Chapter 03

Casting Process
• One of the oldest ways to shape metal.
• Melted metal is poured into a mould that has the shape of the object.
• The metal cools and hardens in the mould, forming the object, called a casting.
• The mould is removed by breaking it or taking it apart.
• Also called founding.
Advantages of Casting
• Can make very detailed shapes, including both internal and external features.
• Works with almost any material, whether ferrous (iron-based) or non-ferrous (other
metals).
• The tools for making moulds are simple and inexpensive, making it ideal for trial runs or
small production batches.
• Material can be placed exactly where it's needed, allowing for lighter designs.
• Castings usually cool evenly, meaning they don't have directional properties.
• Some metals and alloys can only be processed by casting, not other methods like forging.
• Castings can be made in very large sizes and weights (up to 200 tons).
Limitations of Casting
• The accuracy and surface finish of regular sand casting may not be good enough for final
products in some cases.
• Special processes like die casting are needed for higher precision (discussed later).
• Sand casting can be labor-intensive, but improvements like machine moulding and
mechanization aim to reduce this.
• It can be hard to remove defects caused by moisture in sand casting.
Applications of Sand Casting
• Cylinder blocks
• Liners
• Machine tool beds
• Pistons and piston rings
• Mill rolls
• Wheels
• Housings
• Water supply pipes and special parts
• Bells

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Casting Terms
• Flask: A container that holds the sand mould. It is made up of wood for temporary
applications or more genera lly of metal for long term use. It can be:
o Drag: Lower part of the mould.
o Cope: Upper part of the mould.
o Cheek: Middle part used in three-piece moulds.
• Pattern: A replica of the final object, used to create the mould cavity.
• Parting Line: The line separating the two parts of the mould or pattern halves.
• Bottom Board: A wooden board used at the start of mould making; the pattern is placed
on it.
• Facing Sand: A small amount of sand with carbon to improve the surface finish of the
casting.
• Moulding Sand: The sand mixture used to form the mould, usually made of silica, clay,
and moisture.
• Backing Sand: Used sand that fills most of the mould, providing structure.
• Core: A part used to create hollow sections in the casting.
• Pouring Basin: A funnel-shaped cavity where molten metal is poured into the mould.
• Sprue: The passage that allows molten metal from the pouring basin to reach the mould
cavity.
• Runner: Passageways that guide molten metal to the mould cavity.
• Gate: The entry point through which molten metal flows into the mould cavity.
• Chaplet: Supports the core inside the mould cavity to prevent it from shifting. and
overcome the metallostatic forces.
• Chill: A metal object added to increase cooling speed and achieve uniform cooling.
• Riser: A reservoir that holds extra molten metal, helping to compensate for shrinkage
during cooling.

Sand Mould Making Procedure

1. Prepare the Bottom Board:

o Place the bottom board on a flat surface.

o Set the drag mould flask upside down on the board with the pattern centered in
the flask.
o Ensure a 50-100 mm gap between the pattern and flask walls.
2. Add Facing Sand:

o Sprinkle dry facing sand on the pattern and the board to prevent sticking.

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3. Fill with Moulding Sand:

o Pour freshly prepared moulding sand into the drag, covering the pattern with 30-
50 mm thickness.
o Fill the rest of the flask with backing sand and compact it evenly (don’t make it
too hard or too loose).
4. Scrape Excess Sand:

o Scrape off excess sand using a flat bar, leveling it with the flask edges.
5. Vent the Mould:

o Use a vent wire (1-2 mm diameter) to make vent holes in the drag to help gases
escape.
6. Flip the Flask:

o Roll the finished drag onto the bottom board, exposing the pattern.
o Repair any sand edges around the pattern with a slick.
7. Set the Cope and Add Sand:

o Place the cope half of the pattern on top, aligning it with dowel pins.
o Sprinkle dry parting sand over the drag and pattern.
o Place a sprue pin (50 mm away from the pattern) and a riser pin if needed.
o Add freshly prepared moulding sand and backing sand, then compact it.
8. Remove Pins and Cut the Pouring Basin:

o Carefully remove the sprue and riser pins.

o Cut the pouring basin near the sprue top.
9. Separate Cope and Drag:

o Separate the cope and drag, blowing off any loose sand.
o Withdraw the pattern using draw spikes and lightly tap it to enlarge the mould
cavity slightly.
10. Cut Runners and Gates:

o Carefully cut the runners and gates in the mould, clearing any excess sand with
bellows.
11. Apply Facing Sand Paste:

o Apply a paste of facing sand to the mould cavity and runners to improve the
surface finish of the casting.
12. Prepare the Core:

o Make a dry sand core in a core box and bake it.

o Place the baked core into the mould cavity.

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 13. Finalize the Mould:

o Replace the cope on the drag, aligning it with pins.

o Add weight on top of the cope to counteract upward forces during pouring.

14. Ready for Pouring:

o The mould is now ready for pouring the molten metal.

Patterns in Casting
• A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by casting, but with some modifications.
• The main modifications made to the pattern are:
a. Pattern Allowances: Adjustments added to account for shrinkage during cooling.
b. Core Prints: Features added to help support and position the core inside the
mould.
c. Elimination of Fine Details: Small details that can’t be achieved by casting are
removed and will be added later through further processing.
Pattern Allowances
The dimensions of the pattern are different from the final casting dimensions due to a few
reasons:
1. Shrinkage: All the metals shrink when cooling except perhaps bismuth. This is because
of inter– atomic vibrations which are amplified by an increase in temperature.

o Liquid Shrinkage: Happens when the metal changes from liquid to solid.

o Solid Shrinkage: Occurs as the solid metal cools down.

o Shrinkage Allowance: Added to the pattern to account for the volume lost
during cooling.

▪Steel shrinks more than aluminum.

▪Different metals have different shrinkage rates (e.g., white cast iron
shrinks 21.0 mm/m during casting but grows by 10.5 mm/m after
annealing, leading to a net shrinkage of 10.5 mm/m).
▪ Shrinkage rates depend on the metal and mould design.
o Dimension Adjustment:

▪ All dimensions are adjusted uniformly unless restricted (e.g., a dry sand
core may restrict the center of the casting).
▪ For outer dimensions, a higher shrinkage allowance is typically provided.
▪ The pattern maker uses experience and trial to determine the right
shrinkage for each casting.

