {even numbers}. (a) List P and Q. (b) Find Let A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {4, 6, 10}. Define R = {(a, b) : b = 2a}. (a) List the pairs in R
P ∩ Q, P ∪ Q, P − Q, Qc . (c) Are P and Q disjoint? Justify. explicitly. (b) State the domain and range of R. (c) Is R a relation from A to B, from B to
A, or both? Explain.

2 Cartesian Products and Relations

3 Relations vs. Functions
2.1 Ordered pairs and the Cartesian product
Every function is a relation, but not every relation is a function. This section makes the distinction
Definition 2.1 Ordered pair, Cartesian product precise — it is the single most important idea before we begin studying calculus.

An ordered pair (a, b) consists of two objects in a specified order, so that (a, b) = (c, d) if Definition 3.1 Function, formal version
and only if a = c and b = d. (This is different from a set {a, b}, where order does not matter
A relation f ⊆ A × B is called a function from A to B if
and {a, b} = {b, a}.)
(i) every a ∈ A appears as a first coordinate of some pair in f (every input is used), and
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B is
(ii) no two distinct pairs in f share the same first coordinate (each input gives exactly one
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}. output).
Equivalently: a function is a rule that assigns to each element of a set A (the domain)
If n(A) = m and n(B) = n, then n(A × B) = mn. exactly one element of a set B (a codomain). We write f : A → B, and for a ∈ A the unique
corresponding element of B is denoted f (a).
Example 2.1 Computing a Cartesian product
This matches the informal definition used throughout calculus texts (Anton et al.): if a variable y
Let A = {1, 2}, B = {x, y, z}. Find A × B and B × A, and observe that A × B ̸= B × A in depends on a variable x in such a way that each value of x determines exactly one value of y, then
general. y is a function of x. Think of a function as a “machine”: input x goes in, the machine applies a
fixed rule, and exactly one output y = f (x) comes out.
Solution. A × B = {(1, x), (1, y), (1, z), (2, x), (2, y), (2, z)}, with n(A × B) = 6.
B × A = {(x, 1), (x, 2), (y, 1), (y, 2), (z, 1), (z, 2)}. Input x Function f Output f (x)
Since (1, x) ̸= (x, 1) as ordered pairs, A × B ̸= B × A (unless A = B).
The plane R × R = R2 (the familiar xy-plane) is the most important Cartesian product in this
Theorem 3.1 Vertical Line Test
course: every point is an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers, and the order matters — (2, 5) and
(5, 2) are different points. A relation R (given by a curve in the xy-plane) defines y as a function of x if and only if no
vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
2.2 Relations
Why it works: a vertical line x = a intersects the graph once for each value of y with (a, y) on the
Definition 2.2 Relation curve. If it crosses twice, then a would be assigned two different outputs, violating condition (ii) of
the definition.
A relation R from a set A to a set B is any subset of A × B, i.e. R ⊆ A × B. If (a, b) ∈ R we
write a R b and say “a is related to b.” The set of all first coordinates that actually appear Example 3.1 Relation that is not a function
is the domain of R, and the set of all second coordinates that appear is the range of R.
When A = B, we simply call R a relation on A. Consider x2 + y 2 = 25 (a circle of radius 5). Show this does not define y as a function of x.
√
Example 2.2 A relation described three ways Solution. Solving for y: y = ± 25 − x2 . For any x with −5 < x < 5 (e.g. x = 3), there are two
values, y = 4 and y = −4. A vertical line at x = 3 meets the circle twice, so the vertical line test
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Define R = {(a, b) ∈ A × A : a < b}. fails — the circle is a relation but not a function.

Solution. Listing pairs: R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}. Domain of R = {1, 2, 3} Example 3.2 Table defining a function
(values that appear first); Range of R = {2, 3, 4}. As a verbal rule: “a is related to b if a is strictly Table below defines y = f (x): is it a function? Is its inverse relation (swap x, y) also a
less than b.” function?
x 0 1 2 3
y 3 4 −1 6

Solution. Each x-value (0, 1, 2, 3) appears exactly once, each paired with exactly one y-value, so

5 6
4 A QUICK TOUR OF THE NUMBER SYSTEMS 5 FUNCTIONS: DEFINITIONS, NOTATION, AND VOCABULARY

this is a function: f (0) = 3, f (1) = 4, f (2) = −1, f (3) = 6. Swapping columns gives pairs Practice Task 4.1
(3, 0), (4, 1), (−1, 2), (6, 3): every x-value here (3, 4, −1, 6) is distinct, so the inverse relation is also
a function (such an f is called one-to-one — see Section 5 of Part II). Classify each number as natural, integer, rational, irrational, and/or real (list all that apply):
3 √ √
−7, , 9, 2, 0, π.
Practice Task 3.1 4

For each rule below, determine whether y is a function of x. If not, explain which condition
of the definition fails. 5 Functions: Definitions, Notation, and Vocabulary
(a) y 2 = x (b) y = x2 (c) The pairing “x = a student’s ID number, y = that student’s
registered courses” (a student may register for several courses) (d) {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2)} 5.1 The modern definition (Euler’s notation)
on A = {1, 2, 3}.
Leibniz coined the term function in 1673 to describe the dependence of one quantity on another.
Euler, in the mid-eighteenth century, introduced the now-standard notation f (x), letting us name
4 A Quick Tour of the Number Systems a function without writing its formula, graph, or table explicitly.

Definition 5.1 Function, informal — Anton 0.1.1/0.1.2

Since a “real-valued function of a real variable” is our main object of study, we briefly organize the
number systems used to build R. If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each value of x determines exactly
one value of y, then y is a function of x. A function f is a rule that associates a unique
Complex numbers C = {a + bi : a, b ∈ R} output with each input; if the input is x, the output is denoted f (x) (“f of x”).

Four common ways functions are presented: numerically (tables), algebraically (formulas), ge-
Real numbers R (rational ∪ irrational)
ometrically (graphs), and verbally (words) — e.g. Newton’s Law of Gravitation F = Gm1 m2 /r2
describes F as a function of r verbally and algebraically at once.
Rational Q = {p/q : p, q ∈ Z, q ̸= 0} Irrational
5.2 Independent and dependent variables; value, image
If y = f (x): x is the independent variable (or argument), free to vary; y is the dependent
Integers Z = {. . . , −1, 0, 1, . . . } variable, determined once x is chosen. The output f (x) is also called the value of f at x or the
image of x under f . When both variables are real numbers, f is a real-valued function of a
real variable — our main object of study.
Naturals N = {1, 2, 3, . . . }
Example 5.1 Evaluating a function
❼ N = {1, 2, 3, . . . } (some authors include 0). √
Let f (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 2. Find f (0), f (−1.7), and f ( 2).
❼ Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . }, the naturals with 0 and negatives adjoined.
❼ Q = {p/q : p, q ∈ Z, q ̸= 0}: ratios of integers; decimal expansions terminate or repeat. Solution. f (0) = 3(0)2 − 4(0) + 2 = 2.
√ f (−1.7) = 3(−1.7) 2 − 4(−1.7) + 2 = 3(2.89) + 6.8 + 2 = 8.67 + 6.8 + 2 = 17.47.
❼ Irrational numbers: real numbers that are not ratios of integers (e.g. 2, π, e); decimal expansions √ √ √ √ √
f ( 2) = 3( 2)2 − 4 2 + 2 = 6 − 4 2 + 2 = 8 − 4 2.
are non-terminating and non-repeating.
❼ R = Q ∪ {irrationals}: every point on the number line. Practice Task 5.1
❼ C = {a + bi : a, b ∈ R, i2 = −1}: needed, for instance, when solving x2 + 1 = 0, but not used x+1
√ Let g(x) = . Find g(3), g(−1), g(π) (leave in exact form), and g(t2 − 1) in simplified
for the real-valued functions in this course except where explicitly noted (e.g. x is not real for x−1
x < 0). form.

Interval notation (subsets of R used constantly for domains/ranges):

5.3 Domain, range, and the crucial distinction: natural domain vs. domain
Notation Meaning Set-builder
[a, b] closed interval {x : a ≤ x ≤ b} Definition 5.2 Domain and range
(a, b) open interval {x : a < x < b} For y = f (x), the set of all allowable inputs is the domain of f ; the set of outputs produced
[a, b), (a, b] half-open {x : a ≤ x < b}, {x : a < x ≤ b} as x ranges over the domain is the range of f .
(a, +∞), [a, +∞) unbounded above {x : x > a}, {x : x ≥ a}
(−∞, b), (−∞, b] unbounded below {x : x < b}, {x : x ≤ b}
(−∞, +∞) all reals R

7 8
5 FUNCTIONS: DEFINITIONS,
5.3 NOTATION,
Domain, range,
AND and
VOCABULARY
the crucial distinction: natural domain vs. domain 5 FUNCTIONS: DEFINITIONS,
5.3 NOTATION,
Domain, range,
AND and
VOCABULARY
the crucial distinction: natural domain vs. domain

Definition 5.3 Natural domain Example 5.3 Domain and range together — Anton Example 8
If a real-valued function of a real variable is given by a formula with no domain stated √
Find the domain and range of f (x) = 2 + x − 1.
explicitly, then by convention its domain is understood to be the natural domain: the set
of all real numbers for which the formula produces a real value.
Solution. Domain: need x − 1 ≥ 0√⇒ x ≥ 1, i.e. [1, +∞). √
Range: as x ranges over [1, +∞), x − 1 ranges over [0, +∞), so f (x) = 2 + x − 1 ranges over
Caution — Domain ̸= Natural Domain in general [2, +∞).
The natural domain is a default rule that applies only when no domain is stated. The domain Example 5.4 Range via algebraic solving — Anton Example 8(b)
of a function used in a specific problem may be explicitly restricted for physical, geometric,
or contextual reasons even though the formula would allow more values. For example: x+1
Find the domain and range of f (x) = .
❼ If y = x2 is the area of a square of side x, the formula’s natural domain is all of R, but x−1
physically x ≥ 0 (a side length cannot be negative), so we write f (x) = x2 , x ≥ 0 to state
the true domain. Solution. Domain: exclude x = 1: (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞).
x2 − 4 x+1
❼ Algebraic simplification can silently change the domain. If f (x) = , the natural Range: let y = and solve for x: (x − 1)y = x + 1 ⇒ xy − y = x + 1 ⇒ x(y − 1) = y + 1 ⇒
x−2 x−1
domain excludes x = 2 (division by zero). Canceling gives f (x) = x + 2, whose natural y+1
x= . This is defined for every y except y = 1 (which would need division by zero). Hence the
domain is all of R — but this is a different function unless we explicitly keep the restriction y−1
x ̸= 2. Geometrically, the original graph is the line y = x + 2 with a single point removed range is (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞). General technique: to find the range algebraically, solve y = f (x) for x
(a “hole”) at (2, 4). in terms of y; the natural domain of the resulting expression (in y) is the range of f .
Rule of thumb: natural domain is what the bare formula allows; domain is whatever is
Example 5.5 Domain from a real-world constraint — Anton Example 9
actually specified (explicitly, or by natural domain as a fallback) for the problem at hand.
Always check for stated restrictions before defaulting to the natural domain. An open box is formed from a 16-in by 30-in sheet by cutting squares of side x from each
corner and folding up the sides. The volume is V (x) = x(16 − 2x)(30 − 2x). State the domain
of V appropriate to this problem.
5.3.1 Standard restrictions to check when finding a natural domain

Expression type Restriction on natural domain Solution. Algebraically V is a polynomial with natural domain R. But physically: x must be
nonnegative (a length), and we cannot cut squares whose side exceeds half of the shorter side (16
Polynomial none; domain is all of R in), or the flaps disappear. Hence the domain here is 0 ≤ x ≤ 8 — a restriction coming entirely
Rational function P (x)/Q(x) exclude x with Q(x) = 0 (no division from context, not from the formula. This is the clearest illustration of domain in an application ̸=
p by zero) natural domain of the formula.
Even root 2n
g(x) need g(x) ≥ 0
Practice Task 5.2
p
Odd root g(x)
2n+1
none from the root itself; domain is all
R (unless g restricts it) Find the natural domain of each function, using the checklist above.
tan x, sec x exclude odd multiples of π/2 (where √ 1 √ 1
cos x = 0) (a) f (x) = 4 − x2 (b) g(x) = (c) h(x) = 3 x + (d) F (x) =
√ 1 − sin x x
cot x, csc x exclude integer multiples of π (where 2
x − 4x + 4
sin x = 0) .
x−2
logb g(x) need g(x) > 0 For part (d), also decide whether algebraic simplification changes the domain, and describe
the graph near any excluded point.
Example 5.2 Finding natural domains — Anton Example 6

Find the natural domain of each function. Practice Task 5.3

1 √
(a) f (x) = x3 (b) f (x) = (c) f (x) = tan x (d) f (x) = x2 − 5x + 6 A circular garden bed of radius r costs ✩3 per square meter of soil and the edging costs
(x − 1)(x − 3)
✩2 per meter of circumference. (a) Write the total cost C as a function of r. (b) State
the natural domain of the formula, and then state the domain appropriate to the physical
Solution. (a) f is a polynomial, defined for all real x: domain = (−∞, +∞). problem. Explain any difference.
(b) Excludes zeros of the denominator, x = 1 and x = 3: domain = (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
(c) tan x = sin x/ cos x is undefined where cos x = 0, i.e. at odd multiples of π/2: domain = {x :
x ̸= ± π2 , ± 3π
2 , . . . }.
(d) Need x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 2)(x − 3) ≥ 0. A sign chart of the factors shows this holds when x ≤ 2
or x ≥ 3: domain = (−∞, 2] ∪ [3, +∞).

9 10
5 FUNCTIONS: DEFINITIONS, NOTATION, AND VOCABULARY 5.4 Piecewise-defined functions 6 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS

5.4 Piecewise-defined functions Practice Task 5.5

Definition 5.4 Piecewise function Rewrite the following without absolute value bars, as an explicit piecewise formula (see also
Anton Exercise 27–28 style): (a) f (x) = |x| + 3x + 1; (b) g(x) = |x − 1| + |x + 2|.
A function is piecewise-defined if its formula changes depending on the value of x. The
x-values where the formula changes are called breakpoints.
6 Classification of Functions
Example 5.6 Graphing a piecewise function — Anton Example 4
 We now classify functions in two complementary ways: (A) by how they map elements (injective,
0,

√
x ≤ −1 surjective, bijective), which controls whether an inverse exists, and (B) by the algebraic form
Sketch f (x) = 1 − x2 , −1 < x < 1 of their formula (polynomial, rational, algebraic, transcendental). We also treat composite and
inverse functions formally, since these ideas depend on the mapping-type classification.

x, x≥1


Solution. Breakpoints: x = −1,

6.1 Injective (one-to-one) functions
√ 1. On (−∞, −1] the graph is the horizontal ray y = 0; on (−1, 1)
it is the upper semicircle y = 1 − x2 ; on [1, ∞) it is the ray y = x. At x = −1 both pieces give
Definition 6.1 Injective function
y = 0 (no ambiguity). At x = 1 the formula specifies f (1) = 1 (the ray’s value), so we mark a solid
dot at (1, 1) and an open circle at the corresponding point of the semicircle to show it is excluded A function f : A → B is injective (or one-to-one, written 1–1) if distinct inputs always
there. produce distinct outputs:

2 y x1 , x2 ∈ A, x1 ̸= x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ).

Equivalently (the contrapositive form, usually easier to use in proofs): f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒
1 x1 = x2 .

x Theorem 6.1 Horizontal Line Test for injectivity

−2 −1 1 2
A real function f is injective on its domain if and only if every horizontal line y = k meets
the graph of f in at most one point.
Practice Task 5.4

x + 2,
 x < −1 Theorem 6.2 Monotonicity implies injectivity
Sketch (by hand) and state the domain and range of f (x) = x2 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 . Mark all
 If f is strictly increasing on an interval I (i.e. x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 )) or strictly decreasing
2 − x, x>1

on I, then f is injective on I. (The converse is false: an injective function need not be
breakpoints clearly with open/closed circles as needed. monotonic on its whole domain if that domain is disconnected — see Example 6.4.)

5.5 Absolute value Example 6.1 Proving injectivity algebraically

Show that f : R → R, f (x) = 3x − 7, is injective.

Definition 5.5 Absolute value
(
x, x≥0 √ Solution. Assume f (x1 ) = f (x2 ): 3x1 − 7 = 3x2 − 7 ⇒ 3x1 = 3x2 ⇒ x1 = x2 . Since f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
|x| = , and for all real x, x2 = |x| (not simply x — a very common error). forces x1 = x2 , f is injective. (Geometrically: a nonzero-slope line passes the horizontal line test.)
−x, x < 0
Example 6.2 Disproving injectivity with a counterexample
Key algebraic properties: for real a, b: (i) | − a| = |a|; (ii) |ab| = |a||b|; (iii) |a/b| = |a|/|b|
(b ̸= 0); (iv) |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| (the triangle inequality). Show f : R → R, f (x) = x2 − 4x + 1, is not injective.

Example 5.7 Absolute value pitfalls Solution. It suffices to find x1 ̸= x2 with equal outputs. Complete the square: f (x) = (x − 2)2 − 3,
p symmetric about x = 2. Try x1 = 1, x2 = 3: f (1) = 1 − 4 + 1 = −2 and f (3) = 9 − 12 + 1 = −2.
Simplify (−4)2 and explain why the answer is not −4.
Since f (1) = f (3) but 1 ̸= 3, f is not injective on R. (Restricting the domain to x ≥ 2 recovers
p √ √ injectivity, as in Section 6 of Part II.)
Solution.√ (−4)2 = 16 = 4 = | − 4|. The rule x2 = x is only valid for x ≥ 0; for negative x we
2
must use x = |x| = −x.

11 12
6 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS 6.2 Surjective (onto) functions 6 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS 6.3 Bijective functions

Example 6.3 Injectivity of a rational function 6.3 Bijective functions

2x + 1 Definition 6.3 Bijective function
Show f (x) = (domain x ̸= 3) is injective.
x−3
f : A → B is bijective (a bijection, or a one-to-one correspondence) if it is both
Solution. Suppose f (x1 ) = f (x2 ): injective and surjective: every element of B is hit by exactly one element of A.

2x1 + 1 2x2 + 1
= ⇒ (2x1 + 1)(x2 − 3) = (2x2 + 1)(x1 − 3). Theorem 6.3 Bijections and invertibility
x1 − 3 x2 − 3
f : A → B has an inverse function f −1 : B → A if and only if f is bijective. (This sharpens
Expand: 2x1 x2 − 6x1 + x2 − 3 = 2x1 x2 − 6x2 + x1 − 3. The 2x1 x2 and −3 terms cancel, leaving
the Part-II theorem “f has an inverse iff f is one-to-one”: that statement implicitly takes the
−6x1 + x2 = −6x2 + x1 ⇒ 7x2 = 7x1 ⇒ x1 = x2 . Hence f is injective.
codomain to be the range, which makes surjectivity automatic. Once a specific codomain B
is fixed, both injectivity and surjectivity onto B are required.)
6.2 Surjective (onto) functions

Definition 6.2 Surjective function Example 6.7 Proving a bijection directly

A function f : A → B is surjective (or onto B) if every element of the codomain B is Show f : R → R, f (x) = 3x − 7, is bijective, and find f −1 .
actually attained: for every b ∈ B there exists at least one a ∈ A with f (a) = b. Equivalently,
range(f ) = B. Solution. Injective: shown in Example 6.1 above.
y+7
Surjective: given y ∈ R, solve y = 3x − 7 ⇒ x = , a real number for every real y, so every y
3
Caution is attained.
x+7
Surjectivity is meaningless without first fixing the codomain B — it is a statement about Since both hold, f is bijective, hence invertible: f −1 (x) = .
3
the pair (f, B), not about f alone. The same formula can be surjective onto one codomain
and not onto another. E.g. f (x) = x2 is not surjective as a map R → R (negative numbers Example 6.8 Classifying a function completely
are never hit), but is surjective as a map R → [0, ∞).
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c, d, e}. Classify g = {(1, a), (2, c), (3, a), (4, e)} and h =
{(1, b), (2, d), (3, a), (4, e)} as injective/surjective/bijective (as maps A → B).
Example 6.4 Checking surjectivity by solving for x

Is f : R → R, f (x) = 2x + 5, surjective? Solution. For g: g(1) = g(3) = a with 1 ̸= 3, so g is not injective. Also b, c, d – wait, c is hit
(g(2) = c), but b, d are never hit, so g is not surjective either (and cannot be bijective).
For h: all four outputs b, d, a, e are distinct, so h is injective. Since n(A) = 4 < 5 = n(B),
y−5
Solution. Given any y ∈ R, solve y = 2x + 5 for x: x = , which is a real number for every at least one element of B (c, in fact) cannot be hit, so h is not surjective, hence not bijective.
2
real y. So every y ∈ R is attained: f is surjective onto R. (This illustrates a general counting fact: if n(A) < n(B), no function A → B can be surjective; if
n(A) > n(B), none can be injective.)
Example 6.5 A function that is not surjective, and how to fix the codomain
Theorem 6.4 Finite pigeonhole principle for functions
Is f : R → R, f (x) = x2 + 1, surjective? If not, find a codomain onto which it is.
Let A, B be finite sets and f : A → B.
Solution. Since x2 ≥ 0 for all real x, f (x) = x2 + 1 ≥ 1 always; y = 0 (for instance) is never ❼ If n(A) > n(B), then f cannot be injective.
attained. So f : R → R is not surjective. However, range(f ) = [1, ∞), so f : R → [1, ∞) is ❼ If n(A) < n(B), then f cannot be surjective.
√ ❼ If n(A) = n(B) (finite), then f is injective ⇐⇒ f is surjective ⇐⇒ f is bijective.
surjective (every y ≥ 1 is attained by x = ± y − 1).

Example 6.6 Surjectivity of a rational function Practice Task 6.1

2x + 1 For each function below, determine whether it is injective, surjective (state the codomain
Is f : R \ {3} → R \ {2}, f (x) = , surjective?
x−3 you are using), and/or bijective. Justify each answer either algebraically (as in the Examples
above) or with an explicit counterexample.
Solution. Let y ∈ R \ {2} be given; solve for x: y(x − 3) = 2x + 1 ⇒ yx − 3y = 2x + 1 ⇒ (a) f : R → R, f (x) = 5 − 2x. (b) f : R → R, f (x) = x3 − x. (c) f : [0, ∞) →
3y + 1 [0, ∞), f (x) = x2 . (d) f : Z → Z, f (n) = 2n. (e) f : Z → Z, f (n) = ⌈n/2⌉ (ceiling
x(y − 2) = 3y + 1 ⇒ x = . This is a well-defined real number precisely because y ̸= 2 (the
y−2 of n/2).
excluded codomain value), and one checks x ̸= 3 automatically. So every permitted y is attained:
f is surjective onto R \ {2}. (This also identifies the range of f as R \ {2} — compare to the
range-finding technique of Section 5.3.)

13 14
6 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS 6.4 Composite functions, revisited 6 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS 6.6 Classification by algebraic form

6.4 Composite functions, revisited Example 6.13 Inverse of a composite — verifying (f ◦ g)−1 = g −1 ◦ f −1
We met composition (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) informally in Part II; here we record how injectiv-
Let f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x3 (both bijective on R). Find (f ◦ g)−1 (x) two ways: (a)
ity/surjectivity behave under composition, which is useful when building up complicated bijections
directly, and (b) using g −1 ◦ f −1 .
from simple ones.

