EE 666 - Optical Space Communication

MODULE 1 NOTES
PPT 2: LED — Light Emitting Diode
Complete Study Notes with Derivations & Numericals

Topics Covered
• Topic 1: Optical Sources & LED Principle (Bandgap, AlGaAs)
• Topic 2: Spectral Width (Delta-lambda) — Derivation & Numerical
• Topic 3: Internal Quantum Efficiency, Carrier Lifetime & Internal Optical Power
• Topic 4: External Quantum Efficiency, Solid Angle & Extraction Efficiency
• Topic 5: Optical & Electrical Bandwidth of LED
• Quick Exam Reference — All Key Formulas & Numbers

Topic 1: Optical Sources & LED Principle

Requirements of a Good Optical Source
• Small size — compact for practical use
• Power output proportional to electrical input — linear response
• High E/O (electrical-to-optical) conversion efficiency
• Small spectral width (Delta-lambda) — narrow range of emitted wavelengths
• High modulation capabilities — can switch ON/OFF fast for data transmission
• Energy efficient

LED Working Principle

An LED works on a forward-biased p-n junction. When electrons and holes recombine at the junction,
energy is released as a photon. This is called SPONTANEOUS EMISSION.

The emitted wavelength depends on bandgap energy:

 lambda = hc / Eg = 1240 / Eg [[Link]]

Direct vs Indirect Bandgap — CRITICAL CONCEPT

LEDs and Lasers MUST use direct bandgap semiconductors. Silicon CANNOT make
an LED!

Type Recombination Process Light Emission Example

Direct Bandgap Electron recombines directly → YES — efficient GaAs, InP, AlGaAs
photon emitted
Indirect Bandgap Needs phonon (lattice vibration) Weak — inefficient Si, Ge
assistance

AlxGa1-xAs — The Tunable Semiconductor

A compound semiconductor whose bandgap can be tuned by changing composition x:
• Al = Aluminium, Ga = Gallium, As = Arsenic
• x = mole fraction of Aluminium
• 1-x = mole fraction of Gallium

Bandgap equation (at 300K):

Eg(x) = 1.424 + 1.266x + 0.266x² [eV]

x value Composition Bandgap type

x=0 Pure GaAs Direct — Eg = 1.424 eV
x=1 Pure AlAs Indirect
x = 0.3 30% Al, 70% Ga Direct
x < 0.45 AlGaAs mix Direct bandgap — GOOD for LEDs
x > 0.45 AlGaAs mix Indirect bandgap — NOT useful for LEDs

Bandgap Energy Table

Semiconductor Bandgap Energy (eV)
Si 1.12
Ge 0.67
GaAs 1.43
InP (Indium Phosphide) 1.35
 Semiconductor Bandgap Energy (eV)
Ga0.97Al0.03As 1.51

Solved Numerical — Find Eg and lambda for x = 0.07

Step 1 — Linear term:
1.266 x 0.07 = 0.0886
Step 2 — Quadratic term:
0.266 x (0.07)² = 0.266 x 0.0049 = 0.00130
Step 3 — Total bandgap:
Eg = 1.424 + 0.0886 + 0.00130 = 1.514 eV
Step 4 — Wavelength:
lambda = 1240 / 1.514 = 819 nm

Exam Summary — Topic 1

Concept Key Fact
LED emission type Spontaneous emission
Must use Direct bandgap semiconductor
Why not Silicon? Indirect bandgap — inefficient light emission
AlGaAs direct BG range x < 0.45
Eg formula Eg(x) = 1.424 + 1.266x + 0.266x²
lambda from Eg lambda = 1240/Eg ([Link])
1 eV 1.602 x 10^-19 J

Topic 2: Spectral Width (Delta-lambda)

What is Spectral Width?
Spectral width (Delta-lambda), also called linewidth or optical bandwidth, describes the
SPREAD of emitted wavelengths from an LED due to spontaneous emission. Smaller Delta-
lambda = more pure light = better for communication.

Why Does Spreading Happen?