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 ▪ Internal dimensions (like cylinder diameters) are increased because the
material contracts inward.
2. Machining or Finish Allowance:

o Surface Finish: Sand casting usually results in a rough finish, so extra material is
added for machining or cleaning.
o Allowance Range: The extra material can range from 2 to 20 mm, depending on
dimensions, material type, and the required finish.
o Guidelines: The machining allowance depends on the metal, mould type,
accuracy needed, and surface complexity.
o Reducing Machining Allowance: To reduce machining cost, the entire casting
can be kept in the drag flask to minimize defects due to the parting plane.
Finish or Machining Allowance
• Sand casting generally results in a rough surface finish and less accuracy. Therefore,
when the casting needs to have good surface quality or precise dimensions, machining is
done afterward.
• Ferrous Materials: They often have scales on the surface that must be removed through
cleaning.
• Extra Material: Additional material is added to the pattern, which is then removed
through machining or cleaning.
o The amount of extra material added depends on the required finish, the casting
material, and the dimensions.
o Typically, the extra material ranges from 2 to 20 mm.
• Machining Allowance:
o The machining allowance is the extra material that must be removed during
machining.
o The cost of adding extra material for machining should be carefully considered
before finalizing.
• Factors Affecting Machining Allowance:
o The type of metal cast, the moulding process, the surface accuracy needed, and
the complexity of the surface details all influence the machining allowance.
• Reducing Machining Allowance:
o One way to reduce machining is to keep the casting in the drag flask to minimize
dimensional changes and defects caused by the parting plane.
Draft Allowance
• When removing the pattern from the sand mould, the vertical surfaces of the pattern may
damage the mould cavity. To prevent this, the vertical surfaces of the pattern are tapered
slightly, which is called draft allowance.
• The draft allows the pattern to be removed without damaging the mould.
• Draft Requirements:
o The amount of draft depends on the complexity of the pattern.

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 o Inner details of the pattern require more draft than outer surfaces.
o Hand Moulding: More draft is needed for hand moulding compared to machine
moulding.
o Machine Moulding: The draft required depends on the condition of the machine.
New, well-maintained machines require less draft.
• Draft as Extra Metal: The draft is an extra metal added to the pattern to make it easier to
remove from the mould without damage.
Shake Allowance
• Purpose: Before removing the pattern from the sand mould, the pattern is lightly tapped
(or “rapped”) on the vertical faces to slightly enlarge the mould cavity. This makes it
easier to remove the pattern.
• Effect: Since tapping enlarges the final casting, the original pattern dimensions must be
reduced to account for this increase.
• Characteristics:
o This is a negative allowance, meaning the pattern dimensions are slightly
reduced.
o Shake allowance only applies to dimensions that are parallel to the parting
plane of the mould.
o The amount of shake allowance depends on the foundry practices and personnel,
and there’s no precise formula for it.
o Increasing the draft can reduce the need for a larger shake allowance, as the extra
material can be removed later during machining.
Distortion Allowance
• Purpose: When a metal just solidifies, it’s weak and prone to distortion, especially in thin
or complicated sections (like long flat portions or thin, long sections connected to thicker
ones).
• How It Works:
o Foundries usually add extra material to counteract potential distortion.
o Alternatively, the pattern can be intentionally shaped in the opposite direction to
the expected distortion, so that the final casting distorts less.
o The amount of distortion is often figured out by trial and error. Some test case
data may be available in literature for certain materials.
Core Prints
• Purpose: For castings that require hollow spaces (core), a core print is used to support
the core inside the mould cavity.
• How It Works: Core prints are projections or extensions on the pattern that help hold the
core in the correct position while the mould is being formed.
• Sizing: The size and design of the core prints depend on the specific casting
requirements. These details are usually provided based on the particular casting design
and are important for ensuring the core stays in place during the pouring of molten metal.

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Elimination of Details
• Purpose: Some fine details or small holes may not be easily achieved with sand casting
due to limitations in precision. In such cases, it’s better to eliminate these small details
from the pattern and add them later during the finishing process (e.g., machining).

• How It Works:
o If the accuracy required for a casting is high, certain fine features may be
removed from the pattern to avoid complications in the casting process.
o These details can be added in the finishing stages, where processes like machining
or grinding are used to achieve the desired finish.
• Factors: The decision to eliminate details depends on the casting's required accuracy, the
capabilities of the chosen casting process, and the type of moulding method being used.

Pattern Materials
1. Wood
• Advantages:
o Easily available and inexpensive.
o Lightweight and can be easily shaped.
o Commonly used for patterns, especially in small and medium-sized castings.
• Disadvantages:
o Absorbs moisture, which can cause dimensional changes and distortions.
o Requires seasoning and proper upkeep to reduce warpage.
• Common Types: Pine, mahogany, teak, walnut, deodar. Plywood and particle boards are
also used for flat-patterns due to their strength and availability.
2. Metal
• Advantages:
o Durable and provides a smooth surface finish.
o Ideal for large-scale production and closer dimensional tolerances.
o Metals like aluminum and white metal are corrosion-resistant, lightweight, and
easy to work with.
o White metal has minimal shrinkage, making it easier to make additional patterns
without additional shrinkage allowances.
• Common Materials: Cast iron, brass, aluminum, white metal.
• Disadvantages: Not suitable for every casting size, especially smaller or complex shapes.
3. Plastics
• Advantages:
o Lightweight, easy to form, and durable.
o Dimensionally stable (do not absorb moisture) and easy to clean.

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 o Can be used for moulds made from sand, clay, or plaster of Paris.
o No shrinkage plastic materials do not require double shrinkage allowances.
• Common Materials: Cold-setting epoxy resins with fillers, polyurethane foam.
• Disadvantages: Not as commonly used for larger or more complex patterns.
4. Polyurethane Foam
• Advantages:
o Very lightweight and easily shaped.
o Suitable for light-duty work and small quantities of castings.
o Can be used in full mould processes, where the pattern burns inside the mould
without withdrawal.
• Disadvantages: Primarily used for smaller, less complex castings.
Pattern Material Selection
The choice of pattern material depends on:
• The size of the casting.
• The number of castings required.
• The dimensional accuracy needed.
• Durability and cost considerations.
Types of Patterns in Casting
Here’s an overview of different types of casting patterns:

1. Single Piece Pattern

• Description: A simple, one-piece pattern.
• Uses: Best for simple castings with no complex features.
• Applications: Used in small-scale production or prototype development.
• Limitation: It requires the job to be simple, and the pattern is expected to be entirely in
the drag. If no flat surface exists, complications may arise, and a follow board might be
needed.