Theorem 6.5 Composition preserves injectivity/surjectivity Solution. (f ◦ g)(x) = 2x3 + 1. r r

y−1 y−1 x−1
Let f : B → C and g : A → B. (a) Directly: let y = 2x3 + 1 ⇒ x3 = ⇒x= 3 . So (f ◦ g)−1 (x) = 3 .
2 2  2  r
(i) If f and g are both injective, then f ◦ g is injective. x − 1 √ x − 1 x−1
(ii) If f and g are both surjective, then f ◦ g is surjective. (b) Via the theorem: f −1 (x) = , g −1 (x) = 3 x. Then (g −1 ◦f −1 )(x) = g −1 = 3
2 2 2
(iii) If f and g are both bijective, then f ◦ g is bijective, and (f ◦ g)−1 = g −1 ◦ f −1 (note the — matching (a), and confirming the reversed order g −1 ◦ f −1 (not f −1 ◦ g −1 ).
order reverses).
Practice Task 6.2
Example 6.9 Proving part (i) of the theorem √
(a) Let f (x) = 3 x − 2 and g(x) = 4x + 1, both bijective on R. Find (f ◦ g)−1 (x) directly,
then verify using g −1 ◦ f −1 .
Prove: if f and g are injective, then f ◦ g is injective.
(b) Prove part (ii) of Theorem 6.9 (composition of two surjections is surjective).
(c) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, f = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (4, 2)}. Verify f is bijective and compute f −1
Solution. Suppose (f ◦ g)(x1 ) = (f ◦ g)(x2 ), i.e. f (g(x1 )) = f (g(x2 )). Since f is injective, this
and f ◦ f −1 explicitly.
forces g(x1 ) = g(x2 ). Since g is injective, this in turn forces x1 = x2 . Hence f ◦ g is injective. ■

Example 6.10 Composite function value and formula

6.6 Classification by algebraic form
Let f (x) = 2x2 − 1 and g(x) = x + 3. Find (f ◦ g)(x), (g ◦ f )(x), and evaluate each at x = 1. We now classify functions by the kind of formula that defines them — independent of whether they
happen to be injective/surjective.
Solution. (f ◦ g)(x) = f (x + 3) = 2(x + 3)2−1= 2x2
+ 12x + 17; at x = 1: 2 + 12 + 17 = 31.
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(2x2 − 1) = 2x2 − 1 + 3 = 2x2 + 2; at x = 1: 2 + 2 = 4. Definition 6.5 Polynomial function
As expected, (f ◦ g)(1) ̸= (g ◦ f )(1), confirming composition is not commutative.
P (x) = cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + · · · + c1 x + c0 (ci ∈ R constants, n a nonnegative integer). If
Example 6.11 Solving an equation involving a composite function cn ̸= 0, n is the degree. Natural domain: always R.

Let f (x) = 2x + 1 and h(x) = 2x2 + 4x + 1. Find g such that f (g(x)) = h(x).
Definition 6.6 Rational function

Solution. We need 2 g(x) + 1 = 2x2 + 4x + 1 ⇒ 2g(x) = 2x2 + 4x ⇒ g(x) = x2 + 2x. Check: P (x)
R(x) = , a ratio of two polynomials with Q(x) ̸≡ 0. Natural domain: all x with
f (g(x)) = 2(x2 + 2x) + 1 = 2x2 + 4x + 1 = h(x). ✓ Q(x)
Q(x) ̸= 0.
6.5 Inverse functions, revisited
Definition 6.7 Algebraic function
Definition 6.4 Inverse function — formal restatement
A function built from polynomials using finitely many additions, subtractions, multiplica-
√
If f : A → B is bijective, its inverse f −1 : B → A is defined by f −1 (b) = a where a is the √ 1+ x
tions, divisions, and (possibly fractional/root) powers, e.g. x2 − 4, x2/3 (x + 2)2 , .
unique element of A with f (a) = b. It satisfies f −1 ◦ f = idA and f ◦ f −1 = idB , where id x√
−3
denotes the identity function id(x) = x. Every polynomial and every rational function is algebraic, but not conversely (e.g. x is
algebraic but not rational).
Example 6.12 Inverse of a bijection between finite sets
Definition 6.8 Transcendental function
Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {p, q, r}, f = {(1, q), (2, r), (3, p)}. Verify f is bijective and write f −1 .
A function that is not algebraic — it cannot be produced from polynomials by finitely
many algebraic operations. The transcendental functions encountered in this course are:
Solution. Outputs q, r, p are all distinct (injective) and equal to all of B (surjective), so f is bijective.
❼ Exponential functions: f (x) = bx (b > 0, b ̸= 1), natural domain R, range (0, ∞);
Reversing every pair: f −1 = {(q, 1), (r, 2), (p, 3)}, i.e. f −1 (p) = 3, f −1 (q) = 1, f −1 (r) = 2.
especially f (x) = ex .
❼ Logarithmic functions: f (x) = logb x (b > 0, b ̸= 1), the inverse of bx ; natural domain
(0, ∞), range R.
❼ Trigonometric functions: sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.

15 16
6 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS 6.6 Classification by algebraic form 6 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS 6.7 Summary: the full classification picture

6.7 Summary: the full classification picture

❼ Inverse trigonometric functions: arcsin x, arccos x, arctan x, . . . (each defined on a
restricted domain of the original, to make it a bijection — see Part II, Section 6.4). (A) By mapping behavior (needs domain and codomain specified)
Type Condition Test / Key Fact
Functions
Injective x1 ̸= x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) Horizontal line test; strict
monotonicity ⇒ injective
Surjective range = codomain Solve y = f (x) for x; check ev-
Algebraic Transcendental
ery codomain value is reachable
Bijective injective and surjective Has a genuine inverse f −1 ; re-
sin, cos, tan, . . . versible pairing
Rational √ ex , log x
x, x2/3 (x + 2)2
arcsin x, . . . (B) By algebraic form (a property of the formula alone)
Type Description
Polynomial
Polynomial finite sum of cn xn ; domain always R
Rational ratio of two polynomials; domain excludes zeros of de-
x2 + 1, 5x3 − 2x nominator
Algebraic polynomials combined with +, −, ×, ÷, and roots/rational
Example 6.14 Classifying functions by algebraic form powers
Transcendental not algebraic: exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, in-
Classify each as polynomial, rational (but not polynomial), algebraic (but not rational), or
verse trigonometric
transcendental:
x2 − 1 √
(a) f (x) = 5x4 −3x+7 (b) g(x) = (c) h(x) = x+x2 (d) k(x) = 2x +sin x Practice Task 6.4
x+4
(e) m(x) = (x2 − 4)3 (careful — expand it!) For each function, state both classifications where meaningful: (i) its algebraic-form type, and
(ii) whether it is injective/surjective/ bijective as a map R → R (or explain why the natural
Solution. (a) A sum of terms cn xn : polynomial (degree 4). domain isn’t all of R, and reclassify on the natural domain).
(b) A ratio of two polynomials that does not simplify to a polynomial (the denominator’s zero at 1
(a) f (x) = x3 (b) f (x) = ex (c) f (x) = 2 (d) f (x) = tan x (careful with the
x = −4 is not cancelled by the numerator): rational, not polynomial. x +1
(c) Involves a square root of x, not expressible as a ratio of polynomials: algebraic, not rational. domain!).
(d) Contains 2x (exponential) and sin x (trigonometric), neither of which can be built from finitely
many algebraic operations on polynomials: transcendental.
(e) Although it looks like it involves only algebraic operations, it expands (by the binomial theorem) 7 Chapter Summary and Formula Sheet
to x6 − 12x4 + 48x2 − 64, a finite sum of power terms: polynomial (degree 6) — a good reminder
to check whether an algebraic-looking expression actually simplifies to a polynomial.

Example 6.15 Natural domain across the classification

Find the natural domain of (a) f (x) = log2 (x − 3) and (b) g(x) = arcsin(2x − 1).

Solution. (a) Logarithms require a positive argument: x − 3 > 0 ⇒ x > 3; domain (3, ∞).
(b) arcsin is defined only on [−1, 1]: need −1 ≤ 2x − 1 ≤ 1 ⇒ 0 ≤ 2x ≤ 2 ⇒ 0 ≤ x ≤ 1; domain
[0, 1].

Practice Task 6.3

(a) Classify each as polynomial / rational / algebraic (non-rational) / transcendental:
√ 3x5 − x
3
x2 + 1; 2 ; tan x + x3 ; (x + 1)1/2 (x − 1)1/2 ; e2x − e−2x .
x +1 x
(b) Find the natural domain of f (x) = ln(4 − x2 ) and of g(x) = arccos .
2
(c) Give an example of a function that is rational but whose natural domain equals all of R
(i.e. the denominator is never zero), and justify why no real x is excluded.

17 18
7 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND FORMULA SHEET

Concept Key facts

Set well-defined collection; described by roster, set-builder,

Subset / power set

or Venn diagram
A ⊆ B: every element of A in B; n(P(A)) = 2n(A)
Lecture Notes
Cartesian product A×B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}, ordered pairs, n(A×B) = Part II: Graph Sketching — Rules, Techniques, and Worked Examples
n(A)n(B)
Relation any subset of A × B
Function relation where every input has exactly one output; verti-
Undergraduate Mathematics — First Year
Foundations for Calculus
cal line test
Domain / Range inputs used / outputs produced
Natural domain default domain (all x giving a real value) when none is
stated Prerequisite. This is Part II, and assumes the vocabulary of Part I (set, relation,
Domain (in context) may be more restrictive than natural domain due to ex- function, domain, range, natural domain). Here we build the toolbox for sketching
plicit or physical constraints graphs by hand: classifying functions into families, building new functions from
Piecewise function formula changes at breakpoints; track open/closed end- old (arithmetic combinations and composition), and the geometric transformation
√ points rules (translation, reflection, stretching/compressing, symmetry) that let you sketch
x2 equals |x|, not x a complicated graph from a few basic ones — ending with inverse functions and a
Injective (1–1) x1 ̸= x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ); horizontal line test; monotonic complete step-by-step sketching procedure.
⇒ injective
Surjective (onto) range = codomain; solve y = f (x) for x to test
Bijective injective and surjective; has a genuine inverse Contents
Composite f ◦ g apply g, then f ; injective/surjective/bijective are each
preserved under composition
1 The Basic Catalogue of Graphs 2
Inverse f −1 exists iff f is bijective; (f ◦ g)−1 = g −1 ◦ f −1
Polynomial / Rational finite sum cn xn (domain R) / ratio of polynomials (do- 2 Building New Functions from Old 2
main excludes zeros of denominator) 2.1 Arithmetic combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Algebraic / Transcenden- built from +, −, ×, ÷, roots on polynomials / not alge- 2.2 Composition of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
tal braic (exponential, log, trig, inverse trig) 2.3 Decomposing a function: finding the “inside” and “outside” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Continue to Part II: Graph Sketching — Rules, Techniques, and Worked Examples for
new functions from old, families of functions, translations/reflections/ stretching, symmetry, and 3 Families of Functions 4
inverse functions. 3.1 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3 Power functions y = xp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.4 Algebraic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.5 Trigonometric families y = A sin(Bx − C), y = A cos(Bx − C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4 Geometric Transformations: The Core Sketching Toolkit 6

4.1 Vertical and horizontal translations (shifts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2 Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.3 Stretching and compressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.4 Adding two graphs (graphical addition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

5 Symmetry, and Even/Odd Functions 8

6 Inverse Functions 9
6.1 Definition and the cancellation equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.2 A step-by-step procedure for finding f −1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.3 Graphs of inverse functions: reflection about y = x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.4 Restricting the domain to create an inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

7 Master Procedure: How to Sketch Any Function’s Graph by Hand 11

19
CONTENTS CONTENTS 2 BUILDING NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD

8 Chapter Summary and Formula Sheet 13 1 The Basic Catalogue of Graphs

Before transforming graphs, memorize the shapes of these building-block functions. Every sketching
trick in this note starts from one of them.
y=x y = x2 y = x3

√ √
y = 1/x y= x y= 3
x

y = |x| y = sin x y = cos x

Function Natural domain Range

y =x R R
y = x2 R [0, +∞)
y = x3 R R
y = 1/x (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞)
√
y = x [0, +∞) [0, +∞)
√
y = 3x R R
y = |x| R [0, +∞)
y = sin x, y = cos x R [−1, 1]

2 Building New Functions from Old

2.1 Arithmetic combinations

Definition 2.1 Sum, difference, product, quotient of functions

Given f, g, define
 
f f (x)
(f +g)(x) = f (x)+g(x), (f −g)(x) = f (x)−g(x), (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x), (x) = .
g g(x)

The domain of f + g, f − g, f g is the intersection of the domains of f and g. The domain

of f /g is that same intersection with the zeros of g removed (to avoid division by zero).

Example 2.1 Arithmetic combinations and their domains

√
Let f (x) = 1 + x − 2 and g(x) = x − 3. Find f + g, f − g, f g, f /g, and state each domain.

Solution. dom(f ) = [2, +∞), dom(g) = R.

√ √ √
(f + g)(x) = x − 2 + x − 2, (f − g)(x) = 4 − x + x − 2, (f g)(x) = (1 + x − 2)(x − 3).

2 3
2 BUILDING NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD 2.2 Composition of functions 3 FAMILIES OF FUNCTIONS

Domain of each of these three: [2, +∞) ∩ R = [2, +∞). Practice Task 2.1
√
1+ x−2 2
(f /g)(x) = , (a) Let f (x) = √ and g(x) = x2 . Find f + g, f g, and f ◦ g, stating the domain of each.
x−3 x−1 √
5
(b) Express tan(x ) and 8 + x each as a composition of two functions (name the inside and
domain = [2, +∞) with x = 3 removed: [2, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
outside functions explicitly).
√
Caution (c) Find (f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) if f (x) = 1/x, g(x) = x − 1, h(x) = x.
Simplifying a combined formula can enlarge the apparent domain compared to the true
√
domain – always intersect domains before simplifying algebraically. E.g. if f (x) = x and
√ √ √
g(x) = x, then (f g)(x) = x · x = x only for x ≥ 0 (the shared domain), even though 3 Families of Functions
the simplified formula x has natural domain R.
Grouping functions into families lets you recognize a graph’s overall shape instantly. A constant
that is varied within a family (e.g. c in y = cx + b) is called a parameter.
2.2 Composition of functions
3.1 Polynomials
Definition 2.2 Composition
Definition 3.1 Polynomial
The composition of f with g is (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)). Its domain consists of all x in the
domain of g for which g(x) lies in the domain of f . Informally: first apply the inside function A polynomial in x is cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + · · · + c1 x + c0 (ci constants). If cn ̸= 0, n is the
g, then the outside function f . degree. Degree 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are called constant, linear, quadratic, cubic, quartic, quintic.

Example 2.2 Composing and comparing f ◦ g with g ◦ f Natural domain: always R (only addition/multiplication involved). Graphs are unbroken (continu-
ous), with no sharp corners; they rise/fall steadily for large |x|, with at most (degree−1) direction
√
Let f (x) = x2 + 3, g(x) = x. Find (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x), with domains. changes.
√ √ √
Solution. (f ◦ g)(x) = f ( x) = ( x)2 + 3 = x + 3, valid for x ≥ 0 (domain of g) with g(x) = x ∈ 3.2 Rational functions
R = dom(f ) automatically√true, so domain = [0, +∞).
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(x2 + 3) = x2 + 3; since x2 + 3 > 0 always, domain = R. Note f ◦ g ̸= g ◦ f — Definition 3.2 Rational function
composition is not commutative in general.
f (x) = P (x)/Q(x), a ratio of two polynomials. Domain: all x with Q(x) ̸= 0.
Example 2.3 Composition of three functions
√ Unlike polynomials, rational function graphs can have discontinuities (breaks). Near an excluded
Let f (x) = x, g(x) = 1/x, h(x) = x3 . Find (f ◦ g ◦ h)(x). x-value the graph often approaches a vertical asymptote (dashed vertical line); far from the origin
the graph may approach a horizontal asymptote.
Solution. Work inside-out: h(x) = x3 → g(h(x)) = 1/x3 → f (g(h(x))) =
p
1/x3 = x−3/2 (for
x > 0). 3.3 Power functions y = xp

2.3 Decomposing a function: finding the “inside” and “outside” Definition 3.3 Power function
f (x) = xp for constant p. Special cases below.
Rule — Decomposing h = f ◦ g

Ask: “If I were evaluating h(x) by hand for a specific number, what would I compute first, Case p = n, a positive integer:
and what would I compute second?” The first operation performed is the inside function ❼ Even n: graph symmetric about y-axis, general shape of y = x2 , passes through (−1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1);
g; the second (final) operation is the outside function f . Then h(x) = f (g(x)). There is larger n ⇒ flatter near 0, steeper for |x| > 1.
always more than one valid decomposition.
❼ Odd n: graph symmetric about the origin, general shape of y = x3 , passes through (−1, −1), (0, 0), (1, 1);
same flattening/steepening pattern as n grows.
Example 2.4 Decomposing functions — Anton Table 0.2.1 style
√ Case p = −n, a negative integer: f (x) = 1/xn , a discontinuity at x = 0.
Express sin(x3 ) and 4 − 3x each as a composition f (g(x)).
❼ Even n: symmetric about the y-axis, shape like y = 1/x2 .

Solution. For sin(x3 ): to evaluate, first cube x (inside: g(x) = x3 ),

then take sine (outside: ❼ Odd n: symmetric about the origin, shape like y = 1/x (an equilateral hyperbola).
√
f (x)√= sin x). So sin(x3 ) = f (g(x)). Case p = 1/n: f (x) =
n
x.
For 4 − 3x: first √ compute 4 − 3x (inside: g(x) = 4 − 3x), then take the square root (outside:
√ ❼ Even n: domain [0, +∞) (even roots of negatives are not real).
f (x) = x). So 4 − 3x = f (g(x)).

4 5
3 FAMILIES OF FUNCTIONS 3.4 Algebraic functions 4 GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS: THE CORE SKETCHING TOOLKIT

❼ Odd n: domain R. Practice Task 3.1

 πx 
Definition 3.4 Inverse proportionality (a) State the amplitude and period of y = −2 sin and sketch two full periods.
√ 3
y is inversely proportional to x if y = k/x for a positive constant k (the constant of (b) Write
p y = 3 sin 2πt + 3 cos 2πt in the form y = R sin(2πt + ϕ) and give R. (Hint:
proportionality); equivalently xy = k. Doubling x halves y, tripling x divides y by 3, etc. R = A21 + A22 where A1 , A2 are the sine/cosine coefficients.)
(Boyle’s Law P V = k is the classic physical example.)

Example 3.1 Recognizing inverse proportionality from data — Anton Example 1 4 Geometric Transformations: The Core Sketching Toolkit
Data: (1, 5), (2, 2.5), (4, 1.25), (6.25, 0.8), (10, 0.5). Show y is inversely proportional to x and This is the single most useful section for sketching by hand: every new graph in this note is produced
find the formula. from a basic one using the rules below, in a careful, deliberate order.

Solution. Check the product xy for each pair: 1(5) = 5, 2(2.5) = 5, 4(1.25) = 5, 6.25(0.8) = 5, 4.1 Vertical and horizontal translations (shifts)
10(0.5) = 5. Since xy = 5 (constant) for every data point, y = 5/x.
Rule — Translations (let c > 0)
3.4 Algebraic functions
New equation Effect on the graph of y = f (x)
Functions built from polynomials using
√ finitely2/3
many additions, subtractions, multiplications, di-
visions, and root extractions (e.g. x2 − 4, x (x + 2)2 ) are called algebraic functions. All y = f (x) + c shift up c units
√
polynomials and rational functions are algebraic; not every algebraic function is rational (e.g. x y = f (x) − c shift down c units
is algebraic but not rational). y = f (x + c) shift left c units
y = f (x − c) shift right c units
3.5 Trigonometric families y = A sin(Bx − C), y = A cos(Bx − C) Why left/right feels “backwards”: y = f (x + c) at x = a − c equals f (a); since a − c sits c
units to the left of a, the whole graph moves left.
Definition 3.5 Amplitude, period, frequency, phase shift
√
For y = A sin(Bx − C) or y = A cos(Bx − C) with A, B ̸= 0: Example 4.1 Translating x — Anton Example 7
√ √
2π |B| C Sketch y = x − 3 and y = x + 3.
amplitude = |A|, period = , frequency = , phase shift = .
|B| 2π B √ √
Solution.
√ Start from y = x (domain [0, ∞)). y = x − 3: shift right 3, new domain [3, ∞).
|A| scales the height of the wave; the period is the length of one full cycle; the graph of y = x + 3: shift left 3, new domain [−3, ∞).
y = A sin Bx is translated horizontally by C/B units to produce y = A sin(Bx − C) (right if √ √ √
C/B > 0, left if C/B < 0). y= x y = x−3 y = x+3

Example 3.2 Amplitude, period, and phase shift — Anton Example 3

 π
Find the amplitude, period, and horizontal shift for y = 3 cos 2x + .
2
  π     π 
Solution. Rewrite: y = 3 cos 2x − − = 3 cos 2 x − − . So A = 3, B = 2, C/B =
2 4 Example 4.2 Translating a parabola by completing the square — Anton Example
−π/4. Amplitude = 3; period = 2π/2 = π; the graph of y = 3 cos 2x is shifted left by π/4 units.
8
3 yy = 3 cos(2x + π/2)
Sketch y = x2 − 4x + 5.
y = 3 cos 2x (reference)
x Solution. Complete the square: y = (x2 − 4x + 4) − 4 + 5 = (x − 2)2 + 1. Starting from y = x2 ,
−π −π/2 π/2 π shift right 2 and up 1; vertex at (2, 1).

−3

6 7
4 GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS: THE CORE SKETCHING TOOLKIT 4.2 Reflections 5 SYMMETRY, AND EVEN/ODD FUNCTIONS 4.4 Adding two graphs (graphical addition)

4.2 Reflections Practice Task 4.1

Rule — Reflections Starting from the basic graph indicated, describe (in words, as a sequence of steps) how to
obtain each graph, then sketch it.
√ √ 1
New equation Effect (a) y = −2(x + 1)2 − 3 from y = x2 . (b) y = 1 − x − 4 from y = x. (c) y =
x−3
y = f (−x) reflect about the y-axis (replace x by −x) from y = 1/x. (d) y = |2x − 1| + 1 from y = |x| (hint: factor out the 2 first).
y = −f (x) reflect about the x-axis (multiply f (x) by −1)

4.4 Adding two graphs (graphical addition)

Example 4.3 Combining reflection and translation — Anton Example 9
√ Rule — Sketching y = f (x) + g(x) from the graphs of f, g
Sketch y = 3 2 − x.
For several values of x, “stack” the y-value of g on top of (or below, if negative) the y-value
√ √
of f , and connect the resulting points smoothly. This is especially useful when f, g are both
p
Solution.
√ Write 3 2 − x = 3 −(x − 2). Starting from
√ y = 3 x: (1) reflect about the y-axis to get
already-known basic shapes.
p 3
y = −x; (2) shift right 2 to get y = −(x − 2) = 2 − x.
3 3

Example 4.4 Reflection + two translations — Anton Example 10

Example 4.6 Graphical addition — Anton Example 6
Sketch y = 4 − |x − 2|. √ √
Sketch y = x + 1/x for x > 0 using the graphs of y = x and y = 1/x.

