CLASS 9 — CBSE BIOLOGY

Chapter 2
Cell: The Building Block of Life
Detailed Notes · Q&A · Previous Year Questions

1. Introduction to Cells
Think of a cell like a tiny room. Just as a building is made of many rooms, your body is made of trillions
of tiny rooms called cells. The cell is the smallest unit of life — it can do everything a living thing needs
to do: eat, grow, make energy, and reproduce.

Scientists believe that life on Earth started in water, millions of years ago. The very first living things
were just single cells floating in water.

1.1 Unicellular vs Multicellular Organisms

Some living things are made of just ONE cell — these are called unicellular organisms. Others are
made of MILLIONS of cells — these are called multicellular organisms.

Unicellular vs Multicellular
Feature Unicellular Multicellular
Number of cells Only 1 cell Millions of cells
Examples Bacteria, Amoeba, Yeast Plants, Fish, Birds, Humans
All functions done by That single cell Different cells for different jobs
Complexity Simple Complex

1.2 From Cells to Organ Systems

In multicellular organisms, cells are organised in a very smart way:
• Cell → basic unit of life
• Tissue → group of similar cells doing the same job (e.g., muscle tissue)
• Organ → group of different tissues working together (e.g., heart)
 • Organ System → group of organs working together (e.g., respiratory system: nose, trachea,
lungs)

📝 NOTE: Even in a multicellular organism, the CELL is still the basic unit. Tissues and organs
are made of cells.

1.3 Thermophiles — Life in Hot Springs

In India, the hot springs of Puga Valley in Ladakh have extremely high temperatures — almost as hot
as boiling water! Normally we think nothing can live in such extreme heat. But some bacteria called
thermophiles (which means 'heat-loving') actually live there.

Scientists from the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, Lucknow, studied these hot springs. They
found that calcium carbonate deposits formed rapidly around the springs. These deposits may have:
• Protected early life molecules from harmful radiation
• Protected them from extreme temperatures
• Helped form the first cell membrane — the barrier that separates a cell from its surroundings

💡 Why this matters: These hot springs give us clues about how the very first cells may
have formed on early Earth, about 3.5 billion years ago!

2. How to Study Cells (Section 2.1)

2.1 Why Can't We See Cells with the Naked Eye?
Cells are incredibly tiny. Most cells are smaller than 0.1 mm. Our eyes can only see two separate points
if they are at least 0.1 mm apart. If two points are closer than this, they look like one single point.

This minimum distance at which the eye can tell two points apart is called the
Limit of Resolution of the Human Eye = 0.1 mm

💡 Simple Example: Imagine two dots drawn very close together on paper. As you move
them closer, at some point they look like ONE dot. That distance where they just start to
look like one dot is the limit of resolution.
2.2 Who Discovered Cells?
Robert Hooke was the first person to observe and name cells, in 1665. He used a microscope he had
built himself (about 200-300 times magnification). He placed a thin slice of cork (the bark of a tree)
under the microscope and saw many tiny box-like compartments. He called them 'cells' because they
looked like the small rooms (cells) in a monastery.

📝 NOTE: Cork is dead plant tissue. What Hooke actually saw were empty dead cell walls —
not living cells. But he still gets credit for naming them!

2.3 Types of Microscopes

Since cells are too small for our eyes, scientists use microscopes. There are two main types:

Light Microscope vs Electron Microscope

Feature Light Microscope Electron Microscope
How it works Uses visible light to see objects Uses a beam of electrons
instead of light
Magnification 200–300X (school lab) Thousands of times — very
high
Resolution Lower — can't see very tiny Very high — can see
structures nanometre-scale structures
What we can see Plant/animal cells, nucleus, Ribosomes, viruses, proteins,
chloroplasts cell membrane details
Cost Cheap, available in schools Very expensive, found in
research labs
Example use Observing onion peel cells Studying virus structure

💡 Remember: 1 nanometre (nm) = one-billionth of a metre. Electron microscopes can

show us structures that are just a few nanometres in size!

2.4 How to Estimate Cell Size — Activity 2.1

You can estimate the size of a cell using a simple formula:
Size of one cell = Diameter of visible field (in μm) ÷ Number of cells along the diameter

Steps:
1. Take a transparent ruler with millimetre markings
2. Place it under the microscope and observe the circular field of view through the eyepiece
3. Note the diameter of the visible field in mm, then convert to μm (1 mm = 1000 μm)
 4. Place an onion peel slide and count the number of cells along the diameter
5. Apply the formula

Example: If diameter of visible field = 5 mm = 5000 μm, and 25 cells are seen along the
diameter → Size of one cell = 5000 ÷ 25 = 200 μm

3. Structure of a Cell (Section 2.2)

Every cell — whether it is a bacterium, a plant cell, or an animal cell — has three basic parts:
• Cell Membrane — the boundary/skin of the cell
• Cytoplasm — the jelly-like filling inside the cell
• Nucleus — the control centre of the cell

3.1 Cell Membrane — The Universal Feature of All Cells

The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane) is a very thin layer that surrounds every cell.
Think of it like the skin of a cell — it holds everything inside and protects the cell.

Key features:
• Selectively permeable: It does NOT allow everything to pass through. It lets some things in and
keeps other things out. It's like a security guard at a gate.
• Very thin: Only about 7-10 nanometres thick (extremely thin — you can't see it with a normal
microscope).
• Made of lipids and proteins: Lipids = fats; Proteins = large molecules that control what passes
through.