2. Split Pattern (Two-Piece Pattern)

• Description: The pattern is split into two parts for easier removal of the casting.
• Uses: Ideal for intricate castings, or when the depth of the casting is too high for easy
removal.
• Applications: Used for castings that require a parting plane and are difficult to withdraw
as a single piece.
• Alignment: Dowel pins are used to align the two halves of the pattern properly.

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3. Gated Pattern
• Description: A pattern where the gating and runner system are integrated into the pattern.
• Uses: Reduces manual labor by eliminating the need for hand-cutting runners and gates.
• Applications: Improves moulding productivity by simplifying the gating system.
• Advantage: This pattern saves time and effort during the moulding process.

4. Cope and Drag Pattern

• Description: This pattern consists of the cope and drag halves along with the gating and
risering systems, attached to metal or wooden plates with alignment pins.
• Uses: Suitable for heavy castings that are difficult to handle or require continuous
production.
• Applications: Used when multiple moulders are needed to make the cope and drag
separately, then assembled for the final mould.
• Advantage: Allows for easy handling of large or heavy castings.

5. Match Plate Pattern

• Description: An extension of the cope and drag pattern, where both halves of the pattern
(cope and drag) and the gating and risering systems are mounted on a single matching
plate.
• Uses: Typically used for small castings requiring higher dimensional accuracy and large-
scale production.
• Applications: Mostly used in machine moulding for mass production, where the cope
and drag are placed on either side of a single plate.
• Material: The pattern plate is usually made of aluminum (lightweight and machinable),
or sometimes steel for more critical applications.
• Advantages:
o Increases productivity as the gating system is pre-integrated.
o Cost-effective for large-scale production, even though initial costs are higher.

Summary of Applications:
• Single Piece Pattern: Simple castings, low production.
• Split Pattern: Complex castings, required parting plane.
• Gated Pattern: Increased productivity, integrates gates and runners.
• Cope and Drag Pattern: Heavy castings, continuous production.
• Match Plate Pattern: High-volume, small castings with high accuracy.

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Additional Types of Patterns in Casting

1. Loose Piece Pattern

• Description: A pattern used when the contour of the part makes it difficult to withdraw
the pattern from the mould.
• How it Works: During moulding, the obstructing part of the contour is held as a loose
piece by a wire. After moulding, the main pattern is removed, and then the loose pieces
are recovered through the gap left by the main pattern.
• Uses: Applied to complex shapes where portions of the pattern cannot be easily removed
from the mould.
• Limitations: Moulding with loose pieces is a highly skilled process, expensive, and
should be avoided when possible.

2. Follow Board Pattern

• Description: A pattern used when certain portions of the pattern are weak and would
break under the force of ramming.
• How it Works: The bottom board is modified into a "follow board" to closely fit the
contour of the weak pattern. This provides extra support during ramming. Follow boards
are only required for the drag portion; the cope sand will support the pattern on its own.
• Uses: Suitable for fragile patterns that require additional support during moulding to
prevent breakage.
• Example: Patterns that have delicate projections or thin sections that could collapse
under pressure.

3. Sweep Pattern
• Description: A pattern used to create large, symmetrical, or prismatic shapes by
sweeping a plane over the mould.
• How it Works: The sweep is used to shape large casting forms, often in a pit mould, to
produce axi-symmetrical castings, such as bells or cylindrical parts.
• Uses: Ideal for very large castings that are symmetrical in shape, which reduces the need
for a detailed three-dimensional pattern.
• Example: Bell castings or other large, symmetrical items typically produced in pit
moulds.
• Advantage: Cost-effective for large-scale castings as it reduces the complexity of pattern
creation.
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4. Skeleton Pattern
• Description: A pattern made from a skeleton of strips of wood around which sand is
packed to create the desired shape.
• How it Works: After packing sand around the skeleton, the desired form is achieved
using a tool like a strickle. The skeleton provides the frame around which the final shape
is formed.
• Uses: Suitable for large castings produced in small quantities, where the cost of a full,
complete pattern would not be justified.
• Advantages: Reduces the amount of material needed for large patterns, making it cost-
effective for one-off or low-volume castings.
• Example: Large castings for specialized or custom components, where the use of a
complete wooden pattern would be too expensive.

Summary of Pattern Types:

• Loose Piece Pattern: Used for complex shapes that are difficult to remove; skilled but
expensive.
• Follow Board Pattern: Used for fragile patterns requiring extra support during
moulding.
• Sweep Pattern: Ideal for large, symmetrical shapes like bells, reducing the need for
detailed 3D patterns.
• Skeleton Pattern: A cost-effective solution for large castings in small quantities, using a
simple wooden skeleton.
Pattern Colour Code
The use of contrasting colours on patterns helps the mould maker understand the functions of
different surfaces and areas of the pattern, providing a clear guide for further processing. Below
is the common colour code used:
1. Red or Orange:

o Purpose: Used on surfaces that are not to be finished and are to be left as cast.
2. Yellow:

o Purpose: Applied to surfaces that are to be machined after casting.

3. Black:

o Purpose: Used on core prints for unmachined openings.

4. Yellow Stripes on Black:

o Purpose: Applied to core prints for machined openings, indicating that these
areas will be machined.

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 5. Green:

o Purpose: Used on seats for loose pieces and loose core prints.
6. Diagonal Black Stripes with Clear Varnish:

o Purpose: Applied to strengthen weak patterns or to shorten a casting, offering

reinforcement or adjustments to the pattern.

Moulding Materials
A variety of moulding materials are used in foundries to manufacture moulds and cores. These
materials are selected based on their processing properties, such as refractoriness, strength,
permeability, and collapsibility. Some common types of moulding materials include:
1. Moulding Sand
o System Sand (Backing Sand): Reusable sand that forms the bulk of the mould.
o Rebonded Sand: Sand that is bonded using a binder for greater strength.
o Facing Sand: Fine sand used for the surface layer of the mould that comes into
contact with the molten metal.
o Parting Sand: Used to prevent sticking between the mould and the pattern.
o Core Sand: Sand used specifically for creating cores to form internal cavities in
castings.
Required Properties of Moulding Materials
1. Refractoriness:

o The ability of the moulding material to withstand high temperatures without

causing fusion or degradation.
o Ensures the material can resist the molten metal without changing form.
2. Green Strength:

o Refers to the strength of moulding sand that contains moisture (green sand).
o Green sand must have sufficient strength to retain the mould’s shape during the
moulding process.
3. Dry Strength:

o This refers to the strength of the moulding sand once the moisture has been fully
removed, turning it into dry sand.
o Dry sand should retain the mould cavity and withstand metallostatic forces when
molten metal is poured.
4. Hot Strength:

o Once the moisture is expelled, the sand reaches high temperatures during the
pouring of molten metal.

