FAILURES, MAINTENANCE & REHABILITATION OF TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE

Road - is a pathway with a smoothed or paved surface used for transportation purposes.
Road or pavement failures are caused by a number of variables including, water intrusion, stress from heavy vehicles,
expansion and contraction from seasonal temperature changes, and sun exposure.
Types of pavement failures:
1. Cracking - is one of the most common types of pavement failure. The nature of the crack itself is fast
spreading. Cracking is usually caused due to use of improper material mix during construction and settling of
the subgrade or base during operation.
Name: Alligator cracks
Definition: It is an interconnected cracks resembling an alligator's
skin. Cause: Heavy traffic or aging.
Solution: Prompt maintenance is needed.

Name: Longitudinal cracks

Definition: Run parallel or perpendicular to thepavement.
Cause: Due to temperature changes or traffic loads.
Solution: Timely repairs prevent further damage.

Name: Transverse crack

Definition: It is a type of pavement distress where cracks form at right angles to the road. These cracks
are typically straight and can span the entire width of the pavement surface.
Cause: various factors like temperature changes or poor pavement design.
Solution: Timely repairs are necessary to prevent their spread and maintain a safe pavement surface.

Name: Block cracking

Definition: It is a pavement issue where interconnected rectangular or block-shaped cracks form on
the road surface.
Cause: It happens due to aging, traffic loads, or inflexible pavement.
Solution: Timely maintenance is crucial to prevent further damage.

Name: Reflection cracks

Definition: Existing cracks in lower layers reflect onto the surface during overlays.
Cause: the existence of fractures in the older pavement layers that spread into the new pavemenlayer
as traffic loads pass over the cracks and because of temperature changes.
Solution: Proper techniques like crack sealing or milling are needed.

Name: Edge crack

Definition: Travels along the inside edge of a pavement surface within one or two feet.
Cause: The most common cause for this type of crack is poor drainage conditions and lack of
support at the pavement edge.
Solution: As a result, underlying base materials settle and become weakened.

Name: Slippage crack

Definition: Crescent or half-moon-shaped cracks having two ends pointed away from the direction
of traffic.
Caused: They are produced when braking or turning wheels cause the pavement surface to slide
and deform.
Solution: It is necessary to remove the surface course and replace it. The failed area should be
taken up to the point where a good bond is found between the old and new pavement courses.
 2. Potholes - are the type of flexible pavement failure that can be seen as small depressions on the surface of the
pavement.
3. Depressions - Depression indicates the area on the surface of pavements that have a slightly lower elevation
than the surrounding areas.
4. Rutting - is a type of pavement failure that results in the formation of channelized depressions particularly
in the wheel track of pavement.
5. Corrugation and Shoving - refer to the distresses that occur at regular intervals in the form of ridges and
valley on the surface of the pavement.
6. Ravelling - occurs due to continuous ingress of water thereby causing degradation of the topmost asphalt
layer.
Road maintenance - refers to the processes and resources that are combined to manage road conditions and the
longevity of the road assets.
Maintenance - is all about keeping the road in good condition and effectively slowing down its deterioration.
Deterioration of unpaved rural roads is usually caused by heavy rainfall and flooding that softens the carriageway thereby
making it prone to damage.
The more common types of deterioration or damage are:
• ruts, potholes and corrugations on the carriageway;
• deformation of road shoulders due to erosion, thereby weakening the road structure; and
• silting and erosion of the drainage system, including the canals and culverts.
Three different types of maintenance activities:
1. Routine maintenance – Considered the most important, routine maintenance is carried out two to three times
a year to ensure that the road stays in good condition.
2. Periodic maintenance – This is carried out every few years (four or five years) and involves more work and
higher costs
3. Emergency maintenance – This includes activities to repair road surfaces, bridges or culverts that have been
affected by natural disasters like heavy rains or rockslides.
Well-maintained roads bring about tremendous benefits to communities:
1. Economically, good roads have the following effects:
2. Allows faster and efficient access to basic social services, like schools, hospitals, government offices, and
markets;
3. Supports the good governance agenda of LGUs.
4. Supports development of the communities through improved links to provincial and national roads.