Solution. Starting from y = |x|: (1) shift right 2: y = |x − 2|; (2) reflect about the x-axis: √
Solution. For small x > 0, 1/x dominates (graph shoots upward near x = 0); for large x, x
y = −|x − 2|; (3) shift up 4: y = 4 − |x − 2|. Final graph is an inverted V with vertex at (2, 4). √
dominates growth while 1/x → 0, so the sum behaves like x for large x. Plotting a few points
5 y (x = 0.5, 1, 2, 4) and adding y-values gives the combined curve, which dips to a minimum then rises.

x 5 Symmetry, and Even/Odd Functions

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10
Theorem 5.1 Symmetry Tests
−5 A curve’s equation is symmetric about:
❼ the y-axis ⇐⇒ replacing x by −x gives an equivalent equation;
4.3 Stretching and compressing ❼ the x-axis ⇐⇒ replacing y by −y gives an equivalent equation;
❼ the origin ⇐⇒ replacing x by −x and y by −y gives an equivalent equation.
Rule — Vertical and horizontal scaling (let c > 1)
Definition 5.1 Even and odd functions
New equation Effect
f is even if f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain (graph symmetric about the y-axis). f is
y = cf (x), c > 1 stretch vertically by factor c odd if f (−x) = −f (x) (graph symmetric about the origin). Examples of even: x2 , x4 , cos x.
y = cf (x), 0 < c < 1 compress vertically by factor 1/c Examples of odd: x3 , x5 , sin x. Most functions are neither.
y = f (cx), c > 1 compress horizontally by factor c
y = f (cx), 0 < c < 1 stretch horizontally by factor 1/c
Example 5.1 Testing symmetry of a curve — Anton Example 11
Memory aid: multiplying outside (on y/output) stretches like you’d expect; multiplying
inside (on x/input) does the opposite of what you’d guess, because y = f (cx) reaches the Test x = y 2 for symmetry about each axis and the origin.
same output value c times faster in x.
Solution. Replace y → −y: x = (−y)2 = y 2 , same equation ⇒ symmetric about x-axis. Replace
Example 4.5 Vertical stretch & horizontal compression — Anton Fig. 0.3.13 x → −x: −x = y 2 , not equivalent ⇒ not symmetric about y-axis. Replace both: −x = (−y)2 = y 2 ,
not equivalent ⇒ not symmetric about the origin.
Describe how y = 2 sin 4x is obtained from y = sin x, and state its amplitude and period.
Example 5.2 Classifying a function as even, odd, or neither
Solution. Vertical stretch by factor 2 (amplitude becomes 2), horizontal compression by factor 4
(period becomes 2π/4 = π/2). The graph oscillates between −2 and 2, completing a full cycle every Classify f (x) = x5 − x and g(x) = x2 + x.
π/2 units.
Solution. f (−x) = (−x)5 − (−x) = −x5 + x = −(x5 − x) = −f (x): odd.
g(−x) = x2 − x. Compare to g(x) = x2 + x and −g(x) = −x2 − x: neither matches, so g is neither

8 9
6 INVERSE FUNCTIONS 6 INVERSE FUNCTIONS 6.3 Graphs of inverse functions: reflection about y = x

even nor odd. √ y2 + 2 x2 + 2

Solution. Step 1: y = 3x − 2. Step 2: y 2 = 3x − 2 ⇒ x = . Step 3: swap: y = .
3 3
Practice Task 5.1 Step 4: range of f is [0, ∞) (square roots are nonnegative), so

2 x5 − x x2 + 2
(a) Classify as even, odd, or neither: x sin x, sin x, x + x2 , . f −1 (x) = , x ≥ 0.
1 + x2 3
(b) Use Theorem (Symmetry Tests) to check x2 − 2y 2 = 3 and xy = 5 for symmetry about
2
each axis and the origin. The natural domain of x 3+2 alone would be all of R — but we must restrict to x ≥ 0 to match
(c) Prove that every function f with domain R can be written as the sum of an even function range(f ); this is the same subtlety as “natural domain vs. domain” from Part I.
and an odd function. (Hint: consider f (x)+f 2
(−x)
and f (x)−f
2
(−x)
.)
Example 6.2 Using cancellation without finding a formula

Given that f is invertible and f (3) = 5, find f −1 (5).

6 Inverse Functions
Solution. Apply f −1 to both sides of f (3) = 5: f −1 (f (3)) = f −1 (5). By the cancellation equation
6.1 Definition and the cancellation equations f −1 (f (3)) = 3, so f −1 (5) = 3.
Definition 6.1 Inverse function
6.3 Graphs of inverse functions: reflection about y = x
Functions f and g are inverses of one another if
Theorem 6.3 Graph of f −1
g(f (x)) = x for every x ∈ dom(f ), f (g(y)) = y for every y ∈ dom(g).
If f has an inverse, the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f −1 (x) are mirror images of each other
When f has an inverse, it is unique and written f −1 . Warning: f −1 (x) denotes the inverse across the line y = x: if (a, b) is on the graph of f , then (b, a) is on the graph of f −1 .
function, never 1/f (x).
3 y
Using x as the independent variable for both: f −1 (f (x)) = x and f (f −1 (x)) = x (cancellation y = x3
equations).
2 y = x1/3 = f −1 (x)
y=x
Theorem 6.1 Existence of an inverse
1
A function has an inverse if and only if it is one-to-one (injective): f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 =
x2 . x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Theorem 6.2 Horizontal Line Test
−1
f has an inverse ⇐⇒ every horizontal line meets the graph of f at most once.
−2
Rule — domain/range swap
−3
dom(f −1 ) = range(f ) and range(f −1 ) = dom(f ).

6.4 Restricting the domain to create an inverse

6.2 A step-by-step procedure for finding f −1
Rule — Restricting domain for invertibility
Rule — Finding f −1 (x)
If f is not one-to-one, it has no inverse on its full natural domain. But a restriction of f
1. Write y = f (x). (same formula, smaller domain chosen so the graph passes the horizontal line test) can be
2. Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible) — this gives x = f −1 (y). invertible.
3. Interchange x and y to express the inverse with x as the independent variable: y = f −1 (x).
4. State the domain of f −1 explicitly: it equals the range of the original f (which may differ Example 6.3 Restricting x2 to make it invertible — Anton discussion
from the natural domain of the resulting formula!).
f (x) = x2 (domain R) fails the horizontal line test. Restrict to f1 (x) = x2 , x ≥ 0 and
Example 6.1 Finding an inverse, with correct domain — Anton Example 4 f2 (x) = x2 , x ≤ 0. Find each inverse.
√
Find f −1 (x) for f (x) = 3x − 2, with correct domain.

10 11
7 MASTER PROCEDURE: HOW TO SKETCH ANY FUNCTION’S GRAPH BY HAND 7 MASTER PROCEDURE: HOW TO SKETCH ANY FUNCTION’S GRAPH BY HAND

√ √
Solution. f1 is increasing on [0, ∞), hence one-to-one: f1−1 (x) = x. ❼ reflect about y-axis: y = −x
√ √
f2 is decreasing on (−∞, 0], hence one-to-one: f2−1 (x) = − x.
❼ horizontal compression by factor 2: y = −2x
Together, the graphs of f1 and f2 make up the full parabola y = x2 . √
❼ shift right 2: y = −2(x − 2) = 4 − 2x
p
Practice Task 6.1 √
❼ reflect about x-axis: y = − 4 − 2x
3−x √
(a) Show f (x) = is its own inverse (i.e. f −1 = f ), and explain what this means about ❼ shift up 2: y = 2 − 4 − 2x
1−x
the graph of f relative to y = x. 5. Symmetry: none of the standard symmetries apply (domain isn’t symmetric about 0).
(b) Find f −1 (x), with correct domain, for f (x) = (x + 2)4 , x ≥ 0. 6. Key√features: at x = 2 (right endpoint), y = 2 − 0 = 2 (closed point); y-intercept at x = 0:
√
(c) Sketch by hand the graph of f −1 given only the graph of an invertible f passing through y = 2 − 4 = 0; as√x → −∞, 4 − 2x → +∞ so y → −∞. √
(−2, −1), (0, 1), (3, 4) (plot the three reflected points and connect). 7. Range: since 4 − 2x ranges over [0, +∞) as x ranges over (−∞, 2], y = 2 − 4 − 2x ranges
over (−∞, 2].
8. Sketch:
7 Master Procedure: How to Sketch Any Function’s Graph by y
2
Hand
x
Combine everything above into one disciplined checklist. −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4
Step-by-Step Graph-Sketching Procedure −2

1. Classify. Identify the family (polynomial, rational, power, root, absolute value, trigono- −4
metric, piecewise, . . . ) and recall its basic shape from the catalogue (Section 1).
2. Find the domain. Apply the natural-domain checklist from Part I (avoid division by −6
zero, negative even roots, log of nonpositive numbers, tan / sec at cos = 0, etc.), unless
the problem states an explicit domain — always defer to a stated domain over the natural Practice Task 7.1 title=Practice Task 8.1 — Full Master-Procedure Practice
domain.
3. Rewrite in transformation-friendly form. Complete the square for quadratics; fac- Using all eight steps of the master procedure, sketch each of the following, stating domain,
tor out leading coefficients before reading off horizontal scale/shift, e.g. f (2x + 4) = range, symmetry (if any), and key points:
2 √
f (2(x + 2)), not f (2x) shifted by 4. (a) y = −3(x + 1)2 + 2 (b) y = 1 + (c) y = |2x − 4| − 1 (d) y = 9 − x2
4. Identify the chain of transformations from a basic function, in this recommended x−3  π 
order: (i) horizontal shift, (ii) horizontal stretch/compress or reflect about y-axis, (iii) (identify the full shape — what curve is this?) (e) y = 1 − 2 cos x + (state amplitude,
2
vertical stretch/compress or reflect about x-axis, (iv) vertical shift. (Any consistent period, phase shift, and vertical shift).
order works as long as you re-derive each step’s formula carefully; the order above avoids
re-deriving shift amounts.)
5. Check symmetry (even/odd/neither) as a cross-check on your sketch. 8 Chapter Summary and Formula Sheet
6. Locate key features: intercepts (set x = 0 for y-intercept; set y = 0 and solve for
x-intercepts/zeros), breakpoints for piecewise formulas (mark open/closed dots), and
asymptotes for rational functions.
7. Find the range, either by reading it off the completed sketch, or algebraically (solve
y = f (x) for x; the natural domain of the result in y is the range).
8. Draw, labeling axes, intercepts, asymptotes, and any special points; use equal-looking
units unless the problem specifically needs a compressed axis (e.g. y = x2 over a wide
x-range).

Example 7.1 Full worked example using the master procedure

√
Sketch y = 2 − 4 − 2x, stating domain and range.

Solution. 1. Classify: a transformed square-root function. p

2/3. Domain & rewrite: factor inside the root: 4 − 2x = −2(x − 2), so y = 2 − −2(x − 2).
Need −2(x − 2) ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≤ 2: domain (−∞, 2].
√
4. Transformation chain from y = x:

12 13
8 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND FORMULA SHEET CALCULUS & FOUNDATIONS: LECTURE NOTES
Part II: Systematic Curve Sketching, Calculus Rules & Asymptology
Concept Key facts
First-Year Undergraduate Mathematics • Pure & Applied Mathematics Modules
Arithmetic on functions domain of f ± g, f g = intersection; domain of f /g =
intersection minus zeros of g
Composition f ◦ g apply g first, then f ; domain = x ∈ dom(g) with g(x) ∈
dom(f ); generally f ◦ g ̸= g ◦ f 1. The Theoretical Foundations of Curve Sketching
Translations +c outside shifts up; −c outside shifts down; +c inside
shifts left; −c inside shifts right Sketching the graph of a function y = f(x) is not a matter of plotting random points; it is a precise mathematical synthesis of
Reflections f (−x): about y-axis; −f (x): about x-axis algebra, calculus, and limits. By examining first and second derivatives alongside asymptotic behavior, we obtain an complete
Stretch/compress cf (x) (c > 1): vertical stretch; f (cx) (c > 1): horizontal qualitative and quantitative picture of the function.
compression (opposite intuition!)
Symmetry tests y-axis: x → −x invariant; x-axis: y → −y invariant; 1.1 Fermat's Theorem & Critical Points
origin: both
Even / odd f (−x) = f (x) / f (−x) = −f (x)
Theorem 1.1: Fermat's Theorem on Local Extrema
Amplitude/period |A| and 2π/|B| for A sin(Bx − C) or A cos(Bx − C)
Inverse function exists iff one-to-one (horizontal line test); graph reflects If f has a local maximum or minimum at x = c, and if f'(c) exists, then f'(c) = 0.
across y = x; domain/range swap
Master sketching procedure classify → domain → rewrite → transformation chain A point c in the domain of f is called a Critical Value if either f'(c) = 0 or f'(c) is undefined. The corresponding point (c, f(c)) is
→ symmetry → key points → range → draw a Critical Point.

This completes the two-part foundation. With Part I (sets, relations, functions, domain/range)
and Part II (families, transformations, symmetry, inverses, and the sketching procedure), you are 1.2 Tests for Local Extrema
equipped to analyze and graph the functions that appear throughout single-variable calculus.
• First Derivative Test:
◦ If f'(x) changes from positive to negative at c, then (c, f(c)) is a Local Maximum.
◦ If f'(x) changes from negative to positive at c, then (c, f(c)) is a Local Minimum.
◦ If f'(x) does not change sign, c is neither (it may be a stationary point of inflection).

• Second Derivative Test:

◦ If f'(c) = 0 and f''(c) < 0, then f has a Local Maximum at c.
◦ If f'(c) = 0 and f''(c) > 0, then f has a Local Minimum at c.
◦ If f''(c) = 0, the test is inconclusive (must use First Derivative Test).

1.3 Concavity and Inflection Points

Definition 1.2: Concavity & Point of Inflection

The graph of y = f(x) is:
• Concave Upward: on an interval where f''(x) > 0 (the graph lies above its tangent lines).
• Concave Downward: on an interval where f''(x) < 0 (the graph lies below its tangent lines).

An Inflection Point (c, f(c)) is a point on the curve where f is continuous and the concavity changes from upward to downward
or vice versa (meaning f''(x) changes sign).

1.4 Asymptotes & Boundary Behavior

• Vertical Asymptotes: The line x = a is a vertical asymptote if limx → a+ f(x) = ±∞ or limx → a- f(x) = ±∞. Usually occurs
where denominator equals zero but numerator is non-zero.
• Horizontal Asymptotes: The line y = L is a horizontal asymptote if limx → +∞ f(x) = L or limx → -∞ f(x) = L.

• Oblique / Slant Asymptotes: If f(x) = P(x)/Q(x) is rational with deg(P) = deg(Q) + 1, then polynomial division yields f(x)
= mx + c + R(x)/Q(x). The line y = mx + c is an oblique asymptote as x → ±∞.

14
First-Year Undergraduate Mathematics: Lecture Notes (Part II) Page 1 of 4
 2. Comprehensive 7-Step Algorithm for Curve Sketching • 4. Derivatives: f'(x) = -2(x + 2)-3.
For x < -2, f'(x) > 0 (Increasing).
1 Determine Domain & Symmetry: Find the natural domain. Check for even symmetry (f(-x) = f(x)) or odd symmetry For x > -2, f'(x) < 0 (Decreasing).
(f(-x) = -f(x)), and periodicity (f(x + P) = f(x)). No stationary points. Entire graph lies above y = 1.

2 Find Intercepts: Calculate y-intercept by computing f(0) (if 0 ∈ Domain). Calculate x-intercepts by solving f(x) = 0.

3 Identify All Asymptotes: Find vertical asymptotes (zeros of denominator), horizontal asymptotes (limits at ±∞), and
Example 3.3: Exponential Transcendental Curve — f(x) = x · e-x
slant asymptotes via polynomial division.
Perform curve analysis for f(x) = x e-x.
4 First Derivative Analysis: Compute f'(x). Find critical points where f'(x) = 0 or undefined. Construct a sign chart for
f'(x) to determine intervals of increase/decrease. Step-by-Step Solution:
• 1. Domain & Intercepts: Domain is ℝ. Only intercept is (0,0).
5 Locate Local Extrema: Apply the First or Second Derivative Test to classify critical points as local maxima or minima.
• 2. Asymptotes & End Behavior:
6 Second Derivative Analysis: Compute f''(x). Find potential inflection points where f''(x) = 0 or undefined. Construct a
limx → -∞ x e-x = -∞.
sign chart for f''(x) to find intervals of concavity up/down and inflection points.
limx → +∞ x e-x = limx → +∞ x / ex = 0 (by L'Hôpital's Rule). Horizontal asymptote: y = 0 as x → +∞.
7 Plot Key Points & Synthesize Sketch: Plot intercepts, stationary points, inflection points, and asymptotes. Draw
• 3. Monotonicity & Local Extrema:
smooth curves respecting monotonic intervals and concavity.
f'(x) = 1 · e-x + x(-e-x) = (1 - x)e-x.
Critical point: 1 - x = 0 ⟹ x = 1. Point is (1, 1/e) ≈ (1, 0.368).
3. Solved Examples (Complete Analytical Workouts) f'(x) > 0 on (-∞, 1) (Increasing); f'(x) < 0 on (1, ∞) (Decreasing).
Thus, (1, 1/e) is a Local Maximum.
Example 3.1: Rational Function Analysis — f(x) = (2x + 3) / (x - 2) • 4. Concavity & Inflection Point:
Perform a complete curve sketching analysis for f(x) = (2x + 3)/(x - 2). f''(x) = -e-x - (1 - x)e-x = (x - 2)e-x.
Set f''(x) = 0 ⟹ x = 2. Point is (2, 2/e2) ≈ (2, 0.271).
Step-by-Step Solution: f''(x) < 0 on (-∞, 2) (Concave Down); f''(x) > 0 on (2, ∞) (Concave Up).
• 1. Domain: ℝ \ {2}. Non-symmetric. Therefore, (2, 2/e2) is a Point of Inflection.
• 2. Intercepts: y-intercept: f(0) = -3/2 ⟹ (0, -1.5). x-intercept: 2x + 3 = 0 ⟹ x = -3/2 ⟹ (-1.5, 0).
• 3. Algebraic Decomposition & Asymptotes:
Example 3.4: Logarithmic Curve Analysis — f(x) = (ln x) / x
f(x) = (2(x - 2) + 7) / (x - 2) = 2 + 7 / (x - 2)
Analyze the curve f(x) = (ln x) / x on its maximum domain.
Vertical asymptote: x = 2 (since limx → 2+ f(x) = +∞ and limx → 2- f(x) = -∞).
Horizontal asymptote: limx → ±∞ f(x) = 2 ⟹ y = 2. Step-by-Step Solution:
• 4. First Derivative: f'(x) = -7 / (x - 2)2. Since f'(x) < 0 for all x ≠ 2, the function is strictly decreasing on (-∞, 2) and (2, ∞). • 1. Domain: (0, ∞). x-intercept: ln x = 0 ⟹ x = 1 ⟹ (1, 0). No y-intercept.
No stationary points exist. • 2. Asymptotes:
• 5. Second Derivative & Concavity: f''(x) = 14 / (x - 2)3. Vertical asymptote: limx → 0+ (ln x)/x = -∞ ⟹ x = 0.

For x < 2, f''(x) < 0 (Concave Down). Horizontal asymptote: limx → +∞ (ln x)/x = 0 ⟹ y = 0.
For x > 2, f''(x) > 0 (Concave Up). • 3. First Derivative & Maximum:
No inflection points since x = 2 is not in the domain. f'(x) = ( (1/x)·x - (ln x)·1 ) / x2 = (1 - ln x) / x2.
Critical point: 1 - ln x = 0 ⟹ x = e. Stationary point: (e, 1/e) ≈ (2.718, 0.368).
f'(x) > 0 on (0, e) (Increasing); f'(x) < 0 on (e, ∞) (Decreasing).
Example 3.2: Rational Function with Local Minimum — f(x) = (x2 + 4x + 5) / (x2 + 4x + 4) Absolute maximum occurs at (e, 1/e).
• 4. Second Derivative & Inflection:
Analyze and sketch f(x) = (x2 + 4x + 5) / (x + 2)2 = 1 + 1 / (x + 2)2.
f''(x) = ( (-1/x)·x2 - (1 - ln x)·2x ) / x4 = (2 ln x - 3) / x3.
Step-by-Step Solution: Set f''(x) = 0 ⟹ 2 ln x = 3 ⟹ x = e3/2 ≈ 4.481.
• 1. Domain: ℝ \ {-2}. Inflection point at (e3/2, 1.5 e-3/2) ≈ (4.481, 0.335).
• 2. Intercepts: y-intercept: f(0) = 5/4. x-intercept: x2 + 4x + 5 = 0 has discriminant 16 - 20 = -4 < 0, so no real x-intercepts.

• 3. Asymptotes: Vertical asymptote: x = -2 (since limx → -2 f(x) = +∞). Horizontal asymptote: y = 1 as x → ±∞.

First-Year Undergraduate Mathematics: Lecture Notes (Part II) Page 2 of 4 First-Year Undergraduate Mathematics: Lecture Notes (Part II) Page 3 of 4
 4. Practice Student Tasks (Curve Sketching Problems)

Task 4.1 (Rational Curve)

For the curve y = (x - 3) / (2x - 2):

1. Show that y = 1/2 - 2 / (2x - 2) = 1/2 - 1 / (x - 1).
Lecture Notes
2. Find all asymptotes and axis intercepts. Part III: Problem Set — Solved Examples and Practice Problems
3. Sketch the curve showing all key features clearly.
[Answer: V.A. x = 1, H.A. y = 1/2; x-int: (3, 0), y-int: (0, 1.5); Strictly increasing on (-∞,1) and (1,∞).]
Undergraduate Mathematics — First Year
Companion to Parts I & II (Sets, Relations, Functions, and Graph Sketching)
Task 4.2 (Cubic Polynomial)

For f(x) = x3 - 3x2 - 9x + 5:

Purpose of this note. This is a pure problem-solving companion to Part I (Sets,
1. Find the local maximum and minimum stationary points.
Relations, and Functions) and Part II (Graph Sketching). Section 1 works through
2. Find the point of inflection.
33 fully solved examples spanning every major topic from both lecture notes,
3. Determine intervals of concavity and sketch the curve.
numbered continuously. Section 2 is a practice problem set of 26 questions
[Answer: Local Max: (-1, 10); Local Min: (3, -22); Inflection Point: (1, -6); Concave Down on (-∞, 1), Concave Up on (1, ∞).]
for you to attempt on your own, grouped by topic in the same order. Try each
practice problem before looking back at the matching solved example — the solved
examples are deliberately ordered to mirror the practice problems, so once you
Task 4.3 (Advanced Exponential Hybrid)
have attempted a problem you can check your method against the closest worked
Analyze f(x) = (x2 - 1) ex: example.
1. Find x-intercepts and y-intercept.
2. Find critical points and classify them using the Second Derivative Test.
3. Determine horizontal asymptotes as x → -∞ and x → +∞. Contents
[Answer: Intercepts: (±1, 0), (0, -1); Critical points at x = -1 ± √2; H.A. y = 0 as x → -∞.]
1 Solved Examples 2
1.1 Sets, Cartesian Products, and Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Functions: Domain, Range, and Natural Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Injective, Surjective, Bijective, Composite, and Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Classification by Algebraic Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 New Functions from Old, and Families of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Transformations, Symmetry, and Graph Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Practice Problems 8

First-Year Undergraduate Mathematics: Lecture Notes (Part II) Page 4 of 4

1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.2 Functions: Domain, Range, and Natural Domain

1 Solved Examples 2.0001 > 2). Note the jump between f (2) = 4 and values just above x = 2 equal to 5 — this
function has a discontinuity (break) at x = 2.
1.1 Sets, Cartesian Products, and Relations
Solved Example 7 Natural domain — even root of a quadratic
Solved Example 1 Set operations √
Find the natural domain of f (x) = x2 − x − 6.
Let U = {1, 2, . . . , 15}, A = {x ∈ U : x is a multiple of 3}, B = {x ∈ U :
x is a multiple of 5}. Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A − B, and (A ∪ B)c . Solution. Need x2 − x − 6 ≥ 0. Factor: (x − 3)(x + 2) ≥ 0. Sign analysis (roots at x = −2, 3): the
product is nonnegative when x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 3. Domain: (−∞, −2] ∪ [3, +∞).
Solution. A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15}, B = {5, 10, 15}. A ∪ B = {3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15}; A ∩ B = {15};
Solved Example 8 Natural domain — rational function with a repeated factor
A − B = {3, 6, 9, 12}; (A ∪ B)c = U − (A ∪ B) = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14}.
x+4
Solved Example 2 Power set cardinality Find the natural domain of f (x) = , and describe what happens to the graph at each
x2 − 16
excluded point.
If n(A) = 5, find n(P(A)) and the number of proper subsets of A.

Solution. Denominator zero when x2 − 16 = 0 ⇒ x = ±4. Domain: (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, 4) ∪ (4, +∞).
Solution. n(P(A)) = 25 = 32. Proper subsets exclude A itself, so there are 32 − 1 = 31 proper x+4 1
subsets (note: ∅ still counts as a proper subset). Simplify: f (x) = = for x ̸= −4. So at x = 4 there is a true vertical
(x − 4)(x + 4) x−4
Solved Example 3 Cartesian product size and listing asymptote (the simplified form still blows up there), while at x = −4 there is only a removable
1
hole (the simplified function x−4 is perfectly finite there, equal to − 81 , but the original f is still
Let A = {a, b} and B = {1, 2, 3}. List A × B and verify n(A × B) = n(A) · n(B). undefined at x = −4).