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 o Hot strength refers to the ability of the sand to hold the shape of the mould cavity
while the metal is still liquid.

5. Permeability:

o Moulding sands need to allow the escape of gases, including those absorbed by
the metal and those generated by the moulding process.
o The permeability of the sand ensures that these gases are expelled, preventing
defects such as air pockets or blowholes in the casting.
6. Collapsibility:

o During solidification, the casting shrinks, and the sand should have the ability to
collapse without offering resistance.
o This helps to avoid cracks or stresses on the casting as it cools.
7. Reusability and Thermal Conductivity:

o Moulding materials should be reusable to reduce waste and cost.

o The sand should also have good thermal conductivity to quickly transfer heat
away from the casting during solidification.
These properties ensure that the mould can successfully withstand the high temperatures of
molten metal and retain the shape and detail of the casting while minimizing defects.

Moulding Sand Composition

Moulding sand is primarily composed of the following key ingredients:
1. Silica Grains (SiO₂):

o Silica sand forms the majority of the moulding material, constituting up to 96% of
the mixture. The remaining 4% consists of various oxides such as alumina
(Al₂O₃), sodium (Na₂O + K₂O), and magnesium oxide (MgO + CaO).
o The silica content affects the fusion point and properties of the sand. For cast
irons, the fusion point is around 1450°C, and for steels, it is about 1550°C.
o The river sand typically used has grains of various sizes and shapes—ranging
from micrometers to millimeters, and may be round, sub-angular, angular, or very
angular. The size and shape of these grains significantly influence the properties
of the moulding sand.
2. Zircon Sand:

o Composed of zirconium silicate (ZrSiO₄), it has a high fusion point of about

2400°C and a low coefficient of thermal expansion. (The typical composition is
ZrO2 = 66.25%, SiO2 = 30.96%, Al2O3 = 1.92%, Fe2O3 = 0.74% and traces of
other oxides. It is very expensive. In India it is available in Quilon beach of
Kerala.)

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 o Zircon sand provides high thermal conductivity, high chilling power, and high
density, making it suitable for precision steel castings requiring a better surface
finish.
o It requires a minimal binder content (around 3%) and is often used in investment
casting.

3. Chromite Sand:

o Crushed from chrome ore, chromite sand has a fusion point around 1800°C.
o It is commonly used for manufacturing heavy steel castings, especially for
austenitic manganese steel castings. Like zircon, it requires a small amount of
binder (about 3%).
4. Olivine Sand:

o Made from minerals such as fosterite (Mg₂SiO₄) and fayalite (Fe2SiO₄), it is

versatile and suitable for casting a wide range of steels.
Clay (Binder)
Clays act as binders in moulding sand and provide strength to the mixture. The main types of
clay used are:
• Kaolinite (Fire Clay):
o A popular clay type used due to its high melting point (1750–1787°C), making it
suitable for high-temperature applications.
• Bentonite:
o A highly effective binder with excellent bonding power, especially when
combined with water. Melting temperature range of 1250 to 1300°C
o There are two types of bentonites: sodium bentonite (western bentonite) and
calcium bentonite (southern bentonite).
▪ Sodium Bentonite has superior swelling properties, higher dry strength,
better tolerance for variations in water content, and reduced clay
consumption.
▪ Calcium Bentonite has lower dry strength but higher green strength. It
can be improved with chemical treatments like soda ash.
Water:
Water is essential for activating clay, enabling it to develop the required plasticity and strength.
The water content should be carefully controlled because too much water can reduce the strength
and formability of the sand. Generally, the water content ranges from 2% to 8%.

Additives:
Additional materials can be added to enhance specific properties of the moulding sand, such as:
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 • Cereal Binders (up to 2%): Increase the strength of the sand.
• Pitch (up to 3%): Obtained as a by-product in coke making, it improves hot strength.
• Saw Dust (up to 2%): Enhances collapsibility by burning off slowly, thus increasing
permeability.
• Other materials like sea coal, asphalt, fuel oil, graphite, molasses, and iron oxide may
also be used to fine-tune specific sand properties.
Comparative Properties:
Comparative data on the properties of moulding sands with various clays and their additives can
be found in the provided tables. These tables help in understanding the specific advantages and
disadvantages of using different types of sand and clay in the casting process.

Permeability of Moulding Sand

Permeability refers to the ability of a moulding sand to allow gases (such as air) to pass through
it. This is crucial during the casting process because gases trapped in the mould can lead to
defects in the casting. The permeability is typically measured using a standard test and is
expressed in terms of a permeability number.

Permeability Number Calculation

The permeability number (P) is calculated using the formula:
𝑉𝐻
𝑃=
𝑝𝐴𝑇
Where:
• V = Volume of air (2000 cm³)
• H = Height of the sand specimen (50.8 mm or 5.08 cm)
• p = Air pressure (g/cm²)
• A = Cross-sectional area of the sand specimen (20.268 cm²)
• T = Time (in minutes) for air to pass through the sand specimen
By substituting the standard values into the equation:
501.28
𝑃=
𝑝𝑇
Where the standard values are:
• V = 2000 cm³
• H = 5.08 cm
• p = 10 g/cm²
• A = 20.268 cm²

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Specimen Preparation
To ensure reproducible results, the sand specimen must be prepared under standard conditions.
This includes using a laboratory sand rammer and specimen tube. The steps for specimen
preparation are as follows:
1. Sand Amount: A measured amount of sand (145 to 175 g) is placed in the specimen
tube.
2. Ramming: A fixed weight (6.35 to 7.25 kg) is allowed to fall onto the sand three times
from a height of 50.8 ± 0.125 mm to compact the sand.
3. Specimen Height: After ramming, the height of the sand specimen should be 50.8 ± 0.8
mm.
Test Procedure
1. Air Flow: 2000 cm³ of air is passed through the sand specimen.
2. Time Measurement: The time taken for the air to completely pass through the specimen
is measured.
3. Calculation: Using the time (T) and the formula above, the permeability number (P) is
calculated.
This test ensures that the sand's permeability is accurately determined, which is critical for the
production of high-quality castings with fewer defects.