Characteristics of a defective and poorly-maintained road:

1. Carriageway. This is the main part of the road where vehicles pass through. The common defects that
require maintenance work are: loss of shape, or camber, ruts, potholes, corrugations.
2. Shoulders and Side Slopes. These refer to the areas at the sides of the roadway other than the canals and
culverts. The common defects are: Deformation by as much as 20 to 50 percent due to loss or accumulation of
materials, Slides, Scouring and Thick and overgrown vegetation.
3. Side and cross drains Blocks that prevent free flow of water, Structural damage
Maintenance in Categorizes into:

1. Road surface maintenance

2. Shoulder and approach maintenance
3. Bridge maintenance
4. Traffic services
Road Surface Maintenance

Unlike construction involving high volume of work, maintenance operation, deals with small amount of work at separate locations. Road
maintenance requires speed performance to cause the least possible disruption and danger to traffic. Maintenance operation requires:

1. For Gravel Roads, blading and periodic re-shaping or resurfacing is a routine periodic maintenance activity.
2. For Surface Treatment of low type bituminous pavement, maintenance could be patching, seal coating, remixing and relaying.
3. For Slick Asphalt Surface, roughening, burning or non-skid seal is required.
4. For Concrete Road, maintenance could be removal and replacement or filling of damage areas. Sometimes joint sealing or mid-
jacking or undersealing is relatively common maintenance work.
PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE

Crack Sealing and Filling - prevents the intrusion of water and incompressible materials into cracks.
The methods vary in the amount of crack preparation required and the types of sealant materials
that are used.

Crack Sealing - is the placement of materials into working cracks. Crack sealing requires thorough
crack preparation and often requires the use of specialized high-quality materials placed either into
or over working cracks to prevent the intrusion of water and incompressible materials.

Crack Filling - places materials into non-working or low movement cracks to reduce water and
incompressible material infiltration. it requires less crack preparation than sealing, and the filler
materials may have lower performance requirements.

Patching - patching material can be just about any Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) or cold mix asphalt material
as well as certain types of slurries. Typically, some form of HMA is used for permanent patches,
while cold mix is often used for temporary emergency repairs.

Pothole Repair - potholes are formed due to water's expansion and contraction under the pavement,
weakening the road's surface. The weight of vehicles further breaks down the pavement, creating
potholes.

Resurfacing And Overlay - involves the application of approximately 2 inches of asphalt concrete to
the existing surface or pavement of the road to help prolong the life of the road. Overlay or resurface
treated roads might undergo repairs to fix cracks and potholes. these repairs are performed before
the overlay or resurface and won't be visible after.

Asphalt Overlay - used for minor surface issues in asphalt like cracks and starting potholes. If
subgrade and asphalt integrity are intact, overlay suffices, requiring no milling for a simpler and faster
process. prior maintenance may include hole filling, crack smoothing, and cleaning.

Asphalt Resurfacing - this process involves removing some surface layer, addressing damaged areas
without excavation. after cleaning, a new surface layer is added. asphalt contractors inspect to
determine the needed depth for structural and visual improvement. Although involved, it remains a
more affordable option than complete asphalt replacement.
Maintenance of Shoulder and Approach
Maintenance of the shoulder and approaches of the highway is governed by the surface characteristics in the area.

1. Sod shoulders should be removed and periodically bladed down to the roadway elevation to avoid entrapment of water in the
traveled way.
2. Grass prevents shoulder erosion. If necessary, fertilized, re-seeded, or treated to keep them in good conditions.
3. Grave and earth shoulder should be maintained by blading under favorable weather conditions.
4. Rutting or setting of the shoulder should be corrected at once by reconstruction or re-surfacing.