Solved Example 9 Domain restricted by an applied problem

Solution. A × B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}. This has 6 elements, and indeed n(A) ·
n(B) = 2 × 3 = 6. ✓ A rectangular pen of length ℓ and width w has perimeter 40 m. Express the area A as a
function of ℓ alone, and state the domain appropriate to the physical problem (not just the
Solved Example 4 Domain and range of a relation
natural domain of the formula).
Let R = {(x, y) ∈ Z × Z : x2 + y 2 = 25}. List all pairs in R and state the domain and range.
Solution. Perimeter: 2ℓ + 2w = 40 ⇒ w = 20 − ℓ. Area: A(ℓ) = ℓ(20 − ℓ) = 20ℓ − ℓ2 . As a bare
Solution. We need integer pairs on the circle of radius 5: (±3, ±4), (±4, ±3), (±5, 0), (0, ±5) — polynomial formula, the natural domain is all of R; but physically both ℓ > 0 and w = 20 − ℓ > 0
12 pairs in total. Domain = {−5, −4, −3, 0, 3, 4, 5}; Range = {−5, −4, −3, 0, 3, 4, 5} (same set, by are required (a fence has positive length and width), giving the domain 0 < ℓ < 20.
symmetry of the circle). Solved Example 10 Range by algebraic solving
Solved Example 5 Relation vs. function — vertical line test 3x − 1
Find the domain and range of f (x) = .
Determine whether each curve defines y as a function of x: (a) y = x2 − 2x; (b) x = y 2 − 2y. x+2

3x − 1
Solution. (a) For every real x, y = x2 −2x produces exactly one y-value (a formula solved explicitly Solution. Domain: x ̸= −2, i.e. (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, +∞). For the range, let y = and solve for
x+2
for y): function. √ −1 − 2y
(b) Solve for y: y 2 − 2y − x = 0 ⇒ y = 1 ± 1 + x (quadratic formula). For x > −1 this gives two x: y(x + 2) = 3x − 1 ⇒ yx + 2y = 3x − 1 ⇒ x(y − 3) = −1 − 2y ⇒ x = . This is defined
y−3
values of y for one x (e.g. x = 3: y = 1 ± 2, i.e. y = 3 or y = −1), so the vertical line test fails: not for every y except y = 3. Range: (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
a function of x.
Solved Example 11 Composite domain check
1.2 Functions: Domain, Range, and Natural Domain √
Let f (x) = x and g(x) = x − 5. Find (f ◦ g)(x) and its domain.
Solved Example 6 Evaluating a piecewise function √
Solution. (f ◦ g)(x) = f (x − 5) = x − 5. Domain: need x − 5 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ 5. Domain of f ◦ g is
 [5, +∞) — consistent with the rule “x must be in domain of g (all R) with g(x) in domain of f (i.e.
2x + 1, x < 0

g(x) ≥ 0)”.
Let f (x) = x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 . Find f (−3), f (0), f (2), f (2.0001).

5, x>2 Solved Example 12 Piecewise function from an absolute value


Rewrite f (x) = |2x − 6| as an explicit piecewise formula without absolute value bars, and
Solution. f (−3) = 2(−3) + 1 = −5 (uses top piece since −3 < 0). f (0) = 02 = 0 (middle piece, state its range.
since 0 ≤ 0 ≤ 2). f (2) = 22 = 4 (middle piece, since 2 ≤ 2). f (2.0001) = 5 (bottom piece, since

2 3
1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.3 Injective, Surjective, Bijective, Composite, and Inverse Functions 1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.4 Classification by Algebraic Form

(
y+3 x+3
2x − 6, x≥3 Solution. First invert each:
√ from y = 2x − 3, x = 2 , so f −1 (x) = 2 . From y = x3 + 1,
Solution. 2x − 6 ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ x ≥ 3. So f (x) = . Since |2x − 6| ≥ 0 always, and √
6 − 2x, x<3 x = 3 y − 1, so g −1 (x) = 3 x − 1. Then
equals 0 exactly at x = 3, the range is [0, +∞).   r r
x+3 3 x+3 x+1 3
(f ◦ g)−1 (x) = (g −1 ◦ f −1 )(x) = g −1 = −1= .
2 2 2
1.3 Injective, Surjective, Bijective, Composite, and Inverse Functions
q
Solved Example 13 Proving injectivity Check directly: (f ◦ g)(x) = 2(x3 + 1) − 3 = 2x3 − 1; solving y = 2x3 − 1 gives x = 3 y+1
2 — matches.
✓
Prove f : R → R, f (x) = −4x + 9, is injective.
Solved Example 19 Bijections on finite sets and the pigeonhole principle
Solution. Suppose f (x1 ) = f (x2 ): −4x1 + 9 = −4x2 + 9 ⇒ −4x1 = −4x2 ⇒ x1 = x2 . Hence f is
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Can a function f : A → A be injective without being surjective?
injective.
Explain, then give an explicit example of a bijection f : A → A other than the identity.
Solved Example 14 Disproving injectivity
Solution. No: since n(A) = n(A) is finite, the pigeonhole-principle theorem guarantees injective
Show f : R → R, f (x) = x4 , is not injective, and find the largest interval containing 0 on ⇐⇒ surjective ⇐⇒ bijective for maps from a finite set to itself of the same size. Example of
which its restriction is injective. a non-identity bijection: f = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5), (5, 1)} (a cyclic shift) — every output is
distinct and all of A is covered.
Solution. f (−1) = 1 = f (1) but −1 ̸= 1, so f is not injective on R. Since f is strictly decreasing
on (−∞, 0] and strictly increasing on [0, ∞), the largest interval containing 0 on which f is injective 1.4 Classification by Algebraic Form
(by the monotonicity theorem) is either (−∞, 0] or [0, ∞) alone (not both, since combining them
reintroduces the f (−1) = f (1) collision); by convention we usually choose [0, ∞). Solved Example 20 Classifying by algebraic form

Solved Example 15 Surjectivity onto a specified codomain Classify each as polynomial / rational (non-polynomial) / algebraic (non-rational) / tran-
x3 − 8 √ √
Is f : R → [2, ∞), f (x) = (x − 1)2 + 2, surjective? Justify. scendental: (a) f (x) = ; (b) g(x) = x · x; (c) h(x) = log(x2 + 1); (d)
x−2
2 2
k(x) = sin x + cos x.
√
Solution. Given any y ≥ 2, solve y = (x − 1)2 + 2 ⇒ (x − 1)2 = y − 2 ⇒ x = 1 ± y − 2, which
is a real number precisely because y − 2 ≥ 0. So every y in the codomain [2, ∞) is attained: f is x3 − 8 (x − 2)(x2 + 2x + 4)
√ Solution. (a) = = x2 + 2x + 4 for x ̸= 2: this simplifies to a
surjective onto [2, ∞) (though not injective, since both signs of ± y − 2 give the same y). x−2 x−2
polynomial, but as a function it is still rational, not polynomial, because the original formula is
Solved Example 16 Bijection and its inverse undefined at x = 2 (a hole), unlike a true polynomial which is defined everywhere.
√ √ √
x−2 (b) g(x) = x · x = x for x ≥ 0 only (the domain of x); as a function with this restricted
Show f : R → R, f (x) = , is bijective and find f −1 . domain it is algebraic, not simply “polynomial” x, because its domain [0, ∞) differs from the
3
natural domain R of the bare polynomial x.
(c) Involves a logarithm: transcendental.
Solution. Injective: f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x13−2 = x23−2 ⇒ x1 = x2 . Surjective: given y ∈ R, solve
(d) By the Pythagorean identity, k(x) = 1 for all x — a constant function, which is technically
y = x−2
3 ⇒ x = 3y + 2, real for every y. Both hold, so f is bijective, and f
−1 (x) = 3x + 2.
a polynomial of degree 0 (even though it was built from transcendental pieces that cancelled out).
Solved Example 17 Composite function evaluation and simplification
Solved Example 21 Natural domain of transcendental functions
Let f (x) = x2 + 2 and g(x) = 3x − 1. Find (f ◦ g)(x), (g ◦ f )(x), and determine all x for  
1
which (f ◦ g)(x) = (g ◦ f )(x). Find the natural domain of f (x) = ln(x2 − 9) and g(x) = arctan .
x
Solution. (f ◦ g)(x) = f (3x − 1) = (3x − 1)2 + 2 = 9x2 − 6x + 3.
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(x2 + 2) = 3(x2 + 2) − 1 = 3x2 + 5. Solution. ln needs a positive argument: x2 − 9 > 0 ⇒ (x − 3)(x + 3) > 0 ⇒ x < −3 or x > 3.
Set equal: 9x2 − √ 6x + 3 = 3x2 +√5 ⇒ 6x2 − 6x − 2 = 0 ⇒ 3x2 − 3x − 1 = 0. By the quadratic Domain of f : (−∞, −3) ∪ (3, ∞).
3 ± 9 + 12 3 ± 21 arctan is defined for all real inputs, but 1/x itself requires x ̸= 0. Domain of g: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
formula, x = = .
6 6 Solved Example 22 Distinguishing rational from algebraic
Solved Example 18 Inverse of a composite function √
x+1
Is f (x) = rational? Explain, and state its natural domain.
Let f (x) = 2x − 3 and g(x) = x3 + 1 (both bijective on R). Find (f ◦ g)−1 (x) using the x−4
formula (f ◦ g)−1 = g −1 ◦ f −1 .

4 5
1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.5 New Functions from Old, and Families of Functions 1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.6 Transformations, Symmetry, and Graph Sketching

√ √ p √
Solution. A rational function must be a ratio of two polynomials. Here the numerator x + 1 is Solution.
√ Write 3 5 − x = 3 p −(x − 5). Starting
√ from y = 3 x: (1) reflect about the y-axis:
√
not a polynomial (it contains a square root), so f is algebraic but not rational. Natural domain: y = 3 −x; (2) shift right 5: y = 3 −(x − 5) = 3 5 − x. Since 3 · is defined for all reals, the domain
need x ≥ 0 (for the root) and x ̸= 4 (denominator): [0, 4) ∪ (4, ∞). remains R.

Solved Example 29 Horizontal compression — the “opposite intuition” rule

1.5 New Functions from Old, and Families of Functions
State the period of y = cos(4x) and explain, using the horizontal scaling rule, why multiplying
Solved Example 23 Arithmetic combination with domain x by 4 shrinks (rather than stretches) the graph.
√ √
Let f (x) = x + 5 and g(x) = 3 − x. Find (f + g)(x) and its domain.
Solution. Period of y = cos x is 2π; for y = cos(4x), period = 2π/4 = π/2. Reasoning: cos(4x)
√ √ reaches the same output as cos x four times as fast in x (since 4x grows four times as quickly as
Solution. dom(f ) = [−5, ∞), dom(g) = (−∞, 3]. (f + g)(x) = x+5+ 3 − x, with domain
x), so one full cycle is completed in 1/4 of the original x-distance — a horizontal compression, even
[−5, ∞) ∩ (−∞, 3] = [−5, 3].
though we multiplied x by a number bigger than 1.
Solved Example 24 Decomposing a function into inside/outside parts
Solved Example 30 Symmetry test applied to an equation
1
Express h(x) = √ as a composition f (g(x)), naming inside and outside functions. Test y 2 = x3 − 4x for symmetry about the x-axis, y-axis, and origin.
x2 + 1
Solution. Replace y → −y: (−y)2 = x3 − 4x ⇒ y 2 = x3 − 4x, same equation: symmetric about
Solution. To evaluate, first compute x2 + 1 (inside: g(x) = x2 + 1), then take the reciprocal
√ the x-axis. Replace x → −x: y 2 = (−x)3 − 4(−x) = −x3 + 4x, not equivalent to the original:
square root (outside: f (x) = 1/ x = x−1/2 ). So h(x) = f (g(x)) with these choices (other valid
not symmetric about the y-axis. Replace both: y 2 = −x3 + 4x (same as the previous check since
decompositions exist, e.g. splitting the square root and reciprocal into two separate steps).
squaring −y has no effect): not symmetric about the origin.
Solved Example 25 Inverse proportionality from data
Solved Example 31 Even/odd classification with algebraic proof
The following (x, y) pairs are collected: (2, 9), (3, 6), (6, 3), (9, 2). Show y is inversely propor-
tional to x and find the constant of proportionality. x3
Classify f (x) = as even, odd, or neither, using the definition (not just the graph).
x2 + 1
Solution. Compute xy for each pair: 2(9) = 18, 3(6) = 18, 6(3) = 18, 9(2) = 18. Since the
product is constant (= 18) for every pair, y = 18/x; the constant of proportionality is k = 18. (−x)3 −x3 x3
Solution. Compute f (−x) = = 2 =− 2 = −f (x). Since f (−x) = −f (x) for
(−x)2 + 1 x +1 x +1
Solved Example 26 Amplitude, period, and phase shift every x in the domain, f is odd (graph symmetric about the origin).
 π Solved Example 32 Graph of an inverse via reflection about y = x
Find the amplitude, period, and phase shift of y = −4 sin 3x + .
2
Given that f is an invertible function whose graph passes through (−1, −3), (0, 1), (2, 5), find
 π 
three points on the graph of f −1 , and state f −1 (1).
 
Solution. Rewrite: y = −4 sin 3 x − − (since 3x + π2 = 3(x + π6 ), so C/B = −π/6).
6
Amplitude = | − 4| = 4; period = 2π/3; the graph of y = −4 sin 3x is shifted left by π/6.
Solution. Reflecting each point (a, b) → (b, a) across y = x: the graph of f −1 passes through
(−3, −1), (1, 0), (5, 2). In particular, since (1, 0) is on the graph of f −1 , we read off f −1 (1) = 0
1.6 Transformations, Symmetry, and Graph Sketching (consistent with f (0) = 1 from the given data).
Solved Example 27 Translation and reflection chain Solved Example 33 Full master-procedure sketch

Describe, as a sequence of transformations of y = x2 , how to obtain y = −2(x + 3)2 + 5, and Using the master sketching procedure, analyze y = 3 − |x + 2|: find the domain, range,
state the vertex of the resulting parabola. symmetry, key points, and describe the shape.

Solution. Starting from y = x2 : (1) shift left 3: y = (x + 3)2 ; (2) stretch vertically by factor 2: Solution. Classify: an absolute-value (piecewise-linear) function. Domain: |x + 2| is defined
y = 2(x + 3)2 ; (3) reflect about the x-axis: y = −2(x + 3)2 ; (4) shift up 5: y = −2(x + 3)2 + 5. The for all x, so domain = R. Transformation chain from y = |x|: shift left 2 (y = |x + 2|), reflect
vertex moves from (0, 0) to (−3, 5). about the x-axis (y = −|x + 2|), shift up 3 (y = 3 − |x + 2|). Symmetry: not symmetric about
the y-axis or origin (vertex is not at the origin); however the graph itself is symmetric about
Solved Example 28 Reflection about the y-axis combined with a shift
the vertical line x = −2. Key points: vertex (maximum point) at (−2, 3); x-intercepts where
√ √ 3 − |x + 2| = 0 ⇒ |x + 2| = 3 ⇒ x = 1 or x = −5; y-intercept at x = 0: y = 3 − 2 = 1.
Sketch y = 3 5 − x by describing it as a transformation of y = 3 x.
Range: since |x + 2| ≥ 0, we get y = 3 − |x + 2| ≤ 3, so range = (−∞, 3]. Shape: an inverted V
(downward-opening) with peak at (−2, 3).

6 7
2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

2 Practice Problems Injective, Surjective, Bijective, Composite, and Inverse Functions

Attempt each problem on your own before checking against the solved examples above (problems Problem 10
are grouped in the same topic order as Section 1).
Prove that f : R → R, f (x) = 7 − 2x, is injective, using the definition directly (not just the
horizontal line test).
Sets, Cartesian Products, and Relations

Problem 1 Problem 11

Let U = {1, . . . , 20}, P = {multiples of 4}, Q = {multiples of 6}. Find P ∪ Q, P ∩ Q, Q − P , Show that f : R → R, f (x) = x2 − 6x + 5, is not injective by exhibiting two distinct inputs
and (P ∩ Q)c . with the same output. Then state the largest interval of the form [3, ∞) or (−∞, 3] on which
the restriction of f is injective, with justification.
Problem 2
Problem 12
If n(P(A)) = 64, find n(A).
Determine whether f : R → [0, ∞), f (x) = |x − 3|, is surjective. Justify your answer either
by solving y = f (x) for x or by exhibiting a y-value that cannot be reached.
Problem 3
Let A = {x, y} and B = {1, 2}. List A × B and B × A, and confirm n(A × B) = n(B × A) Problem 13
even though the sets themselves are different.
2x + 1
Show f : R → R, f (x) = , is bijective, and find f −1 (x).
5
Problem 4

Let R = {(x, y) ∈ Z × Z : y = x2 , −3 ≤ x ≤ 3}. List all pairs, and state the domain and Problem 14
range of R. Is R a function?
Let f (x) = 2x + 5 and g(x) = x2 − 3. Find (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x), and find all x for which
(f ◦ g)(x) = (g ◦ f )(x).
Functions: Domain, Range, and Natural Domain
Problem 15
Problem 5 √
√ Let f (x) = 4x − 1 and g(x) = 3 x + 2, both bijective on R. Find (f ◦ g)−1 (x) two ways:
Find the natural domain of f (x) = 2x2 − 5x − 3. directly, and using (f ◦ g)−1 = g −1 ◦ f −1 .

Problem 6 Problem 16
2x + 5 A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Give an explicit bijection f : A → A with no fixed points (i.e. f (a) ̸= a
Find the natural domain and range of f (x) = .
x−1 for every a ∈ A), and state f −1 .

Problem 7
Classification by Algebraic Form
A closed cylindrical can must hold 500 cm3 . Express the total surface area S as a function
of the radius r alone, and state the domain appropriate to the physical situation. Problem 17
Classify each as polynomial / rational (non-polynomial) / algebraic (non-rational) / tran-
Problem 8 x2 − 9 √
scendental: (a) ; (b) 3 x + x2 ; (c) 2x − x3 ; (d) (x − 1)2 (x + 1)2 .
Rewrite f (x) = |3x + 6| as an explicit piecewise formula (no absolute value bars), and sketch x+3
its graph, marking the vertex.
Problem 18
Problem 9 Find the natural domain of f (x) = log5 (9 − x2 ) and g(x) = arcsin(3 − x).
Let f (x) = x2 − 1 for x < 1 and f (x) = 2x − 2 for x ≥ 1. Evaluate f (−2), f (1), f (1.5), and
determine whether f is continuous at x = 1 (i.e., do the two pieces meet at the same value
there?).

8 9
2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

New Functions from Old, and Families of Functions

Problem 19
√ √
Let f (x) = x − 2 and g(x) = 8 − x. Find (f g)(x) and state its domain.
Advanced Problem Set
Problem 20
√ 1 Functions: Classification, Verification, Domain/Range, Graph
Express cos( x) and each as a composition of two functions, naming the inside
(x2 − 1)3
and outside functions. Sketching, and Theorems
Problem 21
Undergraduate Mathematics — First Year
Data: (1, 24), (2, 12), (4, 6), (8, 3). Verify y is inversely proportional to x, find k, and predict
y when x = 16. Rigorous Companion Problems with Full Proofs

Problem 22
 π
Find the amplitude, period, and phase shift of y = 5 cos 2x − , and state the direction Purpose and level of this note. This note is deliberately more demanding than
3
and size of the horizontal shift relative to y = 5 cos 2x. a first-pass introduction. It assumes you already know the basic definitions of in-
jective/surjective/bijective functions, domain and range, and graph transformations,
Transformations, Symmetry, and Graph Sketching and instead focuses on rigorous verification, formal proof, and non-routine prob-
Problem 23 lem solving — the level expected in a university analysis or precalculus-for-majors
√ √ course. Section 1 contains 35 fully solved examples, organized into four themes: (I)
Describe, as a sequence of transformations of y = x, how to obtain y = 4 − x − 1, and
state its domain and range. rigorous verification of injectivity/surjectivity/bijectivity, (II) theorems on functions
with complete proofs, (III) advanced domain and range problems, and (IV) advanced
Problem 24 graph-sketching problems. Section 2 is a set of 22 practice problems of comparable
Test x2 + 4y 2 = 16 for symmetry about the x-axis, y-axis, and origin. difficulty, for you to attempt independently.

Problem 25

Classify f (x) = x4 − 3x2 + 1 and g(x) = x3 + x each as even, odd, or neither, using the Contents
definition directly.

Problem 26 1 Solved Examples 2

Using the master sketching procedure (classify, domain, transformation chain, symmetry, key 1.1 Part I — Rigorous Verification of Injective, Surjective, and Bijective Functions . . 2
 π
points, range, sketch), fully analyze y = 2 + 3 cos x − , stating amplitude, period, phase
4 1.2 Part II — Theorems on Functions, with Complete Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
shift, and vertical shift explicitly.
1.3 Part III — Advanced Domain and Range Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
This completes Part III. Having worked through 33 solved examples and attempted these 26
practice problems, you should be comfortable identifying the type of any function encountered in 1.4 Part IV — Advanced Graph-Sketching Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
this course, finding its domain, range, and classification, combining or inverting functions
correctly, and sketching transformed graphs from the basic catalogue.
2 Practice Problems 15

10
1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1 SOLVED EXAMPLES
1.1 Part I — Rigorous Verification of Injective, Surjective, and Bijective Functions

x 1
1 Solved Examples Case x < 0: f (x) = = −1 + , similarly strictly increasing on (−∞, 0) (as 1 − x decreases,
1−x 1−x
1
1−x increases). As x ranges over (−∞, 0), f (x) ranges over (−1, 0).
1.1 Part I — Rigorous Verification of Injective, Surjective, and Bijective Injectivity. Within each case, f is strictly increasing, hence injective there (Theorem 1.5 below).
Functions Across the two cases: if x1 ≥ 0 and x2 < 0, then f (x1 ) ≥ 0 while f (x2 ) < 0, so f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 )
unless possibly f (x1 ) = 0 = f (x2 ) — but f (x2 ) < 0 strictly for x2 < 0, so this cannot occur. Hence
Solved Example 1 Bijectivity of a rational function, proved algebraically f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) whenever x1 , x2 lie in different cases. Combining, f is injective on all of R.
3x − 1 Range. Combining both cases, the range of f is (−1, 0) ∪ [0, 1) = (−1, 1).
Let f : R \ {2} → R \ {3} be defined by f (x) = . Prove that f is bijective and find
x−2
f −1 . Therefore f : R → (−1, 1) is a bijection. ■

Solved Example 3 Restricting the domain of a non-injective transcendental function

Solution. Injectivity. Suppose f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Then
Show that f (x) = ln(x2 + 1) is not injective on R. Restrict f to [0, ∞), prove the restriction
3x1 − 1 3x2 − 1
= =⇒ (3x1 − 1)(x2 − 2) = (3x2 − 1)(x1 − 2). is injective, and find its inverse.
x1 − 2 x2 − 2

Expanding both sides: Solution. Not injective on R: f (−x) = ln((−x)2 + 1) = ln(x2 + 1) = f (x) for every x, so e.g.
f (−1) = f (1) = ln 2 while −1 ̸= 1. Hence f is not injective on R.
3x1 x2 − 6x1 − x2 + 2 = 3x1 x2 − 6x2 − x1 + 2.
Injective on [0, ∞): For 0 ≤ x1 < x2 , we have x12 < x22 (squaring preserves order for nonnegative
numbers), so x12 + 1 < x22 + 1, and since ln is strictly increasing, ln(x12 + 1) < ln(x22 + 1), i.e. f (x1 ) <
The terms 3x1 x2 and 2 cancel, leaving −6x1 − x2 = −6x2 − x1 , i.e. −5x1 = −5x2 , so x1 = x2 . Hence
f (x2 ). Thus f is strictly increasing, hence injective, on [0, ∞).
f is injective.
√
3x − 1 Inverse. Let y = ln(x2 + 1) with x ≥ 0. Then ey = x2 + 1 ⇒ x2 = ey − 1 ⇒ x = ey − 1 (taking the
Surjectivity onto R \ {3}. Let y ∈ R \ {3} be arbitrary. Solve y = for x: y
x−2 nonnegative root, consistent with x ≥ 0; note e − 1 ≥ 0 automatically since y = f (x) ≥ f (0) = 0).
Hence
2y − 1 √
y(x − 2) = 3x − 1 ⇒ yx − 2y = 3x − 1 ⇒ x(y − 3) = 2y − 1 ⇒ x = . f −1 (x) = ex − 1, x ≥ 0.
y−3

Since y ̸= 3, this x is a well-defined real number, and one checks x ̸= 2 (otherwise 2y − 1 = 2(y − 3 y
3) = 2y − 6, giving −1 = −6, false). So every y ̸= 3 is attained. Hence f is surjective onto R \ {3}. f (x) = ln(x2 + 1) for x ≥ 0
√
2x − 1 f −1 (x) = ex − 1
Since f is both injective and surjective, it is bijective, and f −1 (x) = . ■ 2 y=x
x−3
Solved Example 2 A piecewise-defined algebraic function, injective but not surjective 1
onto R
x
x
Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = . Prove that f is injective, and find its range −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1 + |x|
(thereby determining the codomain onto which it is bijective).
Solved Example 4 Injectivity of sine on [−π/2, π/2], proved without calculus
Solution. Split into cases according to the sign of x. h π πi
x 1 Prove that f (x) = sin x is strictly increasing (hence injective) on − , , using only the
Case x ≥ 0: f (x) = = 1− , which is strictly increasing on [0, ∞) since 1 + x is increasing 2 2
1+x 1+x sum-to-product identity, not derivatives.
1 1
and positive (so 1+x is strictly decreasing, making 1 − 1+x strictly increasing). As x ranges over
[0, ∞), f (x) ranges over [0, 1).