Moulding Sand Properties

The properties of moulding sand are influenced by various factors. The key variables affecting
these properties include:
1. Sand Grain Shape and Size
2. Clay Type and Amount
3. Moisture Content
4. Method of Preparing the Sand Mould
Sand Grains
The shape and size of sand grains significantly influence the properties of moulding sand:
• Grain Size:

o Coarse grains: They create more void space between grains, increasing
permeability. However, they provide a rougher surface finish for the casting.
o Fine grains: They have lower permeability but offer better surface finish for the
casting.
• Grain Shape:

o Round grains: These tend to have lower permeability because their smooth
surfaces allow grains to pack tightly.

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 o Angular grains: Require higher amounts of binder and have higher permeability.
The irregular shape leads to more space between the grains, allowing gases to
pass through more easily.

• Grain Size Distribution:

o A widely distributed grain size, where grains vary in size, typically provides
higher permeability compared to sand with the same fineness number but uniform
grain size.
• Refractoriness:

o Larger grain sizes generally result in higher refractoriness, which is the ability of
the sand to withstand high temperatures.
o The purity of the sand grains also affects refractoriness. For example, sand grains
with a grain fineness number (GFN) between 30 to 45 may have a fusion point
of about 1650°C. Finer grains or impurities such as iron oxide, feldspar, and
limestone can lower refractoriness.
• Strength of Moulding Sand:

o Green Compression Strength increases with a decrease in grain size because

smaller grains provide more surface area for the binder to act upon, improving
strength.
Clay and Water
The amount of clay and water in the moulding sand also plays a crucial role in determining the
sand's properties:
• Clay Content:
o Clay binds the sand particles together, and its type and amount directly influence
the strength of the moulding sand.
o For a given clay content, there is an optimum amount of water required to
achieve maximum green compression strength.
• Water Content:
o Water reacts with clay to form a bonding structure, linking the sand grains
together.
o Too much water can reduce the green compression strength by increasing the
plasticity of the sand, making it weaker. Therefore, it's essential to use the right
amount of water to develop the required strength.
• Green Compression Strength:
o Green compression strength refers to the strength of the sand before the metal is
poured into the mould.

ABDULLAH AL KAFI, IPE’21 17

 o As shown in the figures (Fig. 3.26), the strength increases with proper moisture
content and clay amount. The strength increases up to an optimum point beyond
which it begins to decrease.
• Clay Saturation:
o Clay-saturated sands (sands with the maximum amount of clay and water) are
used in cast iron and heavy non-ferrous metal foundries.
o These sands offer higher green compression strength (100-250 kPa), making them
ideal for reducing casting defects like sand expansion, erosion, cuts, and
washes.
Conclusion
The balance between sand grain size, clay content, water content, and method of mould
preparation is critical in determining the performance of moulding sands. The combination of
these factors directly affects the strength, permeability, surface finish, and refractoriness of the
sand, all of which are essential for producing high-quality castings.

Additives in Moulding Sand

Additives are commonly mixed with moulding sand to improve its properties and casting quality.
These materials enhance different characteristics of the sand, such as strength, surface finish, and
collapsibility, helping produce high-quality castings. Below is a list of some commonly used
additives and their purposes:

Additive Purpose Served

Molasses Enhances bench life and resistance to drying out
Cereals
Ethylene Glycol
Iron Oxide Improve hot strength development
Silica Flour
Coal Dust Improves surface finish and reduces metal penetration
Silica Flour
Saw Dust Enhances collapsibility and resistance to expansion defects
Cereals

How Additives Improve Moulding Sand Properties

1. Coal Dust:

o Coal dust is primarily used to improve surface finish in casting. When coal dust
comes into contact with molten metal, it creates a gaseous envelope around the
molten metal. This prevents the molten metal from fusing with the sand, thus
enhancing the surface quality of the casting.
2. Saw Dust or Wood Flour:

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 o Adding sawdust or wood flour (typically up to 1.5% max) to the moulding sand
increases the green strength of the sand by broadening the range of water that
can be added. It reduces expansion defects and improves the flowability of the
sand, allowing for better mould density. However, excessive amounts of wood
flour can make the sand brittle, negatively impacting its structural integrity.

3. Starch and Dextrin:

o These are organic binders used in mould and core sands. They help to increase
the resistance to deformation, improve skin hardness, and reduce expansion
defects such as scabbing. These additives also play a key role in improving the
strength and durability of the sand.
4. Iron Oxide:

o Iron oxide (used up to 3%) improves the surface finish of the casting, decreases
metal penetration, and reduces burn-on. It also enhances the chilling effect
(rapid cooling of metal in the mould) and glazing of the mould surface. When
combined with silica flour, it can help prevent mould washes. However, iron
oxide reduces green strength and permeability, while increasing hot strength. It
also decreases collapsibility and makes the shake-out process (removal of sand
from the casting) more difficult.

Others Sands:
5. Facing Sand:

o Facing sand is applied next to the pattern to ensure a smooth, clean casting
surface. It often contains sea coal or coal dust (2 to 8%), which helps improve
mouldability and surface finish. The carbonaceous sea coal burns slowly when
exposed to the molten metal, releasing small amounts of reducing gases that help
prevent the molten metal from bonding to the silica grains, thus providing a
cleaner casting surface.
6. Mould Wash:

o Mould wash is a carbonaceous material (such as sea coal, powdered graphite,

or proprietary compounds) that is applied to the mould cavity after the pattern is
removed. This is done by spraying, swabbing, or painting the mould with a wet
paste. The primary functions of mould wash are:
▪ Preventing metal penetration into the sand grains, ensuring a good
surface finish.
▪ Preventing mould-metal interaction and sand fusion.
o Alcohol is typically used as a carrier for mould wash, as it is easier to remove
than water, which can cause complications during drying.
7. Backing Sand:

ABDULLAH AL KAFI, IPE’21 19

 o Backing sand is typically reconditioned foundry sand used to fill the bulk of the
moulding flask. After applying a thin layer of facing sand around the pattern, the
flask is filled with backing sand. The quality of the casting is generally not
affected by backing sand, which typically consists of burnt facing sand, moulding
sand, and clay.

8. Parting Sand:

o Parting sand is sprinkled on the pattern and parting surfaces of the mould halves
before they are prepared. This non-sticky material (often washed silica grains)
prevents adherence of the moulding sand to the pattern and helps with the easy
withdrawal of the pattern. It also facilitates easier separation of the cope and
drag flasks at the parting surface.
Summary
These additives and special sands play crucial roles in enhancing the moulding properties,
improving the casting quality, and ensuring a better surface finish for the final product. Each
additive has a specific function, from increasing strength and reducing defects to improving ease
of handling and reducing the chances of metal penetration into the sand grains. Understanding
these materials and their applications is essential for achieving high-quality, defect-free castings.