Fluid-Mosaic Model — How the Cell Membrane is Built

Scientists explain the structure of the cell membrane using the Fluid-Mosaic Model:
• Lipid Bilayer: There are TWO layers of fat (lipid) molecules. One layer faces outward (towards
water), the other faces inward. Water-attracting heads face OUT; water-repelling tails face
INWARD.
• Proteins are embedded: Protein molecules are scattered throughout the membrane like tiles in
a mosaic pattern.
• It is FLUID: The molecules can move sideways, flip and rotate. This makes the membrane
flexible.
• Proteins as Gatekeepers: The protein molecules help substances pass through the membrane.
 Simple Analogy: Imagine a swimming pool with floating tiles. The water is the lipid layer
(can flow and move). The tiles are the proteins (scattered like a mosaic). Together they
form the fluid-mosaic model!

3.2 Osmosis — How Water Moves Through the Cell

Water moves in and out of cells through the cell membrane by a process called osmosis.

Osmosis: The movement of WATER from a place where there is MORE water (dilute/hypotonic
solution) to a place where there is LESS water (concentrated/hypertonic solution) through a selectively
permeable membrane.

Simple rule: Water always moves from DILUTE (more water) → CONCENTRATED (less water) side.

Diffusion: The movement of ANY substance (not just water) from an area of HIGH concentration to an
area of LOW concentration. It does NOT need a membrane. (Example: perfume spreading in a room.)

Osmosis = Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.

Types of Solutions and Their Effect on Cells

Effect of Solutions on Cells
Solution Type Meaning What Happens to Example
the Cell
Isotonic Concentration inside Cell stays the same Normal saline solution
cell = outside size (no net movement (0.9% NaCl)
of water)
Hypotonic Concentration outside Water ENTERS the Plain water
< inside the cell cell → cell SWELLS up
(may burst)
Hypertonic Concentration outside Water LEAVES the cell 20% salt solution
> inside the cell → cell SHRINKS

Memory Trick: HYPO = water goes IN (cell gets bigger). HYPER = water goes OUT (cell
gets smaller). Like 'hyper' people are always running out of energy!

Real Life Example (Activity 2.2 — Potato Experiment):

• Beaker A (plain water): Potato piece swells — water entered the cells by osmosis (hypotonic
solution).
• Beaker B (salt/sugar solution): Potato piece shrinks — water left the cells (hypertonic solution).
 📝 NOTE: In plants, water enters root cells from the soil by osmosis. This is how plants absorb
water!

3.3 Cell Wall — The Extra Layer in Plant, Fungi & Bacteria Cells
Plant cells, fungi, and bacteria have an extra rigid layer OUTSIDE the cell membrane called the cell
wall. Animal cells do NOT have a cell wall.

Why do plants need a cell wall? Plants cannot move from place to place — they stay fixed in one spot.
So they need a rigid structure to:
• Withstand strong wind and rain without bending
• Keep their shape so leaves and flowers stay upright
• Provide structural support

Structure of cell wall:

• In plants: Made mostly of cellulose — a type of carbohydrate (same stuff that makes up the fiber
in your food!).
• Permeable: Water and dissolved minerals can pass through freely.
• Rigid but not living: It gives structure but is not as flexible as the cell membrane.

Plant Cell vs Animal Cell — Behaviour in Concentrated Solution

When placed in a concentrated sugar solution:
• Plant cells: The inner cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall (this is called plasmolysis).
The cell wall keeps its shape, so the cell does NOT collapse even though it loses water.
• Animal cells (like cheek cells): No cell wall to provide support, so the cell shrinks considerably
and may lose its shape.

Key Point: Without a rigid cell wall, animal cells can change shape easily. This flexibility
actually helps animals move and function — muscles, blood cells etc. all need to change
shape!

4. Two Main Types of Cells (Section 2.3)

Scientists divide all cells into two main categories based on whether they have a proper nucleus or not:

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells — Detailed Comparison

 Feature Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
Meaning of name Pro = primitive, karyon = Eu = true, karyon = nucleus
nucleus (primitive nucleus) (true nucleus)
Nucleus NO proper nucleus. DNA floats Has a proper nucleus
in cytoplasm in a region called surrounded by nuclear
nucleoid membrane
Size Smaller: 1–10 μm Larger: 10–100 μm
Membrane-bound organelles Absent (no mitochondria, ER, Present (mitochondria, ER,
Golgi etc.) Golgi etc. all present)
DNA shape Single, circular DNA molecule Multiple linear chromosomes
Cell wall Present (made of Present in plants (cellulose);
peptidoglycan) absent in animal cells
Examples Bacteria, Blue-green algae Plant cells, Animal cells, Fungi
(Cyanobacteria)
Type of organism Usually unicellular Can be unicellular (amoeba) or
multicellular (humans)

In prokaryotes, the genetic material (DNA) is present as a single circular molecule associated with
specific proteins. This region is called the
Nucleoid — it looks like a nucleus but it has NO membrane around it.

📝 NOTE: 'Pro' = primitive + 'karyon' = nucleus → Prokaryote means 'primitive nucleus'. 'Eu' =
true + 'karyon' = nucleus → Eukaryote means 'true nucleus'.