At room temperature, electrons have thermal energy = kT. This causes photon energy spread:
 Delta-Eph ~ 1.5kT to 3.5kT => Delta-Eph ≈ 2kT

Full Derivation — From Energy Spread to Wavelength Spread

Start with photon energy–wavelength relation:
Eph = hc / lambda
Differentiate both sides (take magnitude):
Delta-lambda = (hc / Eph²) x Delta-Eph
Substitute Delta-Eph = 2kT:
Delta-lambda = (2kT x hc) / Eph² [Key result]
Compact form — substitute Eph = hc/lambda:
Delta-lambda = (2kT / hc) x lambda²

Fractional spectral width (divide by lambda):

Delta-lambda / lambda = Delta-Eph / Eph = 2kT / Eph

Solved Numerical — Delta-lambda at lambda = 850 nm, T = 300K

Given: lambda = 850 nm, T = 300K, k = 1.38x10^-23 J/K, hc = 1.986x10^-25 J.m

Step 1 — Calculate 2kT:

2kT = 2 x 1.38x10^-23 x 300 = 8.28x10^-21 J
Step 2 — Calculate lambda²:
lambda² = (850x10^-9)² = 7.225x10^-13 m²
Step 3 — Substitute:
Delta-lambda = (8.28x10^-21 / 1.986x10^-25) x 7.225x10^-13 = 30 nm

Standard Delta-lambda Values

Wavelength lambda (nm) Spectral Width Delta-lambda (nm)
850 30
1310 70
1550 100

Longer wavelength = wider spectral spread. 850 nm LEDs preferred for short-range
systems.
Exam Summary — Topic 2
Formula Use
Delta-Eph ≈ 2kT Energy spread due to thermal broadening
Delta-lambda = ([Link])/Eph² Wavelength spread from energy spread
Delta-lambda = (2kT/hc).lambda² Compact form — use when lambda is given
Delta-lambda/lambda = 2kT/Eph Fractional spectral width

Topic 3: Internal Quantum Efficiency, Carrier Lifetime & Internal

Optical Power
The Big Picture
When current is injected into an LED, not ALL recombinations produce photons. Some produce heat.
So we track:
• How efficiently photons are generated INSIDE the LED → Internal Quantum Efficiency (eta_i)
• How long carriers survive before recombining → Carrier Lifetime (tau)
• How much optical power is generated inside → Internal Optical Power (Pint)

1. Internal Quantum Efficiency (eta_i)

eta_i = Photons generated inside LED / Total e-h pairs injected

In terms of recombination rates:

eta_i = Rr / (Rr + Rnr) = Rr / R_total

• Rr = radiative recombination rate → produces photons

• Rnr = non-radiative recombination rate → produces heat
• eta_i = 1 → all carriers recombine radiatively (ideal)
• eta_i < 1 → losses due to defects, Auger recombination, heat

Since current I injects I/q carriers per second:

R_total = I/q => eta_int = Rr / (I/q)

2. Carrier Lifetime — Full Derivation

Let n = excess carrier concentration. Carriers recombine two ways:
• Radiative recombination → produces photons, lifetime tau_r
• Non-radiative recombination → produces heat, lifetime tau_nr
Recombination rate definition: Rate = n/tau (because if n carriers each live tau seconds, rate = n/tau)

For radiative:
-(dn/dt)_rad = n / tau_r
For non-radiative:
-(dn/dt)_non-rad = n / tau_nr
Total recombination:
n/tau = n/tau_r + n/tau_nr
Cancel n:
1/tau = 1/tau_r + 1/tau_nr
So bulk recombination lifetime:
tau = (tau_r x tau_nr) / (tau_r + tau_nr)

Internal QE in terms of lifetimes:

eta_int = tau / tau_r

3. Internal Optical Power (Pint)

Each photon has energy Eph = hv = hc/lambda
Radiative recombination rate:
Rr = eta_int x (I/q)
Internal optical power:
Pint = Rr x Eph = eta_int x (I/q) x hv
Pint = eta_int x (hc / [Link]) x I [Key formula]

Solved Numerical 1 — InGaAsP LED (lambda = 1310 nm)

Given: tau_r = 30 ns, tau_nr = 100 ns, I = 40 mA = 0.04 A, lambda = 1310 nm

a) Bulk recombination time tau:

tau = (30 x 100) / (30 + 100) = 3000/130 = 23.1 ns
b) Internal quantum efficiency:
eta_int = tau/tau_r = 23.1/30 = 0.77
c) Internal optical power:
Pint = 0.77 x (hc/[Link]) x 0.04 = 29.2 mW
Solved Numerical 2 — Typical LED (lambda = 850 nm)
Given: I = 20 mA = 0.02 A, lambda = 850 nm, eta_int = 0.8

Step 1 — Total recombination rate:

R_total = I/q = 0.02 / 1.602x10^-19 = 1.25x10^17 carriers/sec
Step 2 — Radiative recombination rate:
Rr = eta_int x R_total = 0.8 x 1.25x10^17 = 1.0x10^17 photons/sec
Step 3 — Photon energy:
Eph = hc/lambda = (6.626x10^-34 x 3x10^8) / 850x10^-9 = 2.34x10^-19 J
(≈1.46 eV)
Step 4 — Internal optical power:
Pint = Rr x Eph = 1.0x10^17 x 2.34x10^-19 = 23.4 mW