Types of Sand Moulds

Sand moulds are essential in casting processes as they provide the cavity into which molten
metal is poured to form castings. The specific properties of the moulds are crucial to produce
sound castings, including:
• Strength to withstand the molten metal's temperature and weight.
• Resistance to the erosive action of flowing hot metal.
• Minimal gas generation during metal pouring.
• Good venting capacity to allow gases to escape from the mould.
Broad Classification of Sand Moulds:
1. Green Sand Moulds
2. Dry Sand Moulds
3. Skin Dried Moulds

1. Green Sand Moulds

• Composition: Green sand is a mixture of silica grains, clay, and moisture.
• Properties:
o Freshly prepared for each casting.

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 o Immediate metal pouring: The metal is poured immediately after the mould is
made.
o Cost-effective: This is the least expensive type of mould because no drying
process is involved, making it suitable for rapid production.
o Tendency to avoid hot tearing: Castings in green sand moulds are less likely to
suffer from hot tearing.
o Erosion: Mould erosion is common in green sand moulds due to the interaction
with hot metal.
o Permeability: Proper control of permeability is required, as incorrect
permeability can lead to defects like blow holes and gas inclusions.
o Usage: Suitable for smaller castings with fewer precision requirements and fast
turnaround.

2. Dry Sand Moulds

• Composition: Similar to green sand, but completely dried in an oven.
• Drying Process: The mould is heated to 150–350°C for 8 to 48 hours, depending on the
binder material used.
• Properties:
o Higher strength: Dry sand moulds have higher strength compared to green sand
moulds.
o Preferred for medium to large castings: These moulds are more durable and
less likely to be damaged during handling.
o Better surface finish and dimensional accuracy: The drying process enhances
the surface finish and dimensional precision of castings.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Longer production cycles due to the drying process.
▪ Costlier than green sand moulds.
▪ Susceptible to hot tearing: Like green sand, dry sand moulds can also
experience hot tearing, particularly during metal pouring.
▪ Distortion: The drying process can cause the mould to distort, leading to
potential issues with casting quality.

3. Skin Dried Moulds

• Purpose: A compromise between green sand and dry sand moulds.
• Drying Process: Only the skin of the mould (the part in direct contact with molten
metal) is dried, usually to a depth of 15 to 25 mm.
o Drying method: The skin can be dried using torches or by allowing it to air dry.
• Properties:
o Advantages:
▪ Cost-effective compared to completely drying the mould.

ABDULLAH AL KAFI, IPE’21 21

 ▪ Reduced drying time while still enhancing the strength of the mould.
▪ Suitable for cases where full drying is impractical or too expensive.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Risk of moisture penetration: After drying the skin, the pouring should
happen immediately to prevent moisture from the undried portion from
affecting the casting.
▪ Possible distortion: The undried portions of the mould may still cause
some issues during casting if not handled carefully.

Summary
Each type of sand mould has its specific advantages and disadvantages, and the choice depends
on factors like the casting's size, production time, cost considerations, and required surface
finish.
• Green sand is ideal for rapid production of small castings at a low cost.
• Dry sand is used for larger, more complex castings requiring better surface finish and
strength, though it has longer production times and higher costs.
• Skin dried moulds are a balanced option, offering the benefits of both green sand and
dry sand with fewer drawbacks, though they require careful handling during pouring to
avoid defects.
Moulding Machines
For high-volume production of castings, machine moulding becomes necessary, especially when
large batches of the same type of casting need to be produced. Moulding machines use various
methods to ram sand into moulding flasks efficiently and uniformly. The primary methods used
are:
1. Jolting
2. Squeezing
3. Sand Slinging

1. Jolting
• Process: In jolt moulding, sand is filled into the flask, typically from an overhead hopper.
After the sand is placed in the flask, the flask is raised to a certain height and then
allowed to free fall onto a solid bed plate. This impact forces the sand to compact
uniformly into the mould.
• Action: The flask is repeatedly lifted and dropped to compact the sand until the required
mould hardness is achieved.
• Suitability:
o Ideal for horizontal surfaces.
o Suitable for smaller batch productions or large castings.

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 • Challenges:
o Uneven packing: The sand at the bottom experiences the highest impact force
and thus gets compacted more, while the top layers get less compaction.
o Severe on equipment: The repetitive lifting and dropping can cause wear and
tear on the moulding equipment.

2. Squeezing
• Process: In squeeze ramming, a plate slightly smaller than the inside dimensions of the
flask is inserted into the flask filled with sand. Pressure is applied either by moving the
plate down or by moving the flask upward, forcing the sand to compact uniformly.
• Action: The sand next to the plate experiences the highest compaction, while the sand
below receives progressively less compaction. The hardness achieved is also dependent
on the amount of pressure applied on the squeeze plate.
• Suitability:
o Ideal for small castings and shallow flasks.
o Can be used with a diaphragm to apply different compaction forces for contours
in the pattern.
• Advantage: Provides a more uniform compaction compared to jolt moulding.
• Customization: The squeeze plate can sometimes have a contour to match the pattern,
ensuring better uniformity of hardness.

3. Sand Slinging
• Process: In sand slinging, sand is thrown into the flask rapidly and with great force. The
sand is sprayed in layers to achieve uniform compaction.
• Action: The nozzle is moved through the flask area, spraying sand uniformly over the
entire mould to achieve high mould hardness. The sand is applied in layers to ensure
uniform ramming.
• Suitability:
o Provides a fast and uniform mould compaction.
o The process develops uniformly high mould hardness.
• Challenges:
o High initial equipment cost: The machinery for sand slinging is more expensive
compared to other moulding methods.

Combination of Jolting and Squeezing

• Common Practice: A combination of jolt and squeeze machines is often used to achieve
more uniform ramming. By integrating the two methods, the process optimizes
compaction and increases consistency in mould quality.

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Summary
Each type of moulding machine has its unique advantages depending on the type and size of the
casting:
• Jolting: Best for smaller productions or large castings with horizontal surfaces but may
lead to uneven packing.
• Squeezing: Suitable for small castings, offering more uniform ramming and better
control of compaction.
• Sand Slinging: Provides fast and uniform compaction with high mould hardness, but
requires expensive equipment.
Combining these methods can optimize production and achieve consistent results, especially in
high-volume casting operations.