5. Cell Organelles — The Tiny Machines Inside a Cell

Eukaryotic cells have many specialised structures inside them called organelles (meaning 'little
organs'). Each organelle does a specific job, just like the organs in your body. Together they keep the
cell running — like a tiny factory where every department has a specific role.

Analogy: A cell is like a factory. The nucleus is the manager, mitochondria are the power
generators, ribosomes are the workers making products, Golgi apparatus is the packaging
department, and lysosomes are the cleaning crew!

5.1 Nucleus — The Control Centre / House of Coded Instructions

The nucleus is the most important organelle. It controls all activities of the cell. Think of it as the brain of
the cell.
Structure of Nucleus:
• Nuclear Membrane (Nuclear Envelope): A double-layered covering (two membranes) around
the nucleus. It has tiny holes called nuclear pores. These pores allow the transfer of materials
(like RNA) between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
• Nucleolus: A dense, round body inside the nucleus. It is the place where ribosomal subunits are
made. The sub-units travel out to the cytoplasm and form ribosomes.
• Chromosomes: Thread-like structures visible only when the cell is about to divide. They are
made of DNA + proteins.
• Chromatin: In a non-dividing cell, DNA is present as a loose, tangled thread-like material called
chromatin. When the cell is ready to divide, chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
• DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid — the molecule that carries all the genetic information (instructions
for making proteins, inheriting traits etc.).
• Genes: Specific segments of DNA that carry instructions for one particular protein or trait. They
are the functional units of DNA.

Functions of the Nucleus:

• Controls all cell activities (what proteins to make, when to divide etc.)
• Stores and protects genetic information (DNA)
• Passes genetic information to offspring during reproduction
• Controls protein synthesis (through genes and RNA)

📝 NOTE: Interesting Fact: Mature Red Blood Cells (RBCs) in humans do NOT have a
nucleus! This gives them more space to carry haemoglobin. But because they can't repair or
reproduce themselves, RBCs live only about 120 days. Do you know any other cells without a
nucleus?

5.2 Ribosomes — The Protein Factories

Ribosomes are the smallest organelles — so tiny they can only be seen under an electron microscope.
They are present in ALL cells, even prokaryotic ones.

Where are they found?

• Free ribosomes: Floating freely in the cytoplasm.
• Attached ribosomes: Stuck to the surface of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum.

Function: Ribosomes are the sites where proteins are made (protein synthesis). They read the
instructions from DNA (via RNA) and assemble amino acids into proteins.

Analogy: Ribosomes are like assembly line workers in a factory. They take raw materials
(amino acids) and build products (proteins) based on instructions from the manager
(DNA).
5.3 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) — The Manufacturing Factory
The ER is a large, network-like organelle that spreads through most of the cytoplasm. It looks like a
series of flat, folded membranes and tubes. It is connected to the outer nuclear membrane on one side
and the cell membrane on the other side — acting like a transport highway.

Rough ER vs Smooth ER
Feature Rough Endoplasmic Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER) Reticulum (SER)
Appearance Rough/bumpy (has ribosomes Smooth (no ribosomes)
on surface)
Main job Protein synthesis and secretion Synthesis of fats (lipids) and
hormones
Where found mainly Cells that produce lots of Cells that make hormones
protein (e.g., pancreatic cells (e.g., reproductive glands)
making digestive enzymes)
Connection Directly connected to nuclear Connected to RER and cell
membrane membrane

The ER also plays an important role in:

• Transporting proteins and lipids to other parts of the cell
• Storage of materials
• Detoxification of drugs and poisons (SER in liver cells)

Analogy: The ER is like the highway/road system inside a city. Materials are made at one
place (ribosomes/SER) and transported to other places through the ER network.

5.4 Golgi Apparatus — The Packaging & Shipping Centre

The Golgi apparatus was first observed in 1898 by Italian scientist Camillo Golgi in nerve cells of a barn
owl. Many scientists doubted its existence initially, but electron microscopes confirmed it decades later.

Structure: The Golgi apparatus looks like a stack of flat, pancake-like membrane sacs (called
cisternae). These stacks are connected to the ER on one side and face the cell membrane on the other
side.

Function:
• Receives: Gets proteins and lipids from the ER in small vesicles (bubble-like packets).
• Modifies: Makes changes/additions to these molecules (like adding sugar chains to proteins).
• Sorts and Packages: Packs the finished products into vesicles for delivery.
• Ships: Sends packages to the cell membrane (for secretion outside), lysosomes, or other
organelles.
 Analogy: The Golgi apparatus is like Amazon's warehouse and packing centre. Products
(proteins from ER) arrive, get packed nicely, labelled, and shipped to the right address
(cell membrane, lysosomes etc.)!

5.5 Lysosomes — The Clean-Up System / Suicide Bags

Lysosomes are small, round, membrane-bound sacs (bubbles) filled with powerful digestive enzymes.
They are sometimes called 'suicide bags' of the cell because if they burst, they can digest the entire
cell!

Functions:
• Digestion of food particles: Break down food molecules that enter the cell.
• Destroying old organelles: Digest worn-out, damaged organelles so the cell can stay healthy.
• Removing waste: Break down unwanted proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
• Cell defence: Destroy harmful bacteria and viruses that enter the cell.
• Autophagy: During starvation, lysosomes digest the cell's own organelles to provide nutrients.

The products of breakdown are released into the cytoplasm where they can be reused by the cell.