Exam Summary — Topic 3

Formula Meaning
eta_i = Rr/(Rr+Rnr) Internal QE in terms of rates
eta_i = tau/tau_r Internal QE in terms of lifetimes
1/tau = 1/tau_r + 1/tau_nr Combined carrier lifetime
tau = tau_r.tau_nr/(tau_r+tau_nr) Bulk recombination time
Pint = eta_int(hc/[Link])I Internal optical power
R_total = I/q Total carrier injection rate

Topic 4: External Quantum Efficiency, Solid Angle & Extraction

Efficiency
The Core Problem — Why So Little Light Escapes?
Even though Pint = 23.4 mW is generated inside, typical LED external efficiency is
only 2-5%. Most light is TRAPPED inside!

3 loss mechanisms:
• Total Internal Reflection (TIR) — most light trapped at semiconductor-air boundary
• Absorption inside the material — some photons reabsorbed
• Fresnel reflection losses — even photons heading the right way get partially reflected
External Quantum Efficiency (eta_e)
eta_e = Photons emitted OUT of LED / Photons generated inside LED

eta_e = eta_ext1 x eta_ext2

• eta_ext1 = extraction efficiency (escape cone — fraction reaching the surface)
• eta_ext2 = transmission/Fresnel efficiency (fraction that actually transmits through surface)
• Typical: eta_e ≈ 0.02 to 0.05 (2% to 5%)

Solid Angle — Derivation of dΩ = sinθ dθ dφ

Solid angle definition:
dΩ = dA / r²

For a small patch on a sphere of radius r:

• Side 1 (polar direction): arc length = r.dθ
• Side 2 (azimuth direction): radius of ring = [Link]θ, so arc length = [Link]θ.dφ

Area of patch:
dA = (r.dθ)([Link]θ.dφ) = r².sinθ.dθ.dφ
Therefore:
dΩ = dA/r² = sinθ.dθ.dφ [Key result]

Full sphere verification:

Ω = integral(0 to 2pi) integral(0 to pi) sinθ dθ dφ = 4π steradians
✓

Physical intuition: Near poles (θ≈0) rings shrink → sinθ≈0. At equator (θ=π/2) largest ring →
sinθ=1. The sinθ term accounts for spherical curvature.

Deriving eta_ext1 — Escape Cone Efficiency

Inside semiconductor, light emits in ALL directions → total solid angle = 4π.
Only photons within escape cone (critical angle φc) can escape.

Step 1 — Power in escape cone:

eta_ext1 = [integral(0 to φc) 2π.sinθ.dθ] / 4π = (1/2)(1 - cosφc)
Step 2 — Critical angle from Snell's law:
sin(φc) = n2/n1
Step 3 — Express cosφc:
cos(φc) = sqrt(1 - (n2/n1)²)
Step 4 — Small angle approx (n2 << n1):
cos(φc) ≈ 1 - (1/2)(n2²/n1²)
Step 5 — Final result:
eta_ext1 ≈ n2² / 4n1² = (1/4)(n2/n1)² [Key formula]

For typical LED (n1 = 3.5, n2 = 1):

eta_ext1 = (1/4)(1/3.5)² = (1/4)(0.0816) ≈ 0.02 = 2%

Only 2% of internally generated light reaches the surface! This is why LED is low
power and short-range only.

Deriving eta_ext2 — Fresnel Transmission Efficiency

Even photons inside the escape cone don't all escape — Fresnel reflection at the boundary reflects
some back.

Fresnel reflectance at normal incidence:

R = ((n1 - n2) / (n1 + n2))²
Transmission efficiency:
eta_ext2 = 1 - R = 1 - ((n1-n2)/(n1+n2))²

Numerical (n1 = 3.5, n2 = 1):

R = ((3.5-1)/(3.5+1))² = (2.5/4.5)² = 0.31
eta_ext2 = 1 - 0.31 = 0.69 = 69%

Overall Quantum Efficiency

eta = eta_i x eta_e = eta_i x eta_ext1 x eta_ext2

Emitted Output Power

P_emitted = eta_ext1 x eta_ext2 x P_internal = eta_external x
P_internal
Example (1% output power):
Given: Pint = 100 mW, eta_ext1 = 0.2 (20%), eta_ext2 = 0.05 (5%)
eta_external = 0.2 x 0.05 = 0.01 = 1%
P_emitted = 0.01 x 100 mW = 1 mW

Exam statement: If external efficiency is 1%, an internal power of 100 mW results in an

emitted optical power of 1 mW.