3.4 Cores
Cores are essential components used in the sand casting process to create cavities and hollow
projections within a casting. These cavities cannot be formed by the pattern alone, especially in
complex shapes or intricate contours. Cores are generally made of sand and can be used even in
permanent moulds. Since cores are surrounded by molten metal during casting, they are exposed
to harsh thermal and mechanical conditions. Therefore, core sand must have higher strength than
the moulding sand to withstand these conditions.

Normal Characteristics Desired of a Core:

1. Green Strength:

o The core must have sufficient green strength, meaning it should be strong enough
to retain its shape before baking.
2. Dry Strength:

o The core should possess adequate dry strength to resist the pressure exerted by the
molten metal when placed inside the mould.
3. Refractoriness:

o The core should have high refractoriness (heat resistance) as it is typically

surrounded by molten metal, which can cause high temperatures. The core
material needs to withstand these temperatures without breaking down.
4. Permeability:

o Cores need to have good permeability to allow gases generated from the molten
metal and the mould to escape. This is necessary to avoid casting defects like gas
porosity.
5. Collapsibility:

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 o As the casting cools, it shrinks. The core must have the ability to collapse or
shrink along with the casting to avoid providing resistance to shrinkage, which
could lead to defects like hot tears.
6. Friability:

o Once the casting has cooled, the core must be removed easily. A core with good
friability can crumble and break down into small pieces, making it easier to
remove from the casting without damaging the final product.
7. Smoothness:

o The core’s surface should be smooth to ensure a good finish on the casting.
Rough or uneven core surfaces can lead to poor-quality castings with
imperfections.
8. Low Gas Emission:

o The core material should emit minimal gases when exposed to the high
temperatures of the molten metal. Excess gas generation can result in voids or
porosity within the casting, leading to defects.

Summary
Cores are critical for creating complex shapes and cavities in castings. To function properly, they
need to have specific properties, such as:
• Strength (both green and dry) to resist metal pressure.
• High refractoriness to withstand high temperatures.
• Good permeability for gas escape.
• Collapsibility and friability for ease of removal post-cooling.
• Smooth surfaces to achieve good finish quality.
• Minimal gas emission to avoid defects in the casting.
These characteristics ensure the core’s ability to perform effectively throughout the casting
process, leading to high-quality castings with minimal defects.

3.4.1 Core Sands

Core sands are critical materials used to create the cavities and hollow sections within a casting.
The composition and properties of core sand are essential to ensure the strength, collapsibility,
and other desired characteristics of the core.

Core Sand Composition

Core sands are made up of three main components:
1. Sand:

ABDULLAH AL KAFI, IPE’21 25

 o Silica sand is most commonly used for core sands. It is typically free of clay,
ensuring that the sand can form a strong, stable core.
o Coarse silica sands are often used in steel foundries due to their high
refractoriness (heat resistance), making them suitable for the high temperatures
involved.
o Finer sands are generally used for cast irons and non-ferrous alloys.

2. Binders:

o Core sands require stronger binders than moulding sands due to the more severe
conditions that cores must withstand. The clay binder typically used in moulding
sands does not provide sufficient strength for cores.
o Organic binders are preferred because they burn away when exposed to the
molten metal, ensuring the core can collapse and shrink without resisting the
cooling process of the casting.
o Common binders include linseed oil, core oil, resins, dextrin, and molasses.
Core oil is a mixture of various oils like linseed, soy, fish, petroleum oils, and
coal tar.
3. Additives:

o Other materials might be added to core sands to modify properties. These may
include ingredients to improve strength, workability, and the ability to withstand
high temperatures.

Binder Usage and Composition

• The amount of binder required is influenced by the fineness of the sand grains. Finer
sand requires more binder to achieve the same strength.
• A typical core sand mixture might contain 1% core oil and 2.5% to 6% water. The
exact proportions depend on factors like the size and shape of the core and the alloy
being cast.
• The baking process is crucial for core sands, as the binders develop their strength
through polymerization and crosslinking during baking. The time and temperature for
baking need to be carefully controlled to optimize the core's properties. For example,
standard AFS test samples are baked for 1.5 hours at 175°C to achieve the desired core
characteristics.

Core Sand Properties

The properties of core sand can be controlled through the right combination of sand type,
binder content, and baking time/temperature. These properties typically include:
• Strength (green and dry strength)
• Collapsibility (to prevent hot tears)

ABDULLAH AL KAFI, IPE’21 26

 • Permeability (for gas escape)
• Refractoriness (to withstand molten metal temperatures)
• Friability (for easy removal after casting)
In summary, core sands must be carefully formulated to provide the necessary physical and
thermal properties that ensure the successful production of castings with complex internal shapes
or cavities. The combination of sand, binders, and additives, along with precise baking
procedures, ensures the core will perform effectively during the casting process.

3.4.3 Types of Cores

Cores are used to create cavities and internal features within castings. Based on the type of sand
used, there are two main types of cores:
1. Green Sand Cores
• Green sand cores are formed from the pattern during the moulding process. The sand
used is freshly prepared and is not baked after formation.
• Advantages:
o Cost-effective and economical.
o Suitable for simpler and shallow cavities.
• Limitations:
o Low strength, which limits the depth and complexity of cavities that can be
formed.
o Requires a significant draft (taper) to allow the pattern to be removed, which can
be a limitation for intricate designs.
• Usage: Typically used for cavities that allow easy withdrawal of the pattern.
2. Dry Sand Cores
• Dry sand cores are made using special core sands in a separate core box. These cores are
then baked to harden them before being placed in the mould for pouring.
• Advantages:
o Higher strength compared to green sand cores.
o Suitable for deeper and more complex cavities.
• Usage: Commonly used for larger, more complicated castings where green sand cores are
not strong enough.

Core Box Design

• When designing core boxes, it is important to account for the strength of the core,
particularly before it is baked. Unbaked cores are weak and need to be well supported
during the process.
o For simple and strong cores, minimal support is required.
o For slender and complicated cores, additional support or a small core box may
be necessary to prevent collapse during baking.

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 • Core Box Example: A core box, shown in Figure 3.43, is used to contain the sand and
ensure the core is shaped correctly.