Fun Fact: Human sperm cells contain lysosomal enzymes. When a sperm meets an egg,
these enzymes help break down the outer layer of the egg so the sperm can enter and
fertilisation can occur!

5.6 Mitochondria — The Powerhouse of the Cell

Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are often called the 'powerhouse of the cell' because they
produce almost all the energy the cell needs to function. Without mitochondria, the cell cannot survive.

Structure of Mitochondria:
• Outer Membrane: Smooth and porous. Forms the outer boundary of the mitochondrion.
• Inner Membrane: Folded into finger-like projections called CRISTAE. These folds dramatically
increase the surface area available for chemical reactions.
• Intermembrane Space: The space between the outer and inner membrane.
• Matrix: The fluid inside the inner membrane. Contains its own DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes.

How Mitochondria Make Energy:

• Glucose (from food) enters the mitochondria
• Through a process called CELLULAR RESPIRATION, glucose is broken down
• The energy released is stored in a molecule called ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
 • ATP is used for ALL activities of the cell — movement, growth, repair, etc.

ATP = Adenosine Triphosphate = The energy currency of the cell.

Why do mitochondria have their own DNA?

Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes, meaning they can make SOME of their own proteins.
This is very unusual! Scientists believe this is because mitochondria evolved from ancient free-living
bacteria that were 'swallowed' by larger cells long ago but were not digested. This is called the
endosymbiotic theory.

Memory Aid: Mitochondria = POWER STATION. Cristae = increase surface area = more
reactions = more energy. ATP = energy packets stored and used by the cell.

5.7 Plastids — Centre for Food Synthesis (Only in Plant Cells!)

Plastids are organelles found ONLY in plant cells. They are double-membrane structures (like
mitochondria) and also have their own DNA and ribosomes.

Types of Plastids:
• Chloroplasts: The most important type. Contain a green pigment called CHLOROPHYLL. They
absorb sunlight and use it to make food (glucose) through photosynthesis.
• Chromoplasts: Contain other pigments (red, yellow, orange). Give colour to flowers and fruits.
• Leucoplasts: Colourless. Store starch (in potato), oils, or proteins.

Structure of a Chloroplast:
• Outer membrane: Smooth outer covering.
• Inner membrane: Inner covering.
• Stroma: Semi-fluid substance inside the chloroplast. Sugars made during photosynthesis are
stored here along with starch granules.
• Thylakoids/Grana: Disc-shaped membrane structures arranged in stacks (like stacks of coins).
Chlorophyll is present in the thylakoid membranes. This is where sunlight is absorbed.

Key Point: Chloroplasts and mitochondria both have their own DNA + ribosomes,
suggesting they evolved from ancient bacteria (endosymbiotic theory). Both are double-
membrane organelles.

5.8 Vacuoles — Storage Containers

Vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs (like balloons) that store various substances inside the cell.
Vacuoles in Different Cells
Feature Plant Cell Vacuoles Animal Cell Vacuoles
Size Very LARGE — often takes up Very SMALL — tiny and
most of the cell volume temporary
Number Usually 1 large central vacuole Many small vacuoles
Contents Water, salts, sugars, waste Food particles, water
products, pigments
Function Maintains cell turgidity (keeps Temporary storage, food
cell firm and upright) digestion

In plants, the large central vacuole pushes the cytoplasm against the cell wall. This creates pressure
(turgor pressure) that keeps the plant firm and upright. When plants don't get enough water, vacuoles
shrink, and the plant wilts.

📝 NOTE: Paramecium (a single-celled organism) has a special contractile vacuole that pumps
out excess water to prevent the cell from bursting.

6. Summary Comparison Tables

Table 2.1 — Comparison of Bacterial, Plant, and Animal Cells
Cell Structure Bacterial Cell Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell membrane Present ✓ Present ✓ Present ✓
Cell wall Present Present (cellulose) Absent ✗
(peptidoglycan)
Cytoplasm Present ✓ Present ✓ Present ✓
Well-defined nucleus Absent ✗ Present ✓ Present ✓
Nucleoid (primitive) Present ✓ Absent ✗ Absent ✗
Membrane-bound Absent ✗ Present ✓ Present ✓
organelles
Mitochondria Absent ✗ Present ✓ Present ✓
Chloroplasts Absent ✗ Present ✓ Absent ✗
Large central vacuole Absent ✗ Present ✓ Absent (small) ✗
Centrioles Absent ✗ Absent ✗ Present ✓
Lysosomes Absent ✗ Rarely present Present ✓
Ribosome size Smaller (70S) Larger (80S) Larger (80S)
Table 2.2 — Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells (NCERT)
Characteristics Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
Nucleus type Primitive (nucleoid) True nucleus
Diameter 1 to 10 μm 10 to 100 μm
Number of cells in organism Usually unicellular Can be unicellular or
multicellular
Membrane-bound organelles Absent Present
Membrane-bound nucleus Absent Present