2 3
1 SOLVED EXAMPLES
1.1 Part I — Rigorous Verification of Injective, Surjective, and Bijective Functions 1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.2 Part II — Theorems on Functions, with Complete Proofs

Proof. Let − π2 ≤ x1 < x2 ≤ π2 . By the sum-to-product identity, slope), so as x ranges over (−∞, 0), f (x) = 2x ranges over (−∞, 0), taking each negative value
    exactly once. On [0, ∞), f (x) = x2 is strictly increasing (shown earlier by the squaring argument),
x1 + x2 x2 − x1
sin x2 − sin x1 = 2 cos sin . so as x ranges over [0, ∞), f (x) = x2 ranges over [0, ∞), taking each nonnegative value exactly once.
2 2
Injectivity. Within each piece, f is injective (strictly increasing). Between pieces: if x1 < 0 ≤ x2 ,
Since − π2 ≤ x1 < x2 ≤ π2 , we have − π2 < x1 +x π
2 < 2 , so cos
2 x1 +x2

2 > 0. Also 0 < x2 −x π
2 ≤ 2 (since
1
then f (x1 ) = 2x1 < 0 while f (x2 ) = x22 ≥ 0, so f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ). Hence f is injective on all of R.
0 < x2 − x1 ≤ π), so sin x2 −x


2
1
> 0 as well (sine is positive on (0, π]... more precisely on (0, π),
Surjectivity. The two pieces’ ranges are (−∞, 0) and [0, ∞) respectively, whose union is all of R.
and here the argument is at most π/2). Hence both factors are positive, so sin x2 − sin x1 > 0, i.e.
  So every real number is attained.
sin x1 < sin x2 . This proves sin is strictly increasing, hence injective, on − π2 , π2 . ■
Both properties hold: f is bijective on R. ■
(This is precisely why arcsin is defined as the inverse of sine restricted to this interval.)
Solved Example 8 Bijectivity of a cubic-type polynomial, via algebraic factoring and
Solved Example 5 Bijectivity of the exponential function
the Intermediate Value Theorem
Prove that f : R → (0, ∞), f (x) = 2x , is bijective.
Prove that f : R → R, f (x) = x3 + x, is bijective.

Solution. Injective: suppose x1 < x2 . Then x2 − x1 > 0, so 2x2 −x1 > 20 = 1 (since 2t > 1 for all
Solution. Injective. For any x1 ̸= x2 ,
t > 0, a basic property of exponentials with base > 1). Multiplying both sides by 2x1 > 0: 2x2 > 2x1 .
Hence x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), so f is strictly increasing, hence injective. f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) = (x13 − x23 ) + (x1 − x2 ) = (x1 − x2 ) x12 + x1 x2 + x22 + 1 .

Surjective onto (0, ∞): given any y > 0, the number x = log2 y satisfies 2x = 2log2 y = y by definition
of logarithm, and x is a well-defined real number precisely because y > 0. Hence every y ∈ (0, ∞) We claim the second factor is always (strictly) positive. Complete the square in x1 :
is attained.  x2 2 3 2
x12 + x1 x2 + x22 + 1 = x1 + + x2 + 1.
Both properties hold, so f is bijective. ■ 2 4

Solved Example 6 A quadratic-type map on Z: neither injective nor surjective This is a sum of a square, a nonnegative term 34 x22 , and 1, so it is always ≥ 1 > 0. Since x1 ̸= x2 , the
factor (x1 − x2 ) ̸= 0, and the other factor is strictly positive, so f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) ̸= 0, i.e. f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ).
Let f : Z → Z be defined by f (n) = n2 − n. Prove that f is neither injective nor surjective.
Hence f is injective.

Solution. Not injective: f (0) = 02 − 0 = 0 and f (1) = 12 − 1 = 0. Since f (0) = f (1) but 0 ̸= 1, f Surjective. f is a polynomial, hence continuous on R. As x → +∞, f (x) → +∞; as x → −∞,
is not injective. f (x) → −∞. By the Intermediate Value Theorem, for any y ∈ R there exist a < b with f (a) < y <
2
f (b) (choose a, b large enough in magnitude), so some x ∈ [a, b] satisfies f (x) = y. Hence every
Not surjective: we exhibit√an integer never√ attained. Try y = 3: solve n − n − 3 = 0. By the real y is attained, and f is surjective.
1 ± 1 + 12 1 ± 13
quadratic formula, n = = , and since 13 is not a perfect square, n is irrational,
2 2 Both hold, so f is bijective. ■
hence not an integer. So y = 3 has no preimage in Z, and f is not surjective. ■

Solved Example 7 A genuine bijection built from two injective pieces

1.2 Part II — Theorems on Functions, with Complete Proofs
Let f : R → R be defined piecewise by
 Theorem 1.1 Horizontal Line Test
2x, x<0
f (x) = A function f (viewed as a map onto its range) has an inverse if and only if every horizontal
x 2 , x ≥ 0. line y = k intersects the graph of f in at most one point.

Prove that f is bijective.

Solved Example 9 Proof of the Horizontal Line Test

Solution. Behavior on each piece. On (−∞, 0), f (x) = 2x is strictly increasing (linear, positive Prove Theorem 1.1 in both directions.

4 5
1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.2 Part II — Theorems on Functions, with Complete Proofs 1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.2 Part II — Theorems on Functions, with Complete Proofs

Proof. (⇒) Suppose f has an inverse. Then f is injective (this is part of the definition of invert- Solved Example 12 Proof of Theorem 1.4, via the two-sided inverse trick
ibility). Suppose, for contradiction, that some horizontal line y = k meets the graph of f at two
Suppose g : B → A and h : B → A both satisfy the defining property of an inverse of f :
distinct points (x1 , k) and (x2 , k) with x1 ̸= x2 . Then f (x1 ) = k = f (x2 ) with x1 ̸= x2 , contradicting
g( f (x)) = x for all x ∈ A, f (g(y)) = y for all y ∈ B, and likewise for h. Prove g = h.
injectivity. Hence every horizontal line meets the graph at most once.
(⇐) Suppose every horizontal line meets the graph of f at most once. Let x1 ̸= x2 be in the Proof. For any y ∈ B, compute g(y) using the fact that h is also an inverse of f (so f (h(y)) = y):
domain of f , and suppose toward contradiction that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = k. Then the horizontal line

y = k passes through both (x1 , k) and (x2 , k), two distinct points on the graph, contradicting our g(y) = g f (h(y)) (since f (h(y)) = y).
hypothesis. Hence f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) whenever x1 ̸= x2 , so f is injective, and therefore invertible on its
But g ◦ f = idA (the identity on A, since g is an inverse of f ), so
range. ■


Theorem 1.2 Composition of injective functions is injective g f (h(y)) = h(y).

If f : B → C and g : A → B are both injective, then f ◦ g : A → C is injective.

Combining, g(y) = h(y) for every y ∈ B, so g = h as functions. Hence the inverse of a bijective
function is unique. ■
Solved Example 10 Proof of Theorem 1.2
Prove Theorem 1.2 directly from the definitions. Theorem 1.5 Strict monotonicity implies injectivity, and the inverse inherits the mono-
tonicity type
Proof. Let x1 , x2 ∈ A with ( f ◦ g)(x1 ) = ( f ◦ g)(x2 ), i.e. f (g(x1 )) = f (g(x2 )). Since f is injective, If f is strictly increasing on an interval I, then f is injective on I; moreover, if f : I → J
this equality of outputs forces equality of inputs to f : g(x1 ) = g(x2 ). Since g is injective, this in is a bijection (where J = f (I)), then f −1 is also strictly increasing on J. (The analogous
turn forces x1 = x2 . We have shown statement holds with “increasing” replaced throughout by “decreasing”.)

( f ◦ g)(x1 ) = ( f ◦ g)(x2 ) =⇒ x1 = x2 , Solved Example 13 Proof of Theorem 1.5

which is exactly the statement that f ◦ g is injective. ■ Prove both parts of Theorem 1.5.

Theorem 1.3 Composition of surjective functions is surjective Proof. Injectivity. Let x1 , x2 ∈ I with x1 ̸= x2 . Without loss of generality assume x1 < x2 (relabel if
If f : B → C and g : A → B are both surjective, then f ◦ g : A → C is surjective. necessary). Since f is strictly increasing, f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), so in particular f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ). Hence f is
injective on I.
Solved Example 11 Proof of Theorem 1.3 Monotonicity of f −1 . Let y1 , y2 ∈ J with y1 < y2 ; we must show f −1 (y1 ) < f −1 (y2 ). Let x1 =
Prove Theorem 1.3 directly from the definitions. f −1 (y1 ) and x2 = f −1 (y2 ), so f (x1 ) = y1 and f (x2 ) = y2 . Suppose, for contradiction, that x1 ≥ x2 .
If x1 = x2 then y1 = f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = y2 , contradicting y1 < y2 . If x1 > x2 , then since f is strictly
Proof. Let c ∈ C be arbitrary. Since f : B → C is surjective, there exists b ∈ B with f (b) = c. Since increasing, f (x1 ) > f (x2 ), i.e. y1 > y2 , again a contradiction. Hence x1 < x2 , i.e. f −1 (y1 ) < f −1 (y2 ).
g : A → B is surjective, there exists a ∈ A with g(a) = b. Then So f −1 is strictly increasing on J. ■

( f ◦ g)(a) = f (g(a)) = f (b) = c. Theorem 1.6 Even–odd decomposition, existence and uniqueness
Every function f : R → R can be written uniquely as f = E + O, where E is even and O is
Thus every c ∈ C has a preimage a ∈ A under f ◦ g, so f ◦ g is surjective. ■ odd.
Theorem 1.4 Uniqueness of the inverse
Solved Example 14 Proof of Theorem 1.6, including uniqueness
If f : A → B is bijective, its inverse f −1 is unique. Prove both the existence and the uniqueness parts of Theorem 1.6.

6 7
1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.2 Part II — Theorems on Functions, with Complete Proofs 1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.2 Part II — Theorems on Functions, with Complete Proofs

Proof. Existence. Define f is bijective, and since g = h satisfies both cancellation equations with f , this common function is
f −1 . ■
f (x) + f (−x) f (x) − f (−x)
E(x) = , O(x) = .
2 2 Theorem 1.9 Parity of surjectivity for polynomials

Then E(x) + O(x) = f (x)+ f (−x)

+ f (x)− f (−x)
= f (x), so f = E + O. Check E is even: E(−x) = A polynomial function p : R → R of odd degree is always surjective onto R. A polynomial
2 2
f (−x) + f (x) f (−x) − f (x) f (x) − f (−x) function of even degree (≥ 2) is never surjective onto R.
= E(x). Check O is odd: O(−x) = =− = −O(x). So
2 2 2
such a decomposition exists.
Solved Example 17 Proof (sketch) of Theorem 1.9, with examples
Uniqueness. Suppose f = E1 + O1 = E2 + O2 with E1 , E2 even and O1 , O2 odd. Then E1 − E2 =
Justify Theorem 1.9, and illustrate with p(x) = x3 − 3x (odd degree) and q(x) = x4 − 2x2 + 3
O2 − O1 . The left side, E1 − E2 , is even (a difference of even functions is even); the right side,
(even degree).
O2 − O1 , is odd (a difference of odd functions is odd). Call this common function g: it is both even
and odd, so g(x) = g(−x) and g(−x) = −g(x) for all x, giving g(x) = −g(x), i.e. 2g(x) = 0, so
Solution. Odd degree. If deg p is odd, its leading term cn xn (n odd) dominates for large |x|, and an
g(x) = 0 for every x. Hence E1 = E2 and O1 = O2 : the decomposition is unique. ■
odd power preserves sign under negation. So if cn > 0, p(x) → +∞ as x → +∞ and p(x) → −∞
Theorem 1.7 The inverse of an odd bijection is odd as x → −∞ (opposite behavior if cn < 0). Either way, p takes both arbitrarily large positive and
arbitrarily large negative values; since polynomials are continuous, the Intermediate Value Theorem
If f : R → R is bijective and odd, then f −1 is also odd.
guarantees every real value in between is also attained. Hence p is surjective onto R. Example:
p(x) = x3 − 3x → ±∞ as x → ±∞, so by IVT it is surjective (indeed one can check p(−1) =
Solved Example 15 Proof of Theorem 1.7
2, p(1) = −2, p(3) = 18, etc., consistent with hitting a wide range of values).
Prove Theorem 1.7.
Even degree. If deg q is even with leading coefficient cn , then q(x) → +∞ as x → ±∞ if cn > 0
Proof. Let y ∈ R be arbitrary and set x = f −1 (y), so f (x) = y. Since f is odd, f (−x) = − f (x) = −y. (or → −∞ both ways if cn < 0). Either way q is bounded on one side (below if cn > 0, above if
This says precisely that −x is the (unique, since f is bijective) preimage of −y under f , i.e. cn < 0) — it attains a global minimum (or maximum) but never goes below (or above) that value,
so some real numbers are never attained: q is not surjective onto R. Example: q(x) = x4 − 2x2 + 3;
f −1 (−y) = −x = − f −1 (y). substituting u = x2 ≥ 0: q = u2 − 2u + 3 = (u − 1)2 + 2 ≥ 2. So q(x) ≥ 2 for all x, and e.g. y = 0 is
never attained: q is not surjective onto R (its actual range is [2, ∞)). ■
Since y was arbitrary, f −1 (−y) = − f −1 (y) for all y, which is exactly the statement that f −1 is odd.
■ Theorem 1.10 Cauchy’s additive functional equation — elementary consequences

Suppose f : R → R satisfies f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) for all x, y ∈ R (an additive function).

Theorem 1.8 Two-sided inverses coincide
Then: (a) f (0) = 0; (b) f is odd; (c) f (nx) = n f (x) for every positive integer n and every
Let f : A → B. If there exist functions g : B → A and h : B → A with g ◦ f = idA (a left
x ∈ R.
inverse) and f ◦ h = idB (a right inverse), then g = h, and f is bijective with f −1 = g = h.
Solved Example 18 Proof of Theorem 1.10 — a theory-based functional equation prob-
Solved Example 16 Proof of Theorem 1.8, the “left inverse = right inverse” lemma lem
Prove Theorem 1.8. Prove parts (a), (b), (c) of Theorem 1.10.

Proof. Compute g using associativity of composition: Proof. (a) Set x = y = 0: f (0 + 0) = f (0) + f (0) ⇒ f (0) = 2 f (0) ⇒ f (0) = 0.

g = g ◦ idB = g ◦ ( f ◦ h) = (g ◦ f ) ◦ h = idA ◦ h = h. (b) Set y = −x: f (x + (−x)) = f (x) + f (−x) ⇒ f (0) = f (x) + f (−x). By part (a), f (0) = 0, so
f (x) + f (−x) = 0, i.e. f (−x) = − f (x): f is odd.
So g = h. It remains to note f is injective (if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), apply g to both sides: g( f (x1 )) = (c) We use induction on n. Base case n = 1: f (1 · x) = f (x) = 1 · f (x), true. Inductive step: suppose
g( f (x2 )) ⇒ x1 = x2 ) and surjective (for any b ∈ B, f (h(b)) = b shows h(b) is a preimage of b). So f (kx) = k f (x) for some positive integer k. Then, using the functional equation with the two inputs

8 9
1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.3 Part III — Advanced Domain and Range Problems 1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.3 Part III — Advanced Domain and Range Problems

kx and x: Solved Example 22 Range of a rational function via the discriminant technique

x2 − x + 1
f ((k + 1)x) = f (kx + x) = f (kx) + f (x) = k f (x) + f (x) = (k + 1) f (x). Find the range of f (x) = .
x2 + x + 1
By the principle of mathematical induction, f (nx) = n f (x) for every positive integer n. ■
Solution. Note the denominator x2 + x + 1 = (x + 12 )2 + 34 > 0 for all x, so domain = R. Let y = f (x)
(Remark: with the additional hypothesis that f is monotonic (or just continuous at a single point), and cross-multiply:
one can prove the much stronger conclusion f (x) = cx for the constant c = f (1) — this is the
celebrated Cauchy Functional Equation theorem, usually proved in a later real analysis course.) y(x2 + x + 1) = x2 − x + 1 =⇒ (y − 1)x2 + (y + 1)x + (y − 1) = 0.

Case y = 1: the equation becomes 2x = 0 ⇒ x = 0, which is a valid real solution, so y = 1 is

1.3 Part III — Advanced Domain and Range Problems attained.

Solved Example 19 Domain requiring two nested conditions Case y ̸= 1: this is a genuine quadratic in x, which has a real solution if and only if its discriminant
p is nonnegative:
Find the natural domain of f (x) = log0.5 (x − 1). ∆ = (y + 1)2 − 4(y − 1)2 ≥ 0.

Solution. We need two conditions simultaneously: (i) the argument of the logarithm must be pos- Factor as a difference of squares:
itive, x − 1 > 0, i.e. x > 1; and (ii) the value of the logarithm must be nonnegative (so its square   
∆ = (y + 1) − 2(y − 1) (y + 1) + 2(y − 1) = (3 − y)(3y − 1) ≥ 0.
root is real), log0.5 (x − 1) ≥ 0. Since the base 0.5 < 1, the logarithm log0.5 (t) is a decreasing func-
tion of t, and log0.5 (t) ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ 0 < t ≤ 1 (because log0.5 (1) = 0 and the function decreases as
The roots of (3 − y)(3y − 1) = 0 are y = 3 and y = 13 . Testing a value between them (e.g. y = 1:
t increases past 1). So condition (ii) becomes 0 < x − 1 ≤ 1, i.e. 1 < x ≤ 2. Combining with (i)
(3 − 1)(3 − 1) = 4 > 0) shows the product is nonnegative exactly for 13 ≤ y ≤ 3.
(already implied), the domain is (1, 2].  
1
Combining both cases, the range of f is , 3 .
Solved Example 20 Domain from three simultaneous restrictions 3

1 Solved Example 23 Domain and a surprising range: R

Find the natural domain of f (x) = √ + log(x + 2).
9 − x2 √
4 − x2
Find the domain and range of f (x) = .
x
Solution. Two independent conditions: the square root requires a strictly positive radicand (it sits
in a denominator, so it cannot even be zero): 9 − x2 > 0 ⇒ −3 < x < 3. The logarithm requires
Solution. Domain. Need 4 − x2 ≥ 0 ⇒ −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, and x ̸= 0 (denominator). Domain: [−2, 0) ∪
x + 2 > 0 ⇒ x > −2. Intersecting (−3, 3) with (−2, ∞) gives the domain (−2, 3).
(0, 2].
√
Solved Example 21 Domain of an inverse trigonometric composition 4 − x2 √
Range. For x ∈ (0, 2]: f (x) = ≥ 0. As x → 0+ , 4 − x2 → 2 while x → 0+ , so f (x) → +∞.
  x
2x − 1 1 0
Find the natural domain of f (x) = arcsin + . At x = 2, f (2) = = 0. Since f is continuous on (0, 2] and decreases (one can verify f (x)2 = x42 − 1
3 x−4 2
is a strictly decreasing function of x on (0, 2], hence so is f (x) itself, being nonnegative) from +∞
2x − 1 down to 0, by the Intermediate Value Theorem every value in [0, ∞) is attained.
Solution. arcsin requires its argument in [−1, 1]: −1 ≤ ≤ 1 ⇒ −3 ≤ 2x − 1 ≤ 3 ⇒ −2 ≤
3 By an identical argument for x ∈ [−2, 0) (where f (x) ≤ 0), every value in (−∞, 0] is attained.
2x ≤ 4 ⇒ −1 ≤ x ≤ 2. The second term requires x ̸= 4, which is automatically satisfied since
4∈/ [−1, 2]. Domain: [−1, 2]. Combining, the range of f is (−∞, 0] ∪ [0, ∞) = R — the whole real line, despite f ’s restricted
domain.

10 11
1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.3 Part III — Advanced Domain and Range Problems 1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.4 Part IV — Advanced Graph-Sketching Problems

Solved Example 24 Domain with a hidden zero in the denominator (−∞, 1] ∪ [5, ∞), the quantity (x − 3)2 ranges over [4, ∞) (since |x − 3| ≥ 2 throughout this domain,
1 as x ≤ 1 gives x − 3 ≤ −2 and x ≥ 5 gives x − 3 ≥ 2), so g(x) = (x − 3)2 − 4 ranges over [0, ∞).
Find the natural domain of f (x) = √ . √
x−2−1 Since · applied to [0, ∞) again gives [0, ∞), the range of h is [0, ∞).

√
Solution. First, the square root requires x − 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ 2. Second, the denominator x − 2 − 1
√ 1.4 Part IV — Advanced Graph-Sketching Problems
must not be zero: x − 2 ̸= 1 ⇒ x − 2 ̸= 1 ⇒ x ̸= 3. Combining, the domain is [2, 3) ∪ (3, ∞). (This
is a common trap: students often check only x − 2 ≥ 0 and forget that the resulting square root can Solved Example 28 Rational function with both asymptotes identified from the trans-
itself make the denominator vanish.) formation
Solved Example 25 Range of a linear combination of sine and cosine 1
Sketch f (x) = + 2, stating the domain, range, and both asymptotes directly from the
x−1
Find the range of f (x) = 3 sin x + 4 cos x, proving your formula for the maximum and mini- transformation (without plotting points first).
mum.
√ Solution. Starting from y = 1/x (vertical asymptote x = 0, horizontal asymptote y = 0): shifting
Solution. We claim a sin x + b cos x = R sin(x + ϕ) where R = a2 + b2 and ϕ is chosen so that 1 1
2
right 1 gives y = (vertical asymptote moves to x = 1); shifting up 2 gives y = +2
2
cos ϕ = Ra , sin ϕ = Rb (possible since Ra + Rb = 1). Indeed, by the angle-addition formula,


x−1 x−1
(horizontal asymptote moves to y = 2). Hence: domain R\{1}, vertical asymptote x = 1, horizontal
a b asymptote y = 2, range R \ {2} (the curve never actually reaches y = 2, since 1/(x − 1) is never
R sin(x + ϕ) = R(sin x cos ϕ + cos x sin ϕ) = R · sin x + R · cos x = a sin x + b cos x.
R R exactly 0).
√ √
Here a = 3, b = 4, so R = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5. Since sin(x + ϕ) ranges over [−1, 1] as x varies, Solved Example 29 Deriving the piecewise formula for y = | f (x)|
f (x) = 5 sin(x + ϕ) ranges over [−5, 5]. Hence the range of f is [−5, 5], with maximum 5 and
Given f (x) = x2 − 4, derive the explicit piecewise formula for y = | f (x)| and sketch it.
minimum −5.