Core Assembly
• Symmetrical Cores:
o These cores can be divided into two equal parts that can be assembled after
baking.
o The parts are typically held together with adhesives or wires.
o Common adhesives include mixtures of talc, dextrin, flour, molasses, and water.
• Core Ventilation: Care must be taken not to block the vent holes created for gas escape
during the core assembly process.
• Large Cores: For large cores, nuts and bolts may be used to hold the pieces together,
with core plugs covering the bolt holes.
• Orientation and Core Prints: To ensure proper alignment in the mould, cores can be
designed with specific provisions in the core prints to ensure the core can only be placed
in the correct orientation (Figure 3.44).
In summary, core types (green sand and dry sand) and core box design play crucial roles in
determining the strength, complexity, and functionality of the cores in the casting process. The
choice between green sand and dry sand cores depends on the specific casting requirements,
including the depth and complexity of the cavity and the strength needed to withstand molten
metal.

3.4.4 Core Prints

Core prints are essential components in the design of cores for castings. They ensure that the
core is correctly positioned within the mould cavity and remains stable during the pouring of
molten metal. The core prints take into account the weight of the core before pouring, as well as
the upward force exerted by the molten metal once poured.
Key Functions of Core Prints:
• Positioning the Core: Core prints help keep the core in place during the pouring of
molten metal into the mould.
• Resisting Buoyant Forces: The molten metal generates a buoyant force that can
potentially shift or move the core. Core prints must be designed to withstand this force.

Buoyant Force Calculation

When molten metal is poured into the mould cavity, it exerts an upward buoyant force on the
core. This force can be calculated using the following equation:
𝑃 = 𝑉(𝑟 − 𝑑)
Where:

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 • P = Buoyant force (N)
• V = Volume of the core in the mould cavity (cm³)
• r = Weight density of the liquid metal (N/cm³)
• d = Weight density of the core material (N/cm³)
Note: The weight density of the core material is 0.0165 N/cm³.
For specific cases, such as the core with a volume 𝑉 given by 0.25𝜋𝐷𝐻, the buoyant force can
be calculated accordingly. For vertical cores, a different formula applies:
𝑃 = 0.25𝜋(𝐷12 − 𝐷22 )𝐻𝑟 − 𝑉𝑑
Where:
• D1 and D2 are the relevant diameters of the core, and 𝐻𝑟 is the height of the core.

Core Print Load Support

To keep the core in position during the pouring process, it is suggested that the core print should
support a load of 3.5 N/cm². The core print area should be sufficient to counteract the buoyant
force generated by the molten metal.
A guideline is:
𝑃 ≤ 350𝐴
Where:
• P = Buoyant force (N)
• A = Core print area (mm²)
If this condition is not met, additional support in the form of chaplets may be necessary.

Russian Practice for Core Print Design

Russian standards suggest that the pressure acting on the core bearing area (i.e., the core print
area) should be less than 50% to 75% of the compression strength of the moulding sand. The
formula for dimensioning the core print area is:
𝑉
⋅𝐾 ≤𝑟⋅𝑠
𝐴
Where:
• V = Total volume of the core, including prints (cm³)
• A = Core print area (cm²)
• K = A factor between 0.50 and 0.75

ABDULLAH AL KAFI, IPE’21 29

 • r = Weight density of the liquid metal (N/cm³)
• s = Compression strength of the moulding sand (N/cm²)
Core Print Design Guide:
The Russian practice also provides a suggested guide for core print sizes, as shown in Table
3.19, and details the draft angles to be used for these core prints in Table 3.20.

Summary of Key Considerations for Core Prints:

1. Core Print Function: Ensures the core is securely held in place during the pouring of
molten metal.
2. Buoyant Force: Core prints must support the buoyant force to prevent displacement of
the core.
3. Area of Core Prints: The core print area must be large enough to bear the buoyant force.
If necessary, chaplets can be added for additional support.
4. Russian Standard: Core print areas should be dimensioned to ensure that the pressure
on the print area is within the capacity of the moulding sand.
Core prints are vital to ensuring the correct positioning and stability of the core during casting,
particularly when dealing with complex or large castings.

3.4.5 Chaplets
Chaplets are metallic supports used to position and support cores inside the mould cavity. These
supports ensure the core remains stable and properly positioned during the pouring of molten
metal. Chaplets are typically made from the same material as the pouring metal, allowing them
to melt and fuse with the metal during solidification.
Key Functions of Chaplets:
• Support for Cores: Chaplets are placed in the mould to hold the core in place during the
pouring process.
• Fusing with Metal: Chaplets are designed to melt during the casting process and fuse
with the molten metal, forming part of the final casting.

Types of Chaplets
Various types of chaplets are used in different casting processes. Some typical examples include
different shapes and designs that suit different moulds and casting types. The following figure
(Fig. 3.49) shows various chaplet shapes, while Fig. 3.50 shows an example of how chaplets are
positioned to support the core.

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Challenges with Chaplets
1. Weak Joints: Though chaplets are designed to fuse with the parent metal, in practice,
they often form a weak joint. This is due to difficulties in achieving complete fusion.
2. Blow Holes: The condensation of moisture on the chaplet can lead to the formation of
blow holes, which can be detrimental to the quality of the casting.
3. Cleaning: Before placing chaplets into the mould, it is crucial to thoroughly clean them
to remove any dirt, oil, or grease, as these can interfere with the fusion process or lead to
defects.

Chaplet Area Calculation

To determine the required chaplet area (Ac), it is important to first calculate the unsupported load
on the core. Referring to the previous discussion on core prints, the buoyant force P must be
supported by the core prints and chaplets.
The equation for the unsupported load can be written as:
Unsupported load = 𝑃 − 3.5 ⋅ 𝐴𝑐
Where:
• P = Buoyant force acting on the core (N)
• Ac = Area of the chaplet (cm²)
The chaplet area (Ac) should be sufficient to support the weight of the core and the force exerted
by the molten metal. If the chaplet area is insufficient, additional chaplets may be required to
prevent shifting or displacement of the core.

Summary of Key Considerations for Chaplets:

1. Material Composition: Chaplets are made of the same material as the pouring metal,
ensuring that they melt and fuse during solidification.
2. Fusion Issues: Chaplets may not always fuse perfectly with the metal, which can result
in weak joints.
3. Moisture and Blow Holes: Care should be taken to avoid condensation on chaplets, as
moisture can cause blow holes in the casting.
4. Cleaning: Chaplets should be thoroughly cleaned before placement in the mould.
5. Chaplet Area Calculation: The required chaplet area can be determined by calculating
the unsupported load and ensuring that the chaplets provide enough support to the core.
Chaplets play a critical role in ensuring core stability, and their design and placement must be
carefully considered to prevent defects in the casting process.

ABDULLAH AL KAFI, IPE’21 31