7. Key Terms — Quick Reference

Important Definitions
Term Simple Definition
Cell The basic structural and functional unit of all
living organisms
Unicellular Organism made of just one cell (e.g., bacteria,
amoeba)
Multicellular Organism made of many cells (e.g., plants,
humans)
Tissue Group of similar cells doing the same function
Thermophiles Heat-loving bacteria found in hot springs
Limit of Resolution Minimum distance at which two points appear
separate (0.1 mm for human eye)
Osmosis Movement of water from dilute to concentrated
solution through selectively permeable
membrane
Diffusion Movement of particles from high to low
concentration (no membrane needed)
Isotonic solution Outside concentration = Inside concentration →
cell unchanged
Hypotonic solution Outside concentration < Inside → water enters
→ cell swells
Hypertonic solution Outside concentration > Inside → water leaves
→ cell shrinks
Plasmolysis Shrinkage of cell contents away from cell wall in
hypertonic solution
Fluid-Mosaic Model Cell membrane is a fluid lipid bilayer with mosaic
of embedded proteins
Selective permeability Property of cell membrane to allow only certain
substances through
Prokaryote Cell without a membrane-bound nucleus (e.g.,
bacteria)
Eukaryote Cell with a proper membrane-bound nucleus
(e.g., plant, animal cells)
Nucleoid Region in prokaryotes containing DNA (no
membrane around it)
Chromatin Loose thread-like DNA material in non-dividing
cell
Chromosomes Condensed chromatin visible during cell division;
carry DNA
Genes Functional segments of DNA that code for
specific proteins
ATP Adenosine Triphosphate — energy molecule
produced by mitochondria
Cellular respiration Process of breaking down glucose in
mitochondria to produce ATP
Chlorophyll Green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs
sunlight for photosynthesis
Cristae Finger-like folds of inner mitochondrial
membrane — increase surface area
Stroma Fluid inside chloroplasts where photosynthesis
reactions occur
Nucleolus Dense body inside nucleus — site of ribosomal
subunit production
Cytoskeleton Network of protein fibres in eukaryotic cells
giving shape and support
Cell inclusion Non-living deposits in cytoplasm (e.g., starch
grains, calcium oxalate crystals)
Plasmolysis Pulling away of cell membrane from cell wall in a
concentrated solution
Enucleate Cells without a nucleus (e.g., mature RBCs)

8. Detailed Question & Answer Section

Short Answer Questions (2-3 Marks)
Q: What is a cell? Why is it called the basic unit of life?
Ans: A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of all living organisms. It is called
the basic unit of life because: (1) Every living organism is made of one or more cells. (2)
All life processes (nutrition, respiration, excretion, reproduction) occur within cells. (3) A
cell is the smallest unit that can independently perform all functions of life. Even in
multicellular organisms, each cell independently carries out vital processes.

Q: Explain with an example the difference between unicellular and multicellular

organisms.
Ans: Unicellular organisms consist of just one cell that performs ALL life functions —
digestion, excretion, reproduction, movement — by itself. Example: Amoeba has only one
cell. It catches food, digests it, and even reproduces by splitting into two, all using that
single cell. Multicellular organisms have millions of specialised cells, each doing a specific
job. Example: In a human, muscle cells help you move, nerve cells carry signals, RBCs
carry oxygen, and stomach cells digest food. No single cell does everything — they all
cooperate.

Q: Why can't we see most cells with our naked eye? How do we study them?
Ans: Most cells are smaller than 0.1 mm — which is the limit of resolution of the human
eye. This means our eyes cannot distinguish two points that are closer than 0.1 mm.
Since cells are smaller than this, they appear invisible or as a blur to our naked eye. To
study cells, scientists use microscopes: (1) Light microscopes (available in school labs)
use visible light and can magnify objects 200-300 times. (2) Electron microscopes use
beams of electrons, can magnify thousands of times, and can show structures as small as
a few nanometres.

Q: Describe the structure of the cell membrane using the fluid-mosaic model.
Ans: The cell membrane is about 7-10 nm thick and has this structure according to the
fluid-mosaic model: (1) Lipid Bilayer — Two layers of phospholipid molecules. The water-
attracting (hydrophilic) heads face outward (towards water), while the water-repelling
(hydrophobic) tails face inward. (2) Proteins — Protein molecules are embedded
throughout the lipid bilayer, scattered like tiles in a mosaic pattern. Some proteins span
the entire membrane; others sit on the surface. (3) FLUID — The lipid molecules can
move sideways and rotate, making the membrane flexible and dynamic. (4) MOSAIC —
Proteins are scattered unevenly like a mosaic. The proteins act as channels and
gatekeepers, helping specific substances pass through the membrane.

Q: Explain osmosis with the help of an example. How is it different from diffusion?
Ans: Osmosis is the movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from
a dilute solution (more water) to a concentrated solution (less water) until both sides are
equal. Example: If you put a raisin in water, water enters the raisin through osmosis (raisin
swells). If you put a fresh grape in concentrated salt solution, water leaves the grape
(grape shrivels). Difference from Diffusion: (1) Diffusion involves movement of ANY
substance (gas, liquid, solid). Osmosis involves ONLY water. (2) Diffusion does NOT need
a membrane. Osmosis REQUIRES a selectively permeable membrane. (3) Both move
from high to low concentration. In osmosis, water moves from high water concentration to
low water concentration.
Q: What is the function of the cell wall? How does it help plant cells in a
concentrated solution?
Ans: Functions of cell wall: (1) Provides rigidity and shape to plant cells. (2) Protects the
cell from mechanical damage. (3) Helps the plant withstand wind, rain, and environmental
stress. (4) Keeps leaves, stems, and flowers firm and upright. In a concentrated
(hypertonic) solution: The cell membrane loses water and shrinks away from the cell wall
(plasmolysis). However, the rigid cell wall does NOT collapse — it maintains its shape. So
the plant cell keeps its outer structure even as the inner content shrinks. Animal cells
(which have no cell wall) shrink significantly in hypertonic solutions.