Solved Example 26 Domain of a logarithm of a periodic function Solution. f (x) = x2 −4 = (x−2)(x+2) is negative exactly on (−2, 2) and nonnegative on (−∞, −2]∪
[2, ∞). By definition of absolute value,
Find the natural domain of f (x) = ln(sin x), and state its range.

x2 − 4, x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 2
Solution. Need sin x > 0. Since sin x > 0 exactly on the intervals (2kπ, (2k + 1)π) for each integer | f (x)| =
4 − x2 , −2 < x < 2.
k (i.e. the “upper half” of each period), the domain is
[
Geometrically: keep the graph of y = x2 − 4 wherever it is already above the x-axis, and reflect the
2kπ, (2k + 1)π .
k∈Z portion between x = −2 and x = 2 (where it dips below) up about the x-axis. The resulting graph
touches the x-axis at x = ±2 and has a local maximum of 4 at x = 0 (from the reflected piece).
On each such interval, sin x takes every value in (0, 1] (approaching 0 at the endpoints, reaching 1
at the midpoint), so ln(sin x) takes every value in (−∞, 0]. Hence the range of f is (−∞, 0]. Solved Example 30 Deriving the piecewise formula for y = f (|x|), and its symmetry

Solved Example 27 Domain and range of a composite function Given f (x) = x2 − 2x, derive the piecewise formula for y = f (|x|), sketch it, and explain why
√ the result is always an even function regardless of f .
Let f (x) = x and g(x) = x2 − 6x + 5. Find the domain of h = f ◦ g, and then find the range
of h.
Solution. By definition, y = f (|x|) equals f (x) when x ≥ 0 (since |x| = x there), and equals f (−x)
when x < 0 (since |x| = −x there). So:
Solution. Domain. We need g(x) ≥ 0: x2 − 6x + 5
= (x − 1)(x − 5) ≥ 0. A sign chart (roots at
x = 1, 5) shows this holds for x ≤ 1 or x ≥ 5. Domain of h: (−∞, 1] ∪ [5, ∞).

 f (x) = x2 − 2x, x≥0
Range. We first find the range of g restricted to this domain. Write g(x) = (x − 3)2 − 4. On f (|x|) =
 f (−x) = (−x)2 − 2(−x) = x2 + 2x, x < 0.

12 13
1 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.4 Part IV — Advanced Graph-Sketching Problems 2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Why always even: for any x, f (| − x|) = f (|x|) because | − x| = |x| identically. This holds regardless Solved Example 33 Combining reflection about the y-axis with a vertical shift, for an
of the formula for f — the operation “feed in |x|” automatically produces an even function, since exponential function
it only ever depends on the magnitude of x, never its sign. Geometrically: the graph of y = f (|x|)
Sketch f (x) = 2−x + 1, stating the horizontal asymptote, domain, and range.
is obtained by taking the portion of y = f (x) for x ≥ 0 and reflecting it about the y-axis to build the
x < 0 portion, discarding whatever f originally did for negative x. Solution. Starting from y = 2x (domain R, range (0, ∞), horizontal asymptote y = 0): replacing x
Solved Example 31 Sketching an inverse from a graph, without a formula by −x reflects about the y-axis, giving y = 2−x (a decreasing exponential, same asymptote y = 0);
shifting up 1 gives y = 2−x + 1, moving the asymptote to y = 1. Domain remains R; range becomes
An invertible, strictly increasing function f is known to pass through the points (−2, −5),
(1, ∞) (since 2−x > 0 always, so 2−x + 1 > 1).
(0, −1), and (3, 4). Sketch the graph of f −1 using these points, and evaluate f −1 (−1) and
f −1 (4). Solved Example 34 Finding a continuity-matching constant, then sketching

x2 + k, x < 1
Solution. Reflecting each point (a, b) 7→ (b, a) across the line y = x: the graph of f −1 passes through Find the constant k so that f (x) = has no jump at x = 1 (i.e. the two pieces
(−5, −2), (−1, 0), and (4, 3). Since f is strictly increasing, f −1 is also strictly increasing (Theorem 3x, x≥1
1.5), so we connect these three reflected points with an increasing curve. Directly: f −1 (−1) = 0 meet at the same height), then describe the resulting graph.
(from the point (−1, 0)) and f −1 (4) = 3 (from (4, 3)).
Solution. As x → 1− , the top piece approaches 12 + k = 1 + k. The bottom piece at x = 1 gives
6 y 3(1) = 3. For the pieces to meet with no jump, we need 1+k = 3 ⇒ k = 2. With k = 2: f (x) = x2 +2
y = f (x) for x < 1 (a parabola with vertex (0, 2), approaching the point (1, 3) as x → 1− ) and f (x) = 3x for
4 y = f −1 (x) x ≥ 1 (a ray starting exactly at (1, 3) and rising with slope 3). The two pieces join smoothly (in the
y=x
sense of matching height, though not necessarily matching slope) at (1, 3).
2
Solved Example 35 Piecewise trigonometric sketch via case analysis on the sign of sin x
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 Sketch y = | sin x| + sin x over one period [0, 2π], using case analysis.
−2
Solution. Case sin x ≥ 0 (i.e. x ∈ [0, π]): | sin x| = sin x, so y = sin x + sin x = 2 sin x.
−4
Case sin x < 0 (i.e. x ∈ (π, 2π)): | sin x| = − sin x, so y = − sin x + sin x = 0.
−6 So the graph is a “doubled” sine hump on [0, π] (reaching a maximum of 2 at x = π/2) followed by
a flat segment at y = 0 on [π, 2π] — this is the classic half-wave-rectified-and-doubled sine wave
Solved Example 32 Rational function with an oblique (slant) asymptote that appears in electronics (e.g. modeling a diode rectifier circuit).

x2 + 1 y
Sketch f (x) = , identifying all asymptotes (including any oblique one) and discussing 2
x
symmetry.
1
x2 + 1 1 x
Solution. Perform the division: = x + . This decomposition reveals two asymptotic be-
x x π 2π
1
haviors: as |x| → ∞, the term x → 0, so the graph approaches the oblique (slant) asymptote y = x;
as x → 0, the term 1x → ±∞, giving a vertical asymptote x = 0. There is no horizontal asymptote
(−x)2 + 1 x2 + 1
(the function grows without bound). Symmetry: f (−x) = =− = − f (x), so f is 2 Practice Problems
−x x
odd, and its graph is symmetric about the origin. Domain: R \ {0}.
Attempt every problem independently; several require a full proof, not just a computation. Prob-
lems are grouped to match the four parts of Section 1.

14 15
2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Part I — Verification of Injective, Surjective, Bijective Functions inverse existing without further hypotheses.

Problem 1 Problem 9
2x + 1 Suppose f : R → R satisfies f (x + y) = f (x) f (y) for all x, y ∈ R, and f is not the zero
Let f : R \ {1} → R \ {2} be defined by f (x) = . Prove that f is bijective and find
x−1 function. Prove: (a) f (0) = 1; (b) f (x) > 0 for every x ∈ R; (c) f (−x) = 1/ f (x) for every x.
f −1 .

Problem 2
Part III — Advanced Domain and Range
Let f (x) = x|x| for x ∈ R. Prove that f is injective on R, and determine (with proof) whether
f is surjective onto R. Problem 10
p
Problem 3 Find the natural domain of f (x) = log3 (4 − x).

Prove that f : R → R, f (x) = x5 + x3 + x, is bijective. (Hint: adapt the factoring technique

Problem 11
of Solved Example 1.7.)
1
Find the natural domain of f (x) = √ .
Problem 4 x2 − 5x + 6

Let f : Z → Z be defined by f (n) = 3n − 2. Prove f is injective. Is f surjective onto Z? Problem 12

Justify your answer rigorously.
2x − 1
Find the range of f (x) = using the discriminant technique of Solved Example 3.4.
x2 + 1
Problem 5
ex Problem 13
Prove that f (x) = is injective on R, and find its range (hence identify the codomain
1 + ex
onto which f is bijective). Find the domain and range of f (x) = arccos(2x − 3).

Problem 14
Part II — Theorems and Proofs Find the natural domain of h(x) = ln(cos x), and state its range.

Problem 6 Problem 15
Let f : A → B and g : B → C both be bijective. Prove that g◦ f is bijective and that (g◦ f )−1 = √ √ 1
Find the natural domain of f (x) = x+3+ 1−x+ .
f −1 ◦ g−1 . x

Problem 7
Part IV — Advanced Graph Sketching
Prove: if f is strictly decreasing and bijective on an interval I, then f −1 is also strictly
decreasing on f (I). (Hint: adapt the proof of Theorem 1.5.)
Problem 16
1
Problem 8 Sketch f (x) = 3 − , stating both asymptotes, the domain, and the range.
x+2
Let f : A → B. Suppose g : B → A satisfies f ◦ g = idB only (a right inverse, with no assump-
tion about g ◦ f ). Prove that f must be surjective. Give an explicit example where f has
a right inverse but is not injective, to show surjectivity alone need not follow from a right

16 17
2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Problem 17
Given f (x) = x2 − 4x, derive and sketch the piecewise formulas for both y = | f (x)| and
y = f (|x|) separately.

Problem 18
x2 − 4
Advanced Problems and Solutions
Sketch f (x) = after performing polynomial division to find the oblique asymptote.
x−1
State all asymptotes and the domain. Functions, Classification, Domain & Range, Graph Sketching, and Theorems

Problem 19 Proofs, Verifications, and Theory-Based Numerical Problems


2x + k, x ≤ 2
Find the constant k so that f (x) = has no jump at x = 2, and then sketch
x2 − 1, x > 2 Undergraduate Mathematics — First Year
the resulting function.
Foundations for Calculus
Problem 20
Sketch y = | cos x| − cos x over [0, 2π], using case analysis on the sign of cos x (compare to
Solved Example 4.8). This note is pitched at undergraduate rigor. It emphasizes formal proofs of function-theoretic
theorems (injectivity, surjectivity, bijectivity, composition, inverses, monotonicity, parity),
Problem 21 multi-constraint domain and range problems, verification tasks, and complete graph-sketching
Given an invertible increasing function f passing through (−2, −5), (0, −1), and (3, 4), analyses. Work each solved example fully — including the proofs — before attempting the
sketch f −1 and state f −1 (−1). practice problems collected at the end.

Problem 22
Prove that q(x) = x4 − 2x2 + 3 is not surjective onto R by finding its exact range (compare
Theorem 1.9), and confirm your answer matches the general even-degree argument.

This completes the advanced problem set. Having worked through 35 fully proved and solved
examples and attempted these 22 problems, you should be prepared to verify
injectivity/surjectivity/bijectivity rigorously, prove standard theorems about functions from first
principles, solve non-routine domain/range problems, and sketch graphs that require combining
several transformation and analysis techniques at once.

18
 Contents Part A — Verifying and Classifying Functions
• Part A — Verifying and Classifying Functions (Examples 1–5) Example 1 — Verifying the Formal Definition of a Function
• Part B — Injective, Surjective, Bijective: Proofs and Numerical Verification (Examples 6–13) Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {5,6,7,8,9}. Determine, using the formal definition (existence +
• Part C — Composition of Functions: Theorems and Proofs (Examples 14–19) uniqueness of images), whether each relation is a function from A to B: (a) R1 =
• Part D — Inverse Functions: Existence, Construction, and Proofs (Examples 20–24) {(1,5),(2,6),(3,7),(4,8)}; (b) R = {(1,5),(1,6),(2,7),(3,8),(4,9)}; (c) R = {(1,5),(2,6),(3,7)}.
2 3
• Part E — Domain and Range: Multi-Constraint Problems (Examples 25–30)
• Part F — Even/Odd Functions and Parity Theorems (Examples 31–33) Solution. (a) Every element of A (1,2,3,4) occurs exactly once as a first coordinate, each with a
• Part G — Complete Graph-Sketching Analyses (Examples 34–36) unique image: R1 satisfies both existence and uniqueness, so it is a function A → B. (b) The
element 1 is paired with both 5 and 6, violating uniqueness (condition (ii) fails): R is not a
• Practice Problem Set — 22 Problems with Answers 2
function. (c) The element 4 ∈ A never appears as a first coordinate, violating existence
(condition (i) fails): R is not a function from A to B (it would only be a function from the
3
smaller set {1,2,3} to B).

Example 2 — Vertical Line Test Applied Rigorously

Prove that the relation defined implicitly by x2 + 4y2 = 16 does not define y as a function of x, and
identify the exact set of x-values where the failure occurs.

Solution. Solve for y: 4y2 = 16 − x2 ⇒ y = ±½√(16 − x2), defined for x ∈ [−4,4]. For any x
with −4 < x < 4, the two values ½√(16−x²) and −½√(16−x²) are distinct (the radicand is strictly
positive), so condition (ii) of the function definition fails for every x in the open interval (−4,4).
Only at the two endpoints x = ±4 does the equation produce a single value (y = 0), but this does
not rescue the relation as a whole, since a function must satisfy uniqueness at every x in its
domain. Hence the ellipse is a relation but not a function of x.

Example 3 — Classifying a Function by Algebraic Form (Full Justification)

Prove that f(x) = (x2 − 4)3/2 / (x + 1) is an algebraic function but is not a rational function.

Solution. By definition, f is algebraic if it is built from polynomials using finitely many of +, −,

×, ÷, and (possibly fractional) roots/powers. Here, x2 − 4 is a polynomial, raised to the power
3/2 (equivalent to squaring then taking a square root, i.e. a root extraction), and the result is
divided by the polynomial x + 1: this uses only finitely many algebraic operations, so f is
algebraic. To show f is not rational, suppose for contradiction that f(x) = P(x)/Q(x) for
polynomials P, Q. Then (x2−4)3/2 = f(x)(x+1) would also have to be a ratio of polynomials,
hence a rational function; but (x2−4)3/2 is undefined (not real) for −2 < x < 2 and involves a
genuine square-root singularity at x = ±2 that no polynomial ratio can reproduce (a rational
function is defined at all but finitely many isolated points, whereas this expression is undefined
on an entire interval). This contradiction shows f is algebraic but not rational. ■
Example 4 — Verifying Piecewise Well-Definedness Solution. Let f : {1,2} ∪ {5,6} → R be defined by f(1) = 10, f(2) = 20, f(5) = 3, f(6) = 4. All
2 four outputs (10, 20, 3, 4) are distinct, so f is injective. However f is not monotonic on its
For what value of the constant k is f(x) = kx − 3 for x ≤ 2, and f(x) = 5x − k for x > 2, a
well-defined function on all of R (i.e. single-valued at the breakpoint)? domain as a whole: moving from x = 2 to x = 5 (an increase in x), the output decreases from 20
to 3, whereas on {1,2} and on {5,6} separately f is increasing. This shows injectivity alone is a
Solution. A piecewise formula is automatically single-valued as long as the intervals of weaker property than global monotonicity when the domain is disconnected.
definition do not overlap (here x ≤ 2 and x > 2 partition R with no overlap), so f is always a
well-defined function regardless of k — every real x lies in exactly one piece. The more Example 8 — Proving Injectivity of a Rational Function
common follow-up question is continuity at x = 2: this requires lim - f(x) = lim + f(x), i.e. Prove that f(x) = (3x + 2)/(x − 5), domain x ≠ 5, is injective.
x→2 x→2
2
k(2) − 3 = 5(2) − k ⇒ 4k − 3 = 10 − k ⇒ 5k = 13 ⇒ k = 13/5. So f is a function for every k,
Solution (Proof). Suppose f(x1) = f(x2). Then (3x1+2)/(x1−5) = (3x2+2)/(x2−5).
but is continuous at x = 2 only when k = 13/5.
Cross-multiplying: (3x1+2)(x2−5) = (3x2+2)(x1−5). Expanding both sides: 3x1x2 − 15x1 + 2x2
Example 5 — Distinguishing Domain-of-Definition from Well-Definedness − 10 = 3x1x2 − 15x2 + 2x1 − 10. The 3x1x2 and −10 terms cancel from both sides, leaving
Explain why g(x) = √(x − 3) · √(3 − x) fails to define a nontrivial function, and find its actual −15x + 2x = −15x + 2x ⇒ 17x = 17x ⇒ x = x . Since f(x ) = f(x ) forces x = x , f is
1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2
domain and range. injective. ■

Solution. The first factor requires x ≥ 3; the second requires x ≤ 3. Both conditions hold Example 9 — Surjectivity Proof via Explicit Preimage Construction
simultaneously only at x = 3. Hence the natural domain of g is the single point {3} (the Prove that f : R → R, f(x) = x3 − 3x, is not injective, but is surjective.
intersection of the two individual domains), and g(3) = √0·√0 = 0. So g is technically a
Solution. Not injective: f′(x) = 3x2 − 3 = 3(x−1)(x+1). Since f′ changes sign (positive on
(degenerate) function with domain {3} and range {0} — a case where combining two
(−∞,−1), negative on (−1,1), positive on (1,∞)), f is not monotonic on R. Concretely f(−2) =
restrictive conditions collapses the domain to almost nothing, illustrating why domains of
−8+6=−2 and f(1) = 1−3=−2, so f(−2)=f(1) with −2≠1: not injective. Surjective: f is a cubic
combined expressions must always be intersected, never assumed from a simplified form.
(odd degree) polynomial, so limx→−∞ f(x) = −∞ and limx→∞ f(x) = +∞. Since f is continuous
(all polynomials are continuous) and takes arbitrarily large positive and negative values, the
Part B — Injective, Surjective, Bijective: Proofs and Numerical Intermediate Value Theorem guarantees that every real number y is attained by some x. Hence
Verification f is surjective onto R, even though it is not injective.

Example 10 — Theorem: Every Odd-Degree Real Polynomial Is Surjective on R

Example 6 — Proof: Strict Monotonicity Implies Injectivity
Prove that every polynomial p(x) of odd degree n with real coefficients is surjective as a map R →
Prove: if f is strictly increasing on an interval I, then f is injective on I.
R.
Solution (Proof). Let x1, x2 ∈ I with x1 ≠ x2. Without loss of generality assume x1 < x2 (the
Solution (Proof). Write p(x) = anxn + ... + a0 with an ≠ 0 and n odd. Since n is odd, xn → +∞ as
case x1 > x2 is symmetric). Since f is strictly increasing, x1 < x2 implies f(x1) < f(x2), so in
x → +∞ and xn → −∞ as x → −∞ (or the reverse if an < 0); in either case the leading term
particular f(x1) ≠ f(x2). Thus distinct inputs always produce distinct outputs, which is precisely
dominates for large |x|, so limx→+∞ p(x) and limx→−∞ p(x) are +∞ and −∞ in some order. Since
the definition of injectivity. ■
p is continuous on R (as a polynomial) and its values range over both arbitrarily large positive
Example 7 — Disproof: Injective Does Not Imply Monotonic and arbitrarily large negative numbers, the Intermediate Value Theorem implies that for every
Give a counterexample showing an injective function on a disconnected domain need not be y ∈ R there exists c between two sufficiently large-magnitude points with p(c) = y. Hence p is
monotonic on its full domain. surjective onto R. (Contrast: an even-degree polynomial has the same sign of infinite limit on
both ends, so it is bounded below or above and therefore cannot be surjective onto R.) ■
Example 11 — Bijectivity of a Restricted Function, with Full Proof Solution (Proof). Suppose (f°g)(x1) = (f°g)(x2) for x1, x2 ∈ A, i.e. f(g(x1)) = f(g(x2)). Since f is
2 injective, this equality of outputs forces equality of the inputs to f: g(x ) = g(x ). Since g is also
Let f : [2, ∞) → [1, ∞) be given by f(x) = (x−2) + 1. Prove f is bijective. 1 2
2 2
injective, this in turn forces x1 = x2. Hence (f°g)(x1) = (f°g)(x2) implies x1 = x2, proving f°g is
Solution. Injective: let x1, x2 ≥ 2 with f(x1) = f(x2): (x1−2) = (x2−2) ⇒ x1−2 = ±(x2−2). injective. ■
Since x1, x2 ≥ 2, both x1−2 ≥ 0 and x2−2 ≥ 0, so the negative sign would force x1−2 = −(x2−2)
≤ 0 while also ≥ 0, giving x = x = 2 as the only such case — consistent, not contradictory. Example 15 — Proof: If g ° f Is Injective, Then f Is Injective (but g need not be)
1 2
Taking the positive sign directly gives x1 = x2. Either way x1 = x2, so f is injective. Surjective: Prove: if f : A → B, g : B → C, and g°f is injective, then f must be injective. Give an example
given y ≥ 1, set x = 2 + √(y−1) (real since y−1≥0, and x ≥ 2 automatically). Then f(x) = showing g need not be injective.
2
(√(y−1)) + 1 = y. So every y ∈ [1,∞) is attained. Both properties hold, so f is bijective, with
-1 Solution (Proof). Suppose f(x1) = f(x2) for x1, x2 ∈ A. Applying g to both sides: g(f(x1)) =
f (y) = 2 + √(y−1). ■
g(f(x2)), i.e. (g°f)(x1) = (g°f)(x2). Since g°f is injective, this forces x1 = x2. Hence f is injective.
Example 12 — Pigeonhole-Type Proof for Finite Sets ■ Counterexample for g: let A = {1}, B = {1,2}, C = {1}, f(1) = 1, and g(1) = g(2) = 1. Then
Prove: if A and B are finite sets with n(A) = n(B), then a function f : A → B is injective if and g°f : A → C sends 1 → 1, trivially injective (A has only one element), yet g itself is not
only if it is surjective. injective since g(1) = g(2). This shows injectivity of g°f only guarantees injectivity of the inner
function f, not the outer function g.
Solution (Proof). Let n(A) = n(B) = n. (⇒) Suppose f is injective. Then the n distinct elements
of A produce n distinct images in B (since injectivity forbids repeated outputs). These n distinct Example 16 — Proof: If g ° f Is Surjective, Then g Is Surjective (but f need not be)
images form a subset of B of size n; but n(B) = n, so this subset must be all of B. Hence every Prove: if g°f is surjective, then g must be surjective. Give an example showing f need not be
element of B is attained, i.e. f is surjective. (⇐) Suppose f is surjective. Then every one of the n surjective.
elements of B has at least one preimage in A. If f were not injective, some two distinct elements
Solution (Proof). Let c ∈ C be arbitrary. Since g°f : A → C is surjective, there exists a ∈ A
of A would share an image, using at most n−1 distinct outputs for n inputs — by the pigeonhole
with (g°f)(a) = c, i.e. g(f(a)) = c. Setting b = f(a) ∈ B, we have g(b) = c. Since c was arbitrary,
principle this would leave at least one element of B with no preimage, contradicting
every element of C has a preimage under g, so g is surjective. ■ Counterexample for f: let A =
surjectivity. Hence f must be injective. Combining both directions proves the equivalence. ■
{1}, B = {1,2}, C = {1}, f(1) = 1, g(1) = g(2) = 1. Then g°f is surjective onto C = {1}
Example 13 — Numerical Verification Using the Horizontal Line Test and Calculus (trivially), but f : A → B is not surjective since 2 ∈ B is never attained.
Determine, using the sign of f′(x), whether f(x) = x3 + 3x + 1 is injective on R. Example 17 — Composition of Bijections and the Inverse-Reversal Theorem
Solution. f′(x) = 3x2 + 3 = 3(x2 + 1) ≥ 3 > 0 for every real x (since x2 ≥ 0). Because f′(x) > 0 Let f(x) = 2x − 1 and g(x) = x3, both bijective on R. Compute (f°g)-1(x) directly, and verify it
everywhere, f is strictly increasing on all of R (by Example 6's theorem), and therefore injective equals (g-1°f-1)(x).
on R. This is a case where calculus gives an instant, rigorous proof of injectivity without
Solution. (f°g)(x) = 2x3 − 1. Directly: let y = 2x3−1 ⇒ x3 = (y+1)/2 ⇒ x = ■((y+1)/2). So
needing to solve f(x1) = f(x2) algebraically (which would require solving a cubic).
(f°g)-1(x) = ■((x+1)/2). Via the theorem: f-1(x) = (x+1)/2, g-1(x) = ■x. Then (g-1°f-1)(x) =
g-1((x+1)/2) = ■((x+1)/2), matching the direct computation and confirming (f°g)-1 = g-1°f-1
Part C — Composition of Functions: Theorems and Proofs (note the order reverses).