Maintenance of Roadside
The type and kind of roadside maintenance depends upon the following conditions:

1. If the roadside is full of grass, mowing closer to the shoulder is the answer. If necessary, grass at the roadside be fertilized or treated with
lime. In some areas, re-seeding maybe required.
2. If the roadside has dry grass considered as fire hazard, burning or plowing is the solution.
3. If brushes cover the black-slope, trimming is necessary to maintain clearance and sight distance.
The Indigenous Machine used for Roadside Maintenance
a. Mechanical sod cutter
b. Combined seed and fertilizer spreader.
c. Power mowers.
d. Portable grass cutter
e. Bush mower
f. Bush chopper
Drainage Maintenance

1. Cleaning of ditches, culvert, drop inlets and catch basins to accommodate free flow of water.
2. Removal of sediments, braches and other debris gathered at trash racks, culvert and structures entrances.
3. Repair of eroded channels and dikes.
4. Riprap and bank protection to prevent recurrence.
Rehabilitation - is the act of repairing portions of an existing pavement or road to reset the deterioration process.
• Asphalt Pavement Rehabilitation - typically involves milling and resurfacing of the existing asphalt pavement
to mitigate the effects of per ride rutting, cracking, and other distresses.
• Concrete pavement rehabilitation - may involve use of concrete pavement restoration (CPR) techniques,
asphalt overlay over existing or fractured concrete pavement, bonded concrete overlays, or unbonded concrete
overlays.
Benefits of Road Rehabilitation:
● Can provide an even running surface free from major defects and hazards.
● Can provide a road surface with a high resistance to skidding, helping to reduce loss of control and rear-end type
crashes.
● Can increase pavement strength, weatherproofing and extend life of pavement structure.
● Provides the opportunity to fix other road surface problems, such as cross fall and drainage.
● Provides the opportunity for adding or replacing road surface delineation such as painted markings or reflective
road studs.
Bridges - are widely used to cross rivers, valleys, and roads, providing a passage with other parts of the land since ancient
times to modernity.
Bridge failure - which is generally associated with serious economic and life losses, is defined as the incapacity of a
constructed bridge or its components to perform as specified in the design and construction requirements.
The types of failures classified as:
1. Distress - is the unserviceability of a structure or its component that may or may not result in a collapse.
2. Partial collapse - means all or some of the primary members of a span or multiple spans have undergone
severe deformation.
3. Total collapse - means all primary members of a span or multiple spans have undergone severe deformation

Principal causes of bridge failures can be divided into:

1. Internal causes - which include design error, construction mistake, lack of maintenance, material defect, etc.,
usually require detailed failure investigations, such as material test.
2. External causes - include natural disasters such as earthquake, flood, fire, and wind, as well.
3. Natural factors are mainly natural disasters, including earthquake, flood, wind, etc., which are not easy to
control and prevent.
4. Human factors are mainly associated with human cognitive limitations, carelessness, mismanagement, etc.

Causes of bridge failures are closely related to:

1. Structural type - bridge structural types mainly include beam (45% occurrence), arch (20% occurrence), cable-
stayed (less than 5%), and suspension bridge (less than 5%).
2. Type of Use - Bridges can be categorized into many type of uses, such as highway bridge (70% occurrence),
roadway bridge, railway bridge (less than 25%), pedestrian bridge, and highway-railway dual functioned bridge.
3. Material Type - Common building materials for bridges are steel (more than 70%), concrete (more than 70%),
timber (less than 30%), and stone (less than 30%), etc.
4. Service Age - refers to the time from the date when the bridge is completely built to the time when the bridge
has failed.
Failure mechanisms of bridge due to the top 5 leading causes:
1. Design Error - Is related to bridge failures caused by defects in design theory and carelessness of designers. Last
October 20, a portion of the Carlos P. Romulo bridge in barangay wawa in Bayambang, Pangasinan collapsed.
2. Construction mistake - Investigations show that a surprising number of bridges collapsed as they were being
built. Human factors dominate most of the bridge failures, such as unreasonable construction technology,
structure calculation errors, illegal construction, equipment operation mistakes, etc. Last february 18, a bridge that
was still under construction in barangay magsaysay in marilog district, davao city collapsed around 8 a.m. friday
leaving two workers injured
3. Hydraulic - Some observation shows that a surprising number of bridges were destroyed by hydraulic, mainly
including flood and scour. Just like what happened in antique
as extreme loads such as collision and overload during the impact of tropical storm paeng and due to floods
following heavy rains spawned by paeng.
4. Collision - This type of bridge failure mostly happens due to the collision of ships and vehicles. He main causes of
bridge failures caused by collisions are human factors mainly including illegal driving, fatigue driving, drunk
driving, and inexperience of drivers.
5. Overload - With the increase in traffic volume, the truckloads exceeded the limitations, resulting in bridge failures,
especially for older bridges. Like what had happened last april when clarin bridge, collapsed into the 8- meter
deep loboc river due to overloading and the condition of the structure, which was built in the 1970s. A total of six
 cars, three tricycles, a dump truck and two motorcycles were on the bridge when the accident happened causing
the bridge to collapsed.