Q: Why are mitochondria called the powerhouse of the cell? Describe their
structure.
Ans: Mitochondria are called the powerhouse of the cell because they produce ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) — the energy used for all cellular activities — through the
process of cellular respiration. Structure: (1) Outer membrane — smooth, porous outer
boundary. (2) Inner membrane — folded into finger-like projections called cristae, which
greatly increase the surface area for energy-producing reactions. (3) Intermembrane
space — space between the two membranes. (4) Matrix — fluid inside the inner
membrane containing mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes needed for
respiration. Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes, suggesting they evolved
from ancient free-living bacteria.

Q: What are plastids? Describe the types and function of chloroplasts.

Ans: Plastids are double-membrane organelles found only in plant cells. They have their
own DNA and ribosomes. Types: (1) Chloroplasts — contain chlorophyll (green pigment),
carry out photosynthesis. (2) Chromoplasts — contain red/yellow/orange pigments, give
colour to flowers and fruits. (3) Leucoplasts — colourless, store starch, oils, or proteins
(e.g., potato stores starch in leucoplasts). Structure of Chloroplast: Has outer membrane,
inner membrane, stroma (fluid interior where photosynthesis reactions occur), and
thylakoids/grana (disc-shaped structures containing chlorophyll that absorb sunlight).
Function: Chloroplasts absorb sunlight using chlorophyll and use it to convert CO2 + water
→ glucose + oxygen (photosynthesis). The glucose is stored as starch in the stroma.

Q: Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells with two examples of

each.
Ans: Prokaryotic cells: (1) No membrane-bound nucleus — DNA floats in a region called
nucleoid. (2) No membrane-bound organelles (no mitochondria, ER, Golgi etc.). (3)
Smaller size (1–10 μm). (4) Usually unicellular. Examples: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria (blue-
green algae). Eukaryotic cells: (1) Have a true, membrane-bound nucleus. (2) Have
membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria, ER, Golgi, lysosomes etc.). (3) Larger size
(10–100 μm). (4) Can be unicellular (amoeba) or multicellular (humans, plants). Examples:
Plant cells, Animal cells.

Q: Describe the structure and functions of the nucleus.

Ans: The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear membrane (double-layered with nuclear
 pores). Inside: (1) Nucleolus — makes ribosomal subunits; (2) Chromatin — loose DNA in
non-dividing cells; (3) Chromosomes — condensed DNA visible during division. DNA
contains genes (instructions for proteins). Functions: (1) Controls all cell activities. (2)
Stores genetic information. (3) Directs protein synthesis. (4) Passes hereditary information
to next generation. (5) Controls cell division. Note: Prokaryotes have NO nuclear
membrane — their DNA is in a region called nucleoid.

Q: What are lysosomes? Why are they called 'suicide bags' of the cell?
Ans: Lysosomes are small, round, single membrane-bound sacs filled with powerful
digestive enzymes. They are formed by the Golgi apparatus. Functions: They digest old
organelles, harmful bacteria/viruses, food particles, and waste materials in the cell. They
are called 'suicide bags' because if they accidentally rupture or burst, the enzymes inside
can digest the entire cell — killing it. This is useful in situations like programmed cell death
(apoptosis), where the cell intentionally destroys itself for the benefit of the organism (e.g.,
during embryo development — that's how fingers form!).

Long Answer Questions (5 Marks)

Q: Describe the complete structure of a plant cell and how it differs from an animal
cell.
Ans: A plant cell has: (1) Cell Wall — rigid outer layer made of cellulose, provides support
and shape; not present in animal cells. (2) Cell Membrane — selectively permeable lipid
bilayer with embedded proteins; present in both. (3) Nucleus — membrane-bound, with
nucleolus and chromosomes; present in both. (4) Cytoplasm — jelly-like fluid; present in
both. (5) Chloroplasts — contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis; absent in animal cells. (6)
Large central vacuole — stores water and maintains turgor; animal cells have only small
vacuoles. (7) Mitochondria — for energy (ATP) production; present in both. (8)
Endoplasmic Reticulum — manufacturing/transport network; present in both. (9) Golgi
apparatus — packaging and shipping; present in both. (10) Ribosomes — protein
synthesis; present in both. Key differences from animal cells: Plant cells have cell wall,
chloroplasts, and large central vacuole. Animal cells have centrioles (help in cell division)
and more lysosomes. Animal cells can change shape freely due to absence of cell wall —
this flexibility helps in movement and tissue function.

Q: Explain in detail why eukaryotic cells need organelles. Describe the function of
any four organelles.
Ans: Eukaryotic cells need organelles because they carry out many different life
processes simultaneously (protein synthesis, energy production, waste removal, DNA
storage, etc.). If all these processes happened in the same place without separation, they
would interfere with each other. Organelles divide the cell into specialised compartments
— each with specific conditions and enzymes for its particular job. This is called the
division of labour. It makes the cell extremely efficient — like a well-organised factory
where each department does its job without disturbing the others. Four important
organelles: (1) Nucleus — The control centre. Contains DNA with instructions for all
proteins. Controls all cell activities and reproduction. (2) Mitochondria — The powerhouse.
Breaks down glucose during cellular respiration to produce ATP — the energy currency.
Has cristae (inner folds) to increase surface area. (3) Golgi Apparatus — The packaging
 centre. Receives proteins from ER, modifies them, packs into vesicles, and ships them to
correct destinations — like a post office. (4) Lysosomes — The cleaning crew. Contains
digestive enzymes that break down old organelles, harmful bacteria, and waste materials,
keeping the cell healthy.