Exam Summary — Topic 4

Formula Meaning
eta_e = 0.02 to 0.05 Typical external QE of LED
eta_ext1 = (1/4)(n2/n1)² Escape cone extraction efficiency
R = ((n1-n2)/(n1+n2))² Fresnel reflectance
eta_ext2 = 1 - R Fresnel transmission efficiency
eta = eta_i x eta_ext1 x eta_ext2 Overall quantum efficiency
P_emitted = eta_external x Pint Emitted output power
dΩ = sinθ dθ dφ Solid angle element
Full sphere = 4π sr Total solid angle

Topic 5: Optical & Electrical Bandwidth of LED

Why Bandwidth Matters
An LED must switch ON and OFF rapidly to transmit data. Two things limit speed:
• Carrier lifetime tau → limits OPTICAL bandwidth
• RC time constant → limits ELECTRICAL bandwidth

Optical Bandwidth
When LED is modulated at frequency ω, optical power follows first-order low-pass response:
P(ω) = P(0) / sqrt(1 + ω².tau²)

3 dB condition — power drops to half:

P(ω)/P(0) = 1/2
Solving:
1 / sqrt(1 + ω².tau²) = 1/2
 1 + ω².tau² = 4 => ω².tau² = 3
ω_3dB = sqrt(3) / tau
Converting to frequency (ω = 2πf):
f_3dB(optical) = sqrt(3) / (2π.tau) [Key formula]

Physical meaning: Shorter tau → faster recombination → faster response → higher

bandwidth.

Electrical Bandwidth
LED electrically behaves like a first-order RC low-pass circuit:
• Junction capacitance Cj
• Series resistance Rs
• RC time constant limits how fast current can change

Transfer function:
H(ω) = 1 / (1 + jω.RC)
At 3 dB condition:
ω_3dB = 1/RC
f_3dB(elec) = 1 / (2π.RC) = 1 / (2π.tau) [Key formula]

Optical vs Electrical Bandwidth Comparison

Parameter Optical BW Electrical BW
Formula f = sqrt(3) / 2π.tau f = 1 / 2π.tau
Difference sqrt(3) factor HIGHER Base value
Why? Power proportional to amplitude Current proportional to amplitude²

Optical bandwidth is always higher than electrical bandwidth by a factor of sqrt(3). This is the
ONLY difference.

Solved Numerical — Electrical Bandwidth

Given: R = 50 Ω, C = 20 pF
RC = 50 x 20x10^-12 = 1x10^-9 s
f_3dB = 1 / (2π x 10^-9) ≈ 159 MHz
Exam Summary — Topic 5
Formula Type
f_3dB = sqrt(3) / 2π.tau Optical 3dB bandwidth
f_3dB = 1 / 2π.tau = 1/2π.RC Electrical 3dB bandwidth
Shorter tau Higher bandwidth
Optical BW / Electrical BW sqrt(3) factor difference

Master Exam Reference — All PPT 2 Formulas & Numbers

Concept Formula / Value
Photon wavelength from Eg lambda = 1240/Eg [[Link]]
AlGaAs bandgap equation Eg(x) = 1.424 + 1.266x + 0.266x² [eV]
Direct bandgap condition x < 0.45 for AlGaAs
Thermal energy spread Delta-Eph ≈ 2kT
Spectral width Delta-lambda = (2kT/hc) x lambda²
Spectral width at 850nm ~30 nm
Spectral width at 1310nm ~70 nm
Spectral width at 1550nm ~100 nm
Internal QE (rates) eta_i = Rr/(Rr+Rnr)
Internal QE (lifetimes) eta_i = tau/tau_r
Bulk carrier lifetime 1/tau = 1/tau_r + 1/tau_nr
Internal optical power Pint = eta_int(hc/[Link])I
Total carrier injection rate R_total = I/q
Extraction efficiency eta_ext1 = (1/4)(n2/n1)²
For typical LED n1=3.5 eta_ext1 ≈ 2%
Fresnel reflectance R = ((n1-n2)/(n1+n2))²
Fresnel transmission eta_ext2 = 1-R = 69% for n1=3.5
Typical external QE eta_e = 2% to 5%
Emitted power P_emitted = eta_ext1 x eta_ext2 x Pint
Optical 3dB BW f = sqrt(3)/2π.tau
Electrical 3dB BW f = 1/2π.tau = 1/2π.RC
Example elec BW (R=50, C=20pF) 159 MHz
Concept Formula / Value
Solid angle element dΩ = sinθ dθ dφ
Full sphere solid angle 4π steradians
hc value 1.986 x 10^-25 J.m
Boltzmann constant k 1.38 x 10^-23 J/K
Electron charge q 1.602 x 10^-19 C
Planck constant h 6.626 x 10^-34 J.s

End of PPT 2 Notes — EE 666 Optical Space Communication