Example 14 — Proof: Composition of Injections Is an Injection Example 18 — Proof of the Reversal Theorem in General
Let f : B → C and g : A → B both be injective. Prove f ° g is injective. Prove that if f : B → C and g : A → B are both bijective, then (f°g)-1 = g-1°f-1.
 Solution (Proof). Since f and g are bijective, f°g is bijective (composition of bijections is a Example 22 — Self-Inverse Functions
bijection, by Examples 14 and its surjective analogue), so (f°g)-1 exists. To show it equals Prove that f(x) = (5 − x)/(1 − x), x ≠ 1, satisfies f
-1
= f (f is its own inverse), and interpret this
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
g °f , it suffices to verify that g °f undoes f°g. For any a ∈ A: (g °f )((f°g)(a)) = geometrically.
g-1(f-1(f(g(a)))) = g-1(g(a)) (using f-1°f = id ) = a (using g-1°g = id ). Since (g-1°f-1)°(f°g) =
B A -1
id , and inverses in a bijection are unique, g-1°f-1 must be the inverse of f°g. ■ Solution (Proof). To find f , solve y = (5−x)/(1−x) for x: y(1−x) = 5−x ⇒ y − xy = 5 − x ⇒ x
A
− xy = 5 − y ⇒ x(1−y) = 5−y ⇒ x = (5−y)/(1−y). Swapping x and y: f-1(x) = (5−x)/(1−x) =
Example 19 — Non-Commutativity and Domain Subtleties in Composition -1
f(x). Since f (x) = f(x) for all x in the domain, f is its own inverse. ■ Geometrically, this means
Let f(x) = √x and g(x) = x − 4. Show (f°g)(x) ≠ (g°f)(x) as functions, and find the domain of each. the graph of f is symmetric about the line y = x: reflecting the graph across y = x produces the
identical curve.
Solution. (f°g)(x) = f(x−4) = √(x−4); domain requires x−4 ≥ 0, so [4, ∞). (g°f)(x) = g(√x) = √x
− 4; domain requires x ≥ 0, so [0, ∞). Even though the two formulas look algebraically related, Example 23 — Inverse of a Piecewise-Restricted Function
they are different functions with different domains: e.g. at x = 1, (f°g)(1) is undefined Let f(x) = x2 − 4x + 7 restricted to x ≥ 2. Prove f is invertible on this restricted domain and find
(1−4=−3<0), while (g°f)(1) = 1 − 4 = −3. This confirms f°g ≠ g°f both in formula and in f-1.
domain. 2
Solution. Complete the square: f(x) = (x−2) + 3. On x ≥ 2, f′(x) = 2(x−2) ≥ 0, with equality
only at x = 2, so f is strictly increasing on (2, ∞) and non-decreasing at the single point x=2;
Part D — Inverse Functions: Existence, Construction, and more carefully, for 2 ≤ x1 < x2, (x1−2)2 < (x2−2)2 strictly (since both are ≥ 0 and x1−2 < x2−2
Proofs with both nonnegative), so f is strictly increasing on [2,∞), hence injective by Example 6.
Range: as x ranges over [2,∞), (x−2)2 ranges over [0,∞), so f ranges over [3,∞) — every such
Example 20 — Proof: f Has an Inverse If and Only If f Is Bijective value is attained, so f is surjective onto [3,∞). Thus f : [2,∞) → [3,∞) is bijective. Solving y =
Prove: a function f : A → B has an inverse function f-1 : B → A if and only if f is bijective. (x−2)2+3 for x ≥ 2: x = 2 + √(y−3). So f-1(x) = 2 + √(x−3), domain [3, ∞).
-1
Solution (Proof). (⇒) Suppose f has an inverse g = f with g°f = idA and f°g = idB. Injective: Example 24 — Theorem: Graph of f-1 Is the Reflection of the Graph of f About y = x
if f(x1) = f(x2), apply g to both sides: g(f(x1)) = g(f(x2)) ⇒ x1 = x2 (since g°f = idA). Surjective: Prove: if f is bijective with inverse f-1, and (a,b) lies on the graph of f, then (b,a) lies on the graph
for any b ∈ B, let a = g(b) ∈ A; then f(a) = f(g(b)) = b (since f°g = idB), so b is attained. Hence of f-1, and conversely.
f is bijective. (⇐) Suppose f is bijective. Define g : B → A by letting g(b) be the unique a ∈ A
with f(a) = b (existence from surjectivity, uniqueness from injectivity, so g is well-defined as a Solution (Proof). Suppose (a,b) is on the graph of f, i.e. f(a) = b. Applying f-1 to both sides:
function). Then by construction f(g(b)) = b for all b, and g(f(a)) = a for all a (since g(f(a)) is f-1(f(a)) = f-1(b) ⇒ a = f-1(b) (by the cancellation equation f-1°f = id). This says precisely that
defined as the unique preimage of f(a), which is a itself). Hence g is the inverse of f. ■ f-1(b) = a, i.e. the point (b,a) lies on the graph of f-1. Conversely, if (b,a) is on the graph of f-1,
i.e. f-1(b) = a, applying f to both sides gives f(f-1(b)) = f(a) ⇒ b = f(a) (using f°f-1 = id), so (a,b)
Example 21 — Constructing an Inverse with Correct Domain Restriction is on the graph of f. Since reflecting the point (a,b) across the line y = x produces exactly (b,a),
Find f-1(x) for f(x) = −√(4 − x), stating the correct domain, and verify the cancellation equations. the entire graph of f-1 is the mirror image of the graph of f across y = x. ■

Solution. Domain of f: need 4−x ≥ 0, so x ≤ 4, i.e. (−∞,4]. Range of f: since √(4−x) ≥ 0, f(x) =
−√(4−x) ≤ 0, and every nonpositive value is attained, so range = (−∞, 0]. Solve for x: y = Part E — Domain and Range: Multi-Constraint Problems
−√(4−x) ⇒ −y = √(4−x) (valid since y ≤ 0 makes −y ≥ 0) ⇒ y2 = 4−x ⇒ x = 4 − y2. Swapping:
Example 25 — Domain with Three Simultaneous Constraints
f-1(x) = 4 − x2, with domain equal to the range of f, i.e. x ≤ 0. Verification: f(f-1(x)) = f(4−x2) =
2 2
−√(4−(4−x )) = −√(x ) = −|x| = x (since x ≤ 0 here, |x| = −x), confirming the identity. Find the natural domain of f(x) = √(x2 − 5x + 6) / ln(x − 1), for x also satisfying x ≠ 2.
 2
Solution. Three conditions must hold simultaneously: (i) radicand: x −5x+6 = (x−2)(x−3) ≥ 0 Example 30 — Theory Problem: Domain of a Function Composed with Itself
⇒ x ≤ 2 or x ≥ 3; (ii) logarithm argument positive: x − 1 > 0 ⇒ x > 1; (iii) logarithm nonzero Let f(x) = √(x − 2). Find the natural domain of (f ° f)(x).
(else division by zero): x − 1 ≠ 1 ⇒ x ≠ 2 (this coincides with the stated exclusion). Intersecting
(i) and (ii): (1,2] ∪ [3,∞). Removing x = 2 per (iii): Domain = (1,2) ∪ [3, ∞). Solution. dom(f) = [2, ∞). By the composition-domain rule, dom(f°f) = {x ∈ dom(f) : f(x) ∈
dom(f)} = {x ≥ 2 : √(x−2) ≥ 2}. Solve √(x−2) ≥ 2: since both sides are nonnegative, square: x−2
Example 26 — Domain Involving an Inverse Trigonometric Function ≥ 4 ⇒ x ≥ 6. Combined with x ≥ 2 (automatically satisfied), Domain(f°f) = [6, ∞), and (f°f)(x)
Find the natural domain of g(x) = arcsin((2x−1)/3) + √(x + 2). = √(√(x−2) − 2).

Solution. arcsin requires its argument in [−1,1]: −1 ≤ (2x−1)/3 ≤ 1 ⇒ −3 ≤ 2x−1 ≤ 3 ⇒ −2 ≤ 2x

≤ 4 ⇒ −1 ≤ x ≤ 2, i.e. [−1, 2]. The root requires x + 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ −2, i.e. [−2, ∞). Intersecting: Part F — Even/Odd Functions and Parity Theorems
Domain = [−1, 2].
Example 31 — Theorem: Parity Rules Under Composition
Example 27 — Range of a Quadratic-over-Quadratic Rational Function via the Prove: (a) the composition of two even functions is even; (b) the composition of two odd
Discriminant Method functions is odd; (c) the composition of an odd function with an even function (in either order) is
Find the range of f(x) = (x2 − x + 1)/(x2 + x + 1). even.
2 2
Solution. Let y = (x −x+1)/(x +x+1) (the denominator is never zero since its discriminant 1−4 Solution (Proof). (a) Let f, g be even: f(−x)=f(x), g(−x)=g(x). Then (f°g)(−x) = f(g(−x)) =
= −3 < 0, so domain = R). Cross-multiplying: y(x2+x+1) = x2−x+1 ⇒ (y−1)x2 + (y+1)x + f(g(x)) = (f°g)(x), so f°g is even. (b) Let f, g be odd: f(−x)=−f(x), g(−x)=−g(x). Then (f°g)(−x) =
(y−1) = 0. Case y = 1: the equation becomes 2x = 0 ⇒ x = 0, a valid real solution, so y=1 is f(g(−x)) = f(−g(x)) = −f(g(x)) (using oddness of f on the input −g(x)) = −(f°g)(x), so f°g is odd.
attained. Case y ≠ 1: this is a genuine quadratic in x, which has a real solution iff its (c) Let f be even and g be odd: (f°g)(−x) = f(g(−x)) = f(−g(x)) = f(g(x)) (using evenness of f) =
discriminant is nonnegative: (y+1)2 − 4(y−1)2 ≥ 0. Expand: (y+1)2 − 4(y−1)2 = [(y+1) − (f°g)(x), so f°g is even. Similarly if g is even and f is odd: (f°g)(−x) = f(g(−x)) = f(g(x)) =
2(y−1)][(y+1) + 2(y−1)] = (3−y)(3y−1) ≥ 0. This holds when 1/3 ≤ y ≤ 3. Combining with the (f°g)(x) (since g(−x)=g(x) directly), again even. In all mixed cases, evenness of either factor
y=1 case (already inside this interval): Range(f) = [1/3, 3]. propagates to make the composite even. ■

Example 28 — Domain and Range of an Algebraic Function with Mixed Roots Example 32 — Uniqueness of the Even–Odd Decomposition
2
Find the natural domain of h(x) = ■(x + 1) + √(9 − x ) / (x − 1). Prove that the decomposition of a function f : R → R into an even part E and an odd part O, with f
= E + O, is unique.
Solution. The cube root ■(x+1) is defined for all real x (odd roots impose no restriction). The
square root requires 9 − x2 ≥ 0 ⇒ −3 ≤ x ≤ 3. The denominator requires x ≠ 1. Intersecting all Solution (Proof). Existence: define E(x) = (f(x)+f(−x))/2 and O(x) = (f(x)−f(−x))/2; direct
conditions: Domain = [−3, 1) ∪ (1, 3]. substitution shows E is even, O is odd, and E(x)+O(x) = f(x). For uniqueness, suppose f =
E1+O1 = E2+O2 with E1,E2 even and O1,O2 odd. Let D = E1−E2 = O2−O1. Since E1, E2 are
Example 29 — Range via Completing the Square Combined with a Square Root
even, D is even: D(−x) = D(x). Since O1, O2 are odd, D is also odd: D(−x) = −D(x).
Find the domain and range of f(x) = 5 − √(−x2 + 6x − 5). Combining, D(x) = D(−x) = −D(x) ⇒ 2D(x) = 0 ⇒ D(x) = 0 for all x. Hence E1 = E2 and O1 =
2 2 O2, proving the decomposition is unique. ■
Solution. Domain: need −x +6x−5 ≥ 0 ⇒ x −6x+5 ≤ 0 ⇒ (x−1)(x−5) ≤ 0 ⇒ 1 ≤ x ≤ 5, i.e.
[1,5]. Range: complete the square inside the root: −x2+6x−5 = −(x−3)2+4, which ranges over Example 33 — Parity and Invertibility
[0,4] as x ranges over [1,5] (maximum 4 at x=3, minimum 0 at the endpoints x=1,5). So
Prove: if f is odd and invertible on R, then f-1 is also odd.
√(−x2+6x−5) ranges over [0,2], and f(x) = 5 − (that quantity) ranges over [3,5]. Range = [3,5].
 -1 -1 2
Solution (Proof). Let y be any value in the domain of f , and let x = f (y), so f(x) = y. Since f Let f(x) = √(9 − x ) restricted to [0,3]. Sketch f, prove it is invertible on this restricted domain,
is odd, f(−x) = −f(x) = −y. This says f-1(−y) = −x (the unique input giving output −y is −x). But find f-1, and describe the graph of f-1.
-1 -1 -1 -1
x = f (y), so f (−y) = −f (y). Since y was arbitrary, this shows f is odd. ■
Solution. Shape: y = √(9−x2) on [0,3] is the upper right quarter of the circle x2+y2=9 (a
2
quarter-circle arc from (0,3) to (3,0)). Injectivity: f′(x) = −x/√(9−x ) < 0 for x ∈ (0,3), so f is
Part G — Complete Graph-Sketching Analyses strictly decreasing on [0,3], hence injective by Example 6. Range: f(0)=3, f(3)=0, and by
continuity f attains every value in between, so range = [0,3]. Thus f : [0,3] → [0,3] is bijective.
Example 34 — Full Sketch of a Rational Function with an Oblique Asymptote 2 2 2 2
Inverse: solve y = √(9−x ) for x ∈ [0,3]: y = 9−x ⇒ x = √(9−y ) (positive root, since x ≥ 0).
Sketch f(x) = (x2 − 2x − 3)/(x − 4), determining domain, intercepts, all asymptotes (via Swapping: f-1(x) = √(9−x2), which happens to have the identical formula as f — consistent with
polynomial division), monotonicity, and concavity. the fact that this quarter-circle arc is symmetric about the line y = x (reflecting the arc from
2
Solution. Domain: R \ {4}. Intercepts: y-intercept f(0) = −3/−4 = 3/4. x-intercepts: x −2x−3 = (0,3)–(3,0) about y=x maps it onto itself). This is a self-inverse function, geometrically visible
2
(x−3)(x+1) = 0 ⇒ x = 3, −1. Polynomial division: (x −2x−3) ÷ (x−4) gives quotient x+2 with as an arc symmetric about y = x.
remainder 5, i.e. f(x) = x + 2 + 5/(x−4). Vertical asymptote: x = 4. Oblique asymptote: since
deg(numerator) = deg(denominator)+1, y = x+2 is an oblique asymptote as x → ±∞. First
derivative: f′(x) = 1 − 5/(x−4)2 = [(x−4)2−5]/(x−4)2. Setting the numerator to zero: (x−4)2 = 5
⇒ x = 4 ± √5. Sign analysis shows f is increasing on (−∞, 4−√5) and (4+√5, ∞), decreasing on
(4−√5, 4) and (4, 4+√5) — giving a local maximum at x = 4−√5 and a local minimum at x =
4+√5. Second derivative: f″(x) = 10/(x−4)3, negative for x<4 (concave down) and positive for
x>4 (concave up); no inflection point since x=4 is excluded.

Example 35 — Sketching an Absolute Value Function via Transformation and Verifying

with Calculus
Sketch y = |x2 − 4| − 1, identifying all breakpoints, intervals of monotonicity, and any
non-differentiable points.
2
Solution. Rewrite as a genuine piecewise function: since x −4 ≥ 0 for |x| ≥ 2 and < 0 for |x| < 2,
2 2
y = x − 5 for |x| ≥ 2, and y = −x + 3 for |x| < 2. Breakpoints: x = −2 and x = 2; both pieces
agree in value there (at x=2: 4−5=−1 and −4+3=−1, matching), so y is continuous, but the
one-sided derivatives differ (from x2−5, slope 2x=4 at x=2; from −x2+3, slope −2x=−4 at x=2),
so y is not differentiable at x = ±2 — sharp corners appear there, consistent with absolute
value graphs in general. Monotonicity: on (−∞,−2), y=x2−5 is decreasing; on (−2,0), y=−x2+3
is increasing; on (0,2), y=−x2+3 is decreasing; on (2,∞), y=x2−5 is increasing. Local minimum
at x=±2 (y=−1), local maximum at x=0 (y=3).

Example 36 — Master-Procedure Sketch of a Transformed Root Function with Restricted

Invertibility
 Practice Problem Set Problem 6 (Proof — Injectivity)
Prove that f(x) = (4x − 1)/(2x + 3), x ≠ −3/2, is injective, by assuming f(x1) = f(x2) and
Attempt each problem in full before checking the boxed answer. Problems marked “(Proof)” deriving x1 = x2.
require a complete argument, not just a final numeric answer — the boxed text gives the key
steps/result to check your own proof against. Answer / Key Steps: Cross-multiplying and simplifying gives 14x1 = 14x2 ⇒ x1 = x2, so f is
injective.
Problem 1 (Verification)
Problem 7 (Surjectivity)
Let A = {a,b,c}, B = {1,2,3,4}. Is R = {(a,1),(b,1),(c,2)} a function from A to B? Is it injective?
Justify using the formal definition. Is f : R → R, f(x) = x4 − 2x2, surjective? If not, state its range.

Answer / Key Steps: Yes, R is a function (every element of A has exactly one image). It is not Answer / Key Steps: Not surjective; range = [−1, ∞) (minimum −1 at x=±1, by calculus or
injective, since a and b share the image 1. completing the square in x²).

Problem 2 (Proof) Problem 8 (Proof — Even-degree polynomials)

Prove: if f is strictly decreasing on an interval I, then f is injective on I. Prove that no polynomial of even degree n ≥ 2 with positive leading coefficient can be
surjective onto R.
Answer / Key Steps: Mirror the proof of Example 6: x1<x2 ⇒ f(x1)>f(x2) ⇒ f(x1)≠f(x2);
symmetric case x1>x2 similar. Hence distinct inputs give distinct outputs. Answer / Key Steps: Both end behaviors go to +∞, so the polynomial is bounded below by its
global minimum; values below that minimum are never attained, so it cannot be surjective.
Problem 3 (Domain, multi-constraint)
Problem 9 (Bijectivity proof)
Find the natural domain of f(x) = ln(4 − x2) / √(x + 3).
Let f : [0,∞) → [0,∞) be given by f(x) = x2 + 2x. Prove f is bijective and find f-1.
Answer / Key Steps: Need 4−x²>0 ⇒ −2<x<2, and x+3>0 ⇒ x>−3 (strict, since it's in a
denominator). Domain = (−2, 2). Answer / Key Steps: f is strictly increasing on [0,∞) (injective) and range = [0,∞) (surjective);
f-1(x) = −1 + √(x+1).
Problem 4 (Domain, multi-constraint)
Problem 10 (Pigeonhole)
Find the natural domain of g(x) = arccos(x/2 − 1) + 1/(x − 4).
Let A, B be finite sets with n(A) = 5, n(B) = 7. Explain why no function f : A → B can be
Answer / Key Steps: arccos needs −1≤x/2−1≤1 ⇒ 0≤x≤4; exclude x=4. Domain = [0,4).
surjective, and why an injective f : B → A cannot exist.
Problem 5 (Range via discriminant) Answer / Key Steps: n(A)<n(B): can't cover all 7 outputs with only 5 inputs (not surjective).
Find the range of f(x) = (2x2 + x + 1)/(x2 + 1). n(B)>n(A): can't fit 7 distinct inputs into 5 distinct outputs (not injective).

Answer / Key Steps: Range = [3/4, 3] (solve the resulting quadratic in x for each y and require Problem 11 (Composition proof)
discriminant ≥ 0).
Prove: if f and g are both surjective, then f°g is surjective.

Answer / Key Steps: For any c in the codomain of f, surjectivity of f gives b with f(b)=c;
surjectivity of g gives a with g(a)=b; then (f°g)(a) = c.
Problem 12 (Composition counterexample) Problem 18 (Even/odd decomposition)
x
Give an example of functions f, g such that f°g is bijective, but g is not surjective. Decompose f(x) = e into its even and odd parts, and name the resulting standard functions.
x -x x -x
Answer / Key Steps: E.g. f : {1,2} → {1}, f(1)=f(2)=1 and g : {1} → {1,2}, g(1) = 1; then f°g : Answer / Key Steps: E(x) = (e +e )/2 = cosh x; O(x) = (e −e )/2 = sinh x.
{1}→{1} is bijective, but f is not injective and considerations mirror Example 15/16 (any valid
Problem 19 (Full curve analysis)
small counterexample of this shape is acceptable).
For f(x) = (x2 + 1)/(x − 1), find the domain, all asymptotes (including any oblique asymptote
Problem 13 (Inverse construction) via division), and the intervals of increase/decrease.
Find f-1(x), with the correct restricted domain, for f(x) = (x−3)2 − 5, x ≥ 3.
Answer / Key Steps: Domain R\{1}; f(x) = x + 1 + 2/(x−1); vertical asymptote x=1; oblique
Answer / Key Steps: f-1(x) = 3 + √(x+5), domain x ≥ −5. asymptote y=x+1; f′(x) = 1 − 2/(x−1)², giving critical points at x = 1±√2 with corresponding
local max/min.
Problem 14 (Self-inverse proof)
Prove that f(x) = (2 − 3x)/(x − 3) is its own inverse. Problem 20 (Piecewise + differentiability)
For g(x) = |2x + 3| − 4, find all breakpoints, rewrite as an explicit piecewise formula, and
Answer / Key Steps: Solving y=(2−3x)/(x−3) for x and swapping variables returns the same
identify where g fails to be differentiable.
formula, so f-1 = f.
Answer / Key Steps: Breakpoint at x = −3/2; g(x) = −2x−7 for x<−3/2, g(x)=2x−1 for x≥−3/2;
Problem 15 (Graph/inverse theorem)
not differentiable at x=−3/2 (corner).
Without finding a formula, sketch the graph of f-1 given that the graph of an invertible f passes
through (−1,2), (0,4), (3,9). Problem 21 (Theory — restricted invertibility)
Let f(x) = x2 − 6x + 5 (domain R). Restrict f to two intervals on which it becomes invertible,
Answer / Key Steps: Plot the reflected points (2,−1), (4,0), (9,3) and connect smoothly — the
and find each resulting inverse.
mirror image of f's graph about y = x.
Answer / Key Steps: Vertex at x=3. On [3,∞): f-1(x) = 3+√(x+4). On (−∞,3]: f-1(x) =
Problem 16 (Parity proof)
3−√(x+4), both with domain x ≥ −4.
Prove that if f is even, then f cannot be injective on all of R unless its domain excludes either all
positive or all negative numbers (i.e. is restricted to remove the symmetry). Problem 22 (Theory — composition and monotonicity)
Prove: if f and g are both strictly increasing on their respective domains (with ranges matching
Answer / Key Steps: For any a≠0 in the domain, evenness gives f(a) = f(−a) with a ≠ −a,
appropriately), then f°g is strictly increasing.
violating injectivity — unless the domain is restricted so that a and −a are not both present.
Answer / Key Steps: For x1<x2, g strictly increasing gives g(x1)<g(x2); f strictly increasing
Problem 17 (Parity classification)
then gives f(g(x1))<f(g(x2)), i.e. (f°g)(x1) < (f°g)(x2).
Classify u(x) = x2sin x and v(x) = x + cos x as even, odd, or neither. Justify with the definitions.

Answer / Key Steps: u(−x) = x²(−sin x) = −u(x): odd. v(−x) = −x + cos x, which is neither v(x)
nor −v(x): neither.
 End of Note
This note has emphasized rigor: formal proofs of theorems governing injectivity, surjectivity,
bijectivity, composition, and inverses; multi-constraint domain/range analysis; parity theorems;
and complete calculus-based curve-sketching analyses. Students should be able to reproduce Problems and Solutions
every proof independently and adapt the discriminant, polynomial-division, and sign-chart
Sets, Relations & Functions — Graph Sketching & Curve Analysis
techniques to new functions of the same types.