9. Previous Year Questions (PYQ) with Answers

(Questions asked in CBSE Board Exams and Sample Papers)

1 Mark Questions
[1 Mark, PYQ] Name the scientist who first observed a cell under a microscope.
Ans: Robert Hooke (in 1665, using a self-designed microscope). He observed a thin slice
of cork and named the box-like compartments 'cells'.

[1 Mark, PYQ] What is the other name for the cell membrane?
Ans: The cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane.

[1 Mark, PYQ] Which organelle is called the 'powerhouse of the cell'?

Ans: Mitochondria is called the powerhouse of the cell because it produces ATP through
cellular respiration.

[1 Mark, PYQ] What is ATP?

Ans: ATP stands for Adenosine Triphosphate. It is the energy currency of the cell —
produced in mitochondria and used for all cellular activities.

[1 Mark, PYQ] Name the organelle where proteins are synthesized.

Ans: Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are synthesized (protein
synthesis/translation occurs here).

[1 Mark, PYQ] What are genes?

Ans: Genes are the functional segments of DNA. They carry the genetic information
(instructions) needed to make specific proteins. Genes are the units of heredity.

[1 Mark, PYQ] Why do mature RBCs in humans lack a nucleus?

 Ans: Mature Red Blood Cells (RBCs) lack a nucleus to make more space for haemoglobin
— the protein that carries oxygen. This increases their oxygen-carrying capacity.
However, since they have no nucleus, they cannot repair or reproduce themselves and
live only ~120 days.

[1 Mark, PYQ] Define osmosis.

Ans: Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a dilute solution (higher water
concentration) to a concentrated solution (lower water concentration) through a selectively
permeable membrane.

[1 Mark, PYQ] What is the nucleoid?

Ans: Nucleoid is the region in prokaryotic cells (like bacteria) where DNA is located. Unlike
the nucleus in eukaryotic cells, the nucleoid has no membrane surrounding it.

[1 Mark, PYQ] What is the limit of resolution of the human eye?

Ans: The limit of resolution of the human eye is 0.1 mm. Two points closer than 0.1 mm
appear as a single point to the naked eye.

[1 Mark, PYQ] Name the pigment present in chloroplasts.

Ans: Chlorophyll is the green pigment present in chloroplasts. It absorbs sunlight for
photosynthesis.

[1 Mark, PYQ] What are cristae?

Ans: Cristae are the finger-like folds of the inner membrane of mitochondria. They
increase the surface area available for chemical reactions, thus increasing the efficiency
of energy production.

2-3 Mark Questions

[2-3 Marks, PYQ] What is the fluid-mosaic model? Name the two main components
of the cell membrane.
Ans: The fluid-mosaic model describes the structure of the cell membrane. It consists of:
(1) A lipid bilayer — two layers of phospholipid molecules. The heads (water-attracting)
face outward and the tails (water-repelling) face inward. The lipids can move sideways,
making the membrane FLUID. (2) Proteins — scattered throughout the lipid bilayer like
tiles in a mosaic (hence 'mosaic'). They can move within the membrane and act as
channels/gatekeepers. Main components: (1) Lipids (phospholipids forming bilayer) and
(2) Proteins (embedded in the bilayer).

[2-3 Marks, PYQ] Why is the cell wall important for plant cells? What is it made of?
Ans: Importance: (1) Provides rigidity and a definite shape to plant cells. (2) Helps plants
withstand environmental stresses like wind and rain. (3) Keeps leaves, flowers, and stems
firm and upright. (4) Allows water and minerals to pass through (permeable). (5) Maintains
cell shape even during plasmolysis (water loss). It is primarily made of cellulose — a
complex carbohydrate formed by many glucose units linked together. Fungi have cell
walls made of chitin; bacteria have peptidoglycan.

[2-3 Marks, PYQ] Differentiate between rough ER and smooth ER.

Ans: Rough ER (RER): Has ribosomes attached to its surface giving it a rough/bumpy
appearance. It is mainly involved in protein synthesis and transport (for secretion).
Example: Pancreatic cells that make digestive enzymes. Smooth ER (SER): Has NO
ribosomes, so it looks smooth. It is involved in the synthesis and storage of lipids (fats)
and hormones. Also involved in detoxification. Example: Liver cells detoxifying drugs. Both
are connected to each other and to the nuclear membrane, forming a continuous transport
network.

[2-3 Marks, PYQ] Explain what happens when a potato piece is placed in (a) plain
water and (b) concentrated salt solution.
Ans: (a) Plain water (hypotonic): The concentration of water outside the potato is greater
than inside the cells. Water enters the potato cells by osmosis (through the selectively
permeable cell membrane). The cells gain water, swell, and the potato piece becomes
heavier/larger and feels firm. (b) Concentrated salt solution (hypertonic): The
concentration of water outside is less than inside the cells. Water moves OUT of the
potato cells by osmosis. The cells lose water, shrink, and the potato piece becomes
lighter/smaller and feels soft/limp. This demonstrates that the cell membrane is selectively
permeable and osmosis depends on concentration differences.

[2-3 Marks, PYQ] What are the three basic parts of most cells? Briefly describe each.
Ans: (1) Cell membrane (Plasma membrane): A thin, flexible boundary surrounding every
cell. It is selectively permeable — controls what enters and leaves the cell. Made of lipids
and proteins (fluid-mosaic structure). (2) Cytoplasm: A semi-fluid, jelly-like substance
filling the interior of the cell. It is the site of many chemical reactions and contains all
organelles suspended in it. (3) Nucleus: A prominent organelle surrounded by a double
nuclear membrane with pores. It contains chromosomes (DNA + proteins), the nucleolus,
and controls all cell activities. It stores genetic information and directs protein synthesis.

[2-3 Marks, PYQ] What are the similarities between mitochondria and plastids that
suggest they evolved from bacteria?
Ans: Similarities: (1) Both have their OWN DNA (separate from the nuclear DNA). (2) Both
have their own RIBOSOMES (similar in size to bacterial ribosomes). (3) Both are able to
make SOME of their own proteins independently. (4) Both have DOUBLE membranes
(two surrounding membranes). (5) Both can divide independently of the rest of the cell.
These features are also seen in bacteria, suggesting that both mitochondria and plastids
evolved from ancient free-living bacteria that were engulfed by (but not digested by) larger
cells billions of years ago. This is called the endosymbiotic theory.
5 Mark Questions (Long Answer)
[5 Marks, PYQ] Draw a neat labelled diagram of a plant cell and describe the
functions of any four organelles.
Ans: [Note: Draw the diagram in your exam!] Four organelles and their functions: (1)
Chloroplast: Contains chlorophyll. Absorbs sunlight and carries out photosynthesis,
converting CO2 + water into glucose + oxygen. The glucose is used for energy and
growth; stored as starch in stroma. Found only in plant cells. (2) Mitochondria: Carries out
cellular respiration — breaks down glucose to produce ATP (energy). Has cristae (inner
membrane folds) that increase surface area for reactions. Found in both plant and animal
cells. (3) Nucleus: Stores DNA (genetic information). Controls all cell activities through
genes. Directs protein synthesis. Contains nucleolus (makes ribosomal subunits) and
chromosomes. (4) Vacuole: Large central vacuole in plant cells. Stores water, salts,
sugars, waste products. Maintains turgor pressure (keeps plant firm and upright). When
vacuole is full, the plant cell is turgid (firm); when empty, the plant wilts.

[5 Marks, PYQ] Describe the structure and function of the nucleus. How is it different
in prokaryotic cells?
Ans: Structure of Nucleus in Eukaryotic cells: (1) Nuclear Envelope: A double membrane
(two phospholipid bilayers) surrounds the nucleus. Has nuclear pores that allow
movement of RNA, proteins etc. between nucleus and cytoplasm. (2) Nucleoplasm: Fluid
inside the nucleus. (3) Nucleolus: Dense spherical body inside nucleus. Site of ribosomal
RNA synthesis. The subunits travel to cytoplasm and form ribosomes. (4) Chromatin: In
non-dividing cells, DNA exists as loose, thread-like chromatin. (5) Chromosomes: When
the cell divides, chromatin condenses into distinct chromosomes (visible under
microscope). Made of DNA + proteins. (6) Genes: Specific segments of DNA that code for
proteins. Functions: (1) Controls all cell activities. (2) Stores and protects genetic
information (DNA). (3) Directs protein synthesis via genes. (4) Controls cell division. (5)
Passes hereditary information to offspring. In Prokaryotic cells: There is NO nuclear
membrane. The DNA is present as a single, circular molecule associated with proteins.
This region is called the nucleoid. There is no nucleolus. There are no chromosomes;
instead, the DNA is always in the form of a single circular chromosome. Prokaryotes also
have no membrane-bound organelles.

[5 Marks, PYQ] Explain the structure and function of mitochondria. Why do

mitochondria have their own DNA?
Ans: Structure: Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles. (1) Outer
membrane: Smooth and permeable (has protein channels called porins). Forms the outer
boundary. (2) Inner membrane: Highly folded into finger-like projections called CRISTAE.
Cristae greatly increase surface area for chemical reactions. (3) Intermembrane space:
Space between outer and inner membrane. (4) Matrix: Fluid-filled inner space. Contains
mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes. This is where the Krebs cycle of respiration
occurs. Functions: (1) Cellular respiration: Glucose + oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water +
ATP energy. (2) ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) production: ATP is the energy currency
used for all cell activities — movement, growth, repair, protein synthesis etc. (3) Heat
generation: Some energy is released as heat. Why mitochondria have their own DNA:
Mitochondria contain their own circular DNA (different from nuclear DNA) and their own
ribosomes. This allows them to make some of their own proteins independently. This is
explained by the endosymbiotic theory: millions of years ago, an ancient bacterium was
engulfed by a larger cell but not digested. It continued living inside the larger cell,
providing energy in return for shelter. Over billions of years, this bacterium evolved into
what we now call mitochondria. Their own DNA is a remnant of their bacterial ancestry.

— End of Chapter 2: Cell — The Building Block of Life —

Study hard, All the best for your CBSE Board Exam! 🌟