A Companion Worksheet of Solved Examples and Practice Tasks

Undergraduate Mathematics — First Year

Foundations for Calculus

This companion note gathers worked examples and practice problems spanning set theory,
relations and functions, domain/range analysis, function classification, composition and inverses,
geometric transformations of graphs, symmetry, and calculus-based curve sketching (derivatives,
concavity, and asymptotes). Work through each solved example before attempting the
corresponding practice problems, which are collected with final answers at the end of each part.
 Contents Part A — Sets and Set Operations
• Part A — Sets and Set Operations (Examples 1–4) Example 1 — Roster and Set-Builder Form
• Part B — Cartesian Products and Relations (Examples 5–6) Write the set of all odd natural numbers less than 15 in (a) roster form and (b) set-builder form.
• Part C — Relations vs. Functions (Examples 7–8)
• Part D — Number Systems (Example 9) Solution. (a) A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}. (b) A = {x : x ∈ N, x is odd, x < 15}.
• Part E — Domain and Range (Examples 10–15) Example 2 — Subsets and the Power Set
• Part F — Piecewise Functions and Absolute Value (Examples 16–17)
Let A = {a, b, c, d}. Find n(A), list two proper subsets, and compute n(P(A)).
• Part G — Injective, Surjective, Bijective Functions (Examples 18–22)
• Part H — Composite and Inverse Functions (Examples 23–27) Solution. n(A) = 4. Two proper subsets: {a, b} and {c}. Since n(A) = 4, n(P(A)) = 24 = 16, and
• Part I — Classification by Algebraic Form (Example 28) P(A) contains every subset from ∅ up to A itself (excluding none, since P(A) also includes A).
• Part J — Geometric Transformations of Graphs (Examples 29–30)
Example 3 — Union, Intersection, Difference, Complement
• Part K — Symmetry and Even/Odd Functions (Example 31)
• Part L — Calculus-Based Curve Sketching (Examples 32–35) Let U = {1, 2, ..., 12}, A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, B = {3, 6, 9, 12}. Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A − B, and
• Practice Problem Set — 22 Problems with Answers Ac.

Solution. A ∪ B = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12}. A ∩ B = {6, 12}. A − B = {2, 4, 8, 10}. Ac = U − A

= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}.

Example 4 — Disjoint Sets and Verification

Let P = {multiples of 4 in {1,...,20}} and Q = {multiples of 6 in {1,...,20}}. Are P and Q disjoint?
If not, find P ∩ Q.

Solution. P = {4, 8, 12, 16, 20}; Q = {6, 12, 18}. Since 12 appears in both, P ∩ Q = {12} ≠ ∅,
so P and Q are not disjoint.

Part B — Cartesian Products and Relations

Example 5 — Computing a Cartesian Product
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {p, q}. Find A × B and n(A × B); verify A × B ≠ B × A.

Solution. A × B = {(1,p),(1,q),(2,p),(2,q),(3,p),(3,q)}, so n(A × B) = 6 = 3·2. B × A =

{(p,1),(p,2),(p,3),(q,1),(q,2),(q,3)}. Since (1,p) ≠ (p,1) as ordered pairs, A × B ≠ B × A.

Example 6 — Domain and Range of a Relation

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Define R = {(a, b) ∈ A × A : b = a + 2}. List R explicitly and state its
domain and range.
 Solution. R = {(1,3), (2,4), (3,5)}. Domain(R) = {1, 2, 3} (first coordinates that occur); Solution. Exclude the zeros of the denominator: x = 2 and x = −4. Domain = (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, 2)
Range(R) = {3, 4, 5} (second coordinates that occur). Note 4 and 5 never occur as first ∪ (2, ∞).
coordinates in R, since a + 2 would exceed 5.
Example 11 — Natural Domain with an Even Root
Find the natural domain of g(x) = √(x2 − 9).
Part C — Relations vs. Functions
2
Solution. Require x − 9 ≥ 0, i.e. (x−3)(x+3) ≥ 0. A sign chart shows this holds for x ≤ −3 or x
Example 7 — Vertical Line Test ≥ 3. Domain = (−∞, −3] ∪ [3, ∞).
Determine whether x = y2 − 1 defines y as a function of x.
Example 12 — Domain of a Logarithmic Function
Solution. Solving for y: y = ±√(x + 1). For any x > −1 (e.g. x = 3), there are two y-values, y = 2 Find the natural domain of h(x) = ln(6 − 2x) + √(x + 1).
and y = −2. A vertical line at x = 3 meets the curve twice, so this relation is not a function of x.
Solution. Logarithm requires 6 − 2x > 0 ⇒ x < 3, i.e. (−∞, 3). The root requires x + 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ x
Example 8 — Verifying a Function from a Table ≥ −1, i.e. [−1, ∞). Intersecting: Domain = [−1, 3).
The table gives values of y = f(x). Is this a function? Is the inverse relation (swap x and y) also a
Example 13 — Domain and Range Together
function?
Find the domain and range of f(x) = 3 − √(x + 2).
x -2 0 1 3
Solution. Domain: need x + 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ −2, i.e. [−2, ∞). As x ranges over [−2, ∞), √(x+2)
y 5 1 1 -4 ranges over [0, ∞), so f(x) = 3 − √(x+2) ranges over (−∞, 3]. Range = (−∞, 3].

Solution. Each x-value (−2, 0, 1, 3) occurs exactly once, each paired with a single y-value, so f Example 14 — Range by Solving for x
is a function: f(−2) = 5, f(0) = 1, f(1) = 1, f(3) = −4. Swapping columns gives (5,−2), (1,0),
Find the range of f(x) = (3x − 2) / (x + 1), x ≠ −1.
(1,1), (−4,3); the x-value 1 now appears twice (paired with both 0 and 1), so the inverse relation
is not a function. Solution. Let y = (3x−2)/(x+1). Then y(x+1) = 3x − 2 ⇒ xy + y = 3x − 2 ⇒ x(y − 3) = −2 − y
⇒ x = (y + 2)/(3 − y). This is defined for every y except y = 3. Range = (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).

Part D — Number Systems Example 15 — Domain from a Physical Constraint

A rectangular pen is built along a wall using 40 m of fencing for the other three sides. If x is the
Example 9 — Classifying Numbers
width (perpendicular to the wall), the enclosed area is A(x) = x(40 − 2x). State the domain
Classify each number as natural (N), integer (Z), rational (Q), irrational, and/or real (R): −5, 7/2,
appropriate to the physical problem.
√16, √3, 0, e.
Solution. Algebraically A is a polynomial with natural domain R. Physically, x must be
Solution. −5: Z, Q, R. 7/2: Q, R. √16 = 4: N, Z, Q, R. √3: irrational, R. 0: Z, Q, R (not N,
positive, and the remaining side (40 − 2x) must also be positive, so 40 − 2x > 0 ⇒ x < 20.
under the convention N starts at 1). e: irrational, R.
Hence the domain here is 0 < x < 20 — a restriction coming from context, not from the formula
itself.
Part E — Domain and Range
Example 10 — Natural Domain of a Rational Function
Part F — Piecewise Functions and Absolute Value
Find the natural domain of f(x) = (x + 5) / [(x − 2)(x + 4)].
Example 16 — Evaluating and Sketching a Piecewise Function onto R.
2
Let f(x) = 2x + 1 for x < 0; f(x) = x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2; f(x) = 5 − x for x > 2. Find f(−3), f(1), f(2), f(4), Example 21 — A Function That Fails Surjectivity, and Fixing the Codomain
and identify the breakpoints. 2
Is f : R → R, f(x) = 2x + 3, surjective? If not, find a codomain onto which it is.
2
Solution. f(−3) = 2(−3) + 1 = −5 (first piece, since −3 < 0). f(1) = 1 = 1 (second piece). f(2) = 2 2
Solution. Since x ≥ 0, f(x) = 2x + 3 ≥ 3 always, so e.g. y = 0 is never attained: f : R → R is
22 = 4 (second piece includes x = 2). f(4) = 5 − 4 = 1 (third piece). Breakpoints are x = 0 and x
2 not surjective. However range(f) = [3, ∞), so f : R → [3, ∞) is surjective, since for any y ≥ 3, x
= 2; at x = 0 both formulas give different limiting values (2(0)+1=1 vs. 0 =0), so there is a
= ±√((y−3)/2) gives f(x) = y.
jump there, while at x = 2 the pieces agree in value at that endpoint (4) but not in the limit from
the right (5 − 2 = 3), so there is a jump at x = 2 as well. Example 22 — Classifying a Bijection Between Finite Sets

Example 17 — Removing Absolute Value Bars Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {w, x, y, z}. Let h = {(1,y), (2,w), (3,z), (4,x)}. Classify h as
injective, surjective, and/or bijective, viewed as a map A → B.
Rewrite f(x) = |x − 2| + |x + 1| as an explicit piecewise formula without absolute values.
Solution. The four outputs y, w, z, x are all distinct, so h is injective. Since n(A) = n(B) = 4
Solution. The expressions change sign at x = 2 and x = −1, giving three intervals. For x < −1:
(finite) and h is injective, the pigeonhole principle guarantees h is also surjective. Hence h is
|x−2| = 2−x, |x+1| = −x−1, sum = (2−x)+(−x−1) = 1 − 2x. For −1 ≤ x < 2: |x−2| = 2−x, |x+1| =
bijective, and its inverse is h-1 = {(y,1), (w,2), (z,3), (x,4)}.
x+1, sum = 3. For x ≥ 2: |x−2| = x−2, |x+1| = x+1, sum = 2x − 1. So f(x) = 1 − 2x for x < −1;
f(x) = 3 for −1 ≤ x < 2; f(x) = 2x − 1 for x ≥ 2 (a “flat valley” shape).
Part H — Composite and Inverse Functions
Part G — Injective, Surjective, and Bijective Functions Example 23 — Computing Composite Functions

Example 18 — Proving Injectivity Algebraically Let f(x) = 3x2 + 1 and g(x) = x − 4. Find (f ° g)(x), (g ° f)(x), and evaluate each at x = 2.

Show that f : R → R, f(x) = −4x + 9, is injective. Solution. (f ° g)(x) = f(x−4) = 3(x−4)2 + 1 = 3x2 − 24x + 49; at x = 2: 12 − 48 + 49 = 13. (g °
f)(x) = g(3x2+1) = 3x2 + 1 − 4 = 3x2 − 3; at x = 2: 12 − 3 = 9. Since 13 ≠ 9, this confirms
Solution. Assume f(x1) = f(x2): −4x1 + 9 = −4x2 + 9 ⇒ −4x1 = −4x2 ⇒ x1 = x2. Since equal
composition is not commutative.
outputs force equal inputs, f is injective (its graph is a nonzero-slope line, which passes the
horizontal line test). Example 24 — Domain of a Composition

Example 19 — Disproving Injectivity with a Counterexample Let f(x) = √x and g(x) = x − 5. Find (f ° g)(x) and state its domain.
2
Show that f : R → R, f(x) = x + 6x + 2, is not injective. Solution. (f ° g)(x) = f(x−5) = √(x − 5). The domain consists of all x in the domain of g (all of
R) for which g(x) = x − 5 lies in the domain of f (i.e. x − 5 ≥ 0). Hence the domain is x ≥ 5, i.e.
Solution. Complete the square: f(x) = (x+3)2 − 7, symmetric about x = −3. Take x1 = −2 and x2
[5, ∞).
= −4: f(−2) = 4−12+... actually compute directly: f(−2) = 4 − 12 + 2 = −6; f(−4) = 16 − 24 + 2 =
−6. Since f(−2) = f(−4) but −2 ≠ −4, f is not injective on R. Example 25 — Decomposing a Function

Example 20 — Checking Surjectivity Express h(x) = cos(2x + 1) and k(x) = 1/√(x−3) each as a composition f(g(x)).
3
Is f : R → R, f(x) = x − 1, surjective? Solution. For h(x): the first operation is computing 2x+1 (inside: g(x)=2x+1), then taking
cosine (outside: f(x) = cos x); so h(x) = f(g(x)). For k(x): first compute x−3, then take the
Solution. Given any y ∈ R, solve y = x3 − 1 for x: x = ■(y + 1), which is a real number for
square root, then take the reciprocal — a valid decomposition is inside u(x) = √(x−3) and
every real y (odd roots are defined on all of R). Hence every y is attained, and f is surjective
 outside f(x) = 1/x, giving k(x) = f(u(x)). Example 30 — Transformation of a Rational Function

Example 26 — Finding an Inverse Function with Correct Domain Describe how y = 3/(x − 2) + 4 is obtained from y = 1/x, and state its asymptotes.
-1 Solution. Starting from y = 1/x: (1) vertical stretch by factor 3: y = 3/x; (2) shift right 2 units: y
Find f (x) for f(x) = √(2x − 5), stating its domain.
2 2 = 3/(x−2); (3) shift up 4 units: y = 3/(x−2) + 4. The vertical asymptote of y = 1/x (namely x = 0)
Solution. Step 1: y = √(2x−5). Step 2: y = 2x−5 ⇒ x = (y +5)/2. Step 3: swap x, y: y =
shifts to x = 2; the horizontal asymptote (y = 0) shifts up to y = 4.
(x2+5)/2. Step 4: the range of f is [0, ∞) (square roots are nonnegative), so we must restrict the
-1 2
domain of the inverse to match: f (x) = (x +5)/2, for x ≥ 0.
Part K — Symmetry and Even/Odd Functions
Example 27 — Verifying an Inverse Pair by Cancellation
Given f is invertible with f(−2) = 7, find f-1(7). Then verify (f ° f-1)(7) = 7. Example 31 — Classifying a Function as Even, Odd, or Neither
4 2 3 2
Classify p(x) = x − 3x and q(x) = x + x .
Solution. Apply f-1 to both sides of f(−2) = 7: f-1(f(−2)) = f-1(7). By the cancellation equation
f-1(f(−2)) = −2, so f-1(7) = −2. Then (f ° f-1)(7) = f(−2) = 7, as required. ■ Solution. p(−x) = (−x)4 − 3(−x)2 = x4 − 3x2 = p(x): even. q(−x) = −x3 + x2. Comparing to q(x)
3 2
and −q(x) = −x − x , neither matches, so q is neither even nor odd.

Part I — Classification by Algebraic Form

Part L — Calculus-Based Curve Sketching
Example 28 — Classifying Functions by Form
Classify each as polynomial, rational (not polynomial), algebraic (not rational), or transcendental: Example 32 — Complete Analysis of a Rational Function
(a) f(x) = 4x3 − x + 6; (b) g(x) = (x+1)/(x2−4); (c) h(x) = √x + x2/3; (d) k(x) = ex − ln x. Analyze f(x) = (3x − 1)/(x + 1): find intercepts, asymptotes, monotonicity, and concavity.
n
Solution. (a) A finite sum of power terms cnx : polynomial (degree 3). (b) A ratio of two Solution. Domain: R \ {−1}. Intercepts: y-intercept f(0) = −1; x-intercept 3x−1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1/3.
polynomials that does not simplify to a polynomial: rational, not polynomial. (c) Built from Rewrite: f(x) = [3(x+1) − 4]/(x+1) = 3 − 4/(x+1). Asymptotes: vertical x = −1 (since the
roots and rational powers of x, not expressible as a ratio of polynomials: algebraic, not rational. numerator 3x−1 ≠ 0 there); horizontal y = 3 (limit as x → ±∞). First derivative: f′(x) = 4/(x+1)2
(d) Involves ex (exponential) and ln x (logarithmic), neither reducible to finitely many algebraic > 0 for all x ≠ −1, so f is strictly increasing on (−∞,−1) and (−1,∞); no stationary points. Second
operations on polynomials: transcendental. derivative: f″(x) = −8/(x+1)3. For x < −1, f″(x) > 0 (concave up); for x > −1, f″(x) < 0 (concave
down). No inflection point exists since x = −1 is excluded from the domain.

Part J — Geometric Transformations of Graphs Example 33 — Local Extrema and Inflection of a Polynomial
Find the local extrema and inflection point(s) of f(x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 1.
Example 29 — Chain of Transformations for a Root Function
2
Describe how to obtain y = −2√(x + 3) − 1 from the basic graph y = √x, and state the domain of Solution. f′(x) = 3x − 12x + 9 = 3(x−1)(x−3). Critical points: x = 1, x = 3. f′(x) > 0 on (−∞,1),
the final graph. f′(x) < 0 on (1,3), f′(x) > 0 on (3,∞). So f has a local maximum at x = 1: f(1) = 1−6+9+1 = 5,
point (1, 5); and a local minimum at x = 3: f(3) = 27−54+27+1 = 1, point (3, 1). f″(x) = 6x − 12
Solution. Starting from y = √x: (1) shift left 3 units: y = √(x+3); (2) stretch vertically by factor
= 0 ⇒ x = 2, and f″ changes sign there (negative for x<2, positive for x>2), so (2, f(2)) = (2, 3)
2: y = 2√(x+3); (3) reflect about the x-axis: y = −2√(x+3); (4) shift down 1 unit: y = −2√(x+3) −
is an inflection point.
1. Since the original domain of √x is [0, ∞) and only a horizontal shift changes it, the domain of
the final graph is x + 3 ≥ 0, i.e. [−3, ∞). Example 34 — Transcendental Function: f(x) = x²e-x
 2 -x
Find the critical points, local extrema, and inflection points of f(x) = x e . Practice Problem Set
-x 2 -x -x -x
Solution. f′(x) = 2xe − x e = x(2−x)e . Since e > 0 always, critical points occur where x
Attempt every problem before checking the boxed answer that follows it. Problems are grouped to
= 0 or x = 2. Sign analysis of x(2−x): negative for x<0, positive for 0<x<2, negative for x>2.
-2 match the corresponding worked-example sections above.
Hence x = 0 is a local minimum, f(0) = 0; and x = 2 is a local maximum, f(2) = 4e ≈ 0.541.
f″(x) = (2 − 4x + x2)e-x; setting 2−4x+x2 = 0 gives x = 2 ± √2 (by the quadratic formula), which Problem 1 (Sets)
are the inflection points. c
Let U = {1,...,15}, A = {multiples of 3}, B = {multiples of 5}. Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, and A .

Example 35 — Logarithmic Function: f(x) = x − ln x c

Answer: A ∪ B = {3,5,6,9,10,12,15}; A ∩ B = {15}; A = {1,2,4,5,7,8,10,11,13,14}.
Analyze f(x) = x − ln x on its natural domain: find the domain, critical points, and classify any
Problem 2 (Sets)
extremum. 3
Let A = {x, y, z}. List the power set P(A) and verify n(P(A)) = 2 .
Solution. Domain: ln x requires x > 0, so domain = (0, ∞). Derivative: f′(x) = 1 − 1/x =
Answer: P(A) has 8 elements: ∅, {x}, {y}, {z}, {x,y}, {x,z}, {y,z}, {x,y,z}.
(x−1)/x. Critical point: x = 1. For 0<x<1, f′(x) < 0 (decreasing); for x>1, f′(x) > 0 (increasing).
By the First Derivative Test, x = 1 gives a local (in fact absolute) minimum, f(1) = 1 − 0 = 1. Problem 3 (Cartesian Products)
Second derivative: f″(x) = 1/x2 > 0 for all x in the domain, so f is concave up everywhere and
Let A = {1,2} and B = {3,4,5}. Find B × A and state n(B × A).
has no inflection point.
Answer: B × A = {(3,1),(3,2),(4,1),(4,2),(5,1),(5,2)}; n(B × A) = 6.

Problem 4 (Relations)
Let A = {1,2,3,4,5}. Define R = {(a,b) ∈ A×A : a + b = 6}. List R and state its domain and
range.

Answer: R = {(1,5),(2,4),(3,3),(4,2),(5,1)}; Domain = Range = {1,2,3,4,5}.

Problem 5 (Relations vs. Functions)

Determine whether y2 = 4x defines y as a function of x. Justify using the vertical line test.

Answer: Not a function: for x > 0, y = ±2√x gives two y-values for one x.

Problem 6 (Number Systems)

Classify −3/4, √25, π, and 0 as natural, integer, rational, irrational, and/or real.

Answer: −3/4: Q, R. √25 = 5: N, Z, Q, R. π: irrational, R. 0: Z, Q, R.

Problem 7 (Domain)
Find the natural domain of f(x) = √(5 − x) / (x + 2).

Answer: Need 5−x ≥ 0 and x ≠ −2: domain = (−∞,−2) ∪ (−2, 5].

Problem 8 (Domain) Problem 16 (Composite Functions)
2 2
Find the natural domain of g(x) = ln(x − 1). Let f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x − 1. Find (f°g)(x) and (g°f)(x).
2
Answer: Need x − 1 > 0: domain = (−∞,−1) ∪ (1, ∞). Answer: (f°g)(x) = 2x² + 1; (g°f)(x) = 4x² + 12x + 8.

Problem 9 (Domain and Range) Problem 17 (Domain of a Composition)

Find the domain and range of f(x) = 4 − √(9 − x2) (identify the shape first). Let f(x) = 1/x and g(x) = x − 3. Find (f°g)(x) and its domain.

Answer: Domain = [−3,3]; since √(9−x²) ∈ [0,3], range = [1, 4]. Answer: (f°g)(x) = 1/(x−3); domain = R \ {3}.

Problem 10 (Range by Algebra) Problem 18 (Inverse Functions)

Find the range of f(x) = (x − 4)/(2x + 1), x ≠ −1/2. Find f-1(x) for f(x) = √3■(4x + 7) (a cube root), and confirm the domain.
-1 -1
Answer: Solve for x: range = R \ {−1/2} (all reals except −1/2). Answer: f (x) = (x³ − 7)/4; domain of f is all of R.

Problem 11 (Piecewise Functions) Problem 19 (Restricting a Domain for Invertibility)

For f(x) = x + 4 (x < −2); f(x) = x2 (−2 ≤ x ≤ 1); f(x) = 3 − x (x > 1): find f(−5), f(−2), f(1), f(4), Let f(x) = (x − 2)2. Restrict f to make it invertible on x ≥ 2, and find the inverse.
and the breakpoints.
Answer: f-1(x) = 2 + √x, for x ≥ 0.
Answer: f(−5) = −1; f(−2) = 4; f(1) = 1; f(4) = −1; breakpoints x = −2, 1.
Problem 20 (Transformations)
Problem 12 (Absolute Value) Describe, as a sequence of steps, how y = 1 − 3|x + 2| is obtained from y = |x|.
Rewrite f(x) = |x + 3| − |x − 1| as an explicit piecewise formula.
Answer: Shift left 2, stretch vertically by 3, reflect about x-axis, shift up 1.
Answer: f(x) = −4 (x < −3); f(x) = 2x+2 (−3≤x<1); f(x) = 4 (x ≥ 1).
Problem 21 (Symmetry)
Problem 13 (Injectivity) Classify r(x) = x5 − 4x3 + x and s(x) = x4 + 2x + 1 as even, odd, or neither.
3
Show that f : R → R, f(x) = 5 − 2x , is injective.
Answer: r(x) is odd; s(x) is neither even nor odd.
Answer: Assume f(x1)=f(x2); algebra forces x1³=x2³ ⇒ x1=x2 (cube root is one-to-one on R).
Problem 22 (Curve Sketching with Calculus)
Problem 14 (Surjectivity) For f(x) = x3 − 3x + 2, find all critical points, classify each with the Second Derivative Test,
2
Is f : R → R, f(x) = x − 6x + 5, surjective? If not, give a codomain for which it is. and locate any inflection point.

Answer: Not surjective onto R (minimum value −4 at x=3); surjective onto [−4, ∞). Answer: Critical points x=−1 (local max, f=4) and x=1 (local min, f=0); inflection point at
x=0, f(0)=2.
Problem 15 (Bijections)
Let A = {1,2,3}, B = {p,q,r}. Is f = {(1,q),(2,r),(3,q)} a bijection A → B? Explain.

Answer: No: q is repeated (not injective) and p is never used (not surjective); so f is not
bijective.
 End of Note
This concludes the companion worksheet of solved examples and practice problems covering set
theory, relations and functions, domain and range, function classification, composition and
inverses, transformations, symmetry, and calculus-based curve sketching. Revisit the
corresponding lecture-note sections for the underlying definitions and theorems whenever a step
above is unclear.