Bridge Maintenance - means the up-keeping of the bridge components in good and serviceable condition.
The initial selection for bridge maintenance work involves examining four criteria:
1. Is there a deficit that may be economically addressed by maintenance work?

2. Is this bridge necessary?

3. What is the minimum condition necessary for the operation of this bridge?

4. What is the likely remaining service of life of this bridge? The bridge maintenance may be broadly classified

into two types:

a) Routine maintenance or Annual maintenance - done on the basis of routine inspection and includes the
following:
• For concrete structures-protection against exposed reinforcement and repairs to cracks.
• Maintenance of bearings and expansion joints.
• Maintenance of wearing coat.
• Maintenance of kerbs, railing etc.
• Maintenance of weep holes & drainage spouts Maintenance of protective works.
b) Quarterly maintenance - based on detailed inspection shall cover the following items of works and shall be
undertaken once in four years:
• Major repair to piers, abutments, wing walls.
• Major repairs to guide bunds and bridge protection works.
• Major repairs to the superstructure such as wearing course, railing, footpath slab, deck slab, girders etc,
There are two other bridge maintenance categories that are hybrids of those outlined above:
1. Cyclical preventative maintenance activities - Performed on a pre-determined schedule, to preserve existing
bridge conditions and keep them from getting worse.
Some typical cyclical preventative maintenance activities and how often they’re typically done include:
• Wash and clean decking or the entire bridge: One or two years.
• Lubricate bearings: Two to four years.
• Seal and waterproof concrete decking: Three to five years.
• Zone coat steel beams and girder ends: 10 to 15 years.
• Install deck overlay on concrete decks: Approximately every 10 to 20 years, depending on usage and wear and
tear.

2. Condition-based preventative maintenance activities - Happen only when issues are identified during bridge
inspections. This type of maintenance is usually done on bridges that are in basically good to fair shape.
Some typical condition-based preventive maintenance activities include
• sealing and replacing leaking joints;
• installing deck overlays, cathodic protection systems, and scour countermeasures;
• and painting and sealing steel structural elements.
Bridge rehabilitation - is to restore, to bring back the full use of a bridge.
Considerations for the Rehabilitation of Bridges
1. Cost
2. Load Capacity
3. Additional Damage
4. Traffic
Bridge Rehabilitation Techniques - Bridge rehabilitation services take place in three main areas: substructure,
superstructure, and the bridge deck.
1. Joint Repair and Replacement - expansion joints need to be repaired or replaced first to extend the lifespan of
a bridge.
2. Structural Steel Rehabilitation - Steel rehabilitation and repairs consist of heat straightening of bridge girders
and members if a bridge attains impact damage.
3. Substructure Replacement - Loss of bearing capacity occurs when footings and pilings become exposed
upon erosion, scour, and other damaging processes.
4. Superstructure Replacement - Inspection of a bridge’s superstructure detects damage to girders, concrete, and
pre- stressed strands.
5. Widening and Strengthening - Deck widening can support the rehabilitation of a structure if the existing deck is
adequate (structurally sound).
6. Deck Rehabilitation - case studies have shown that the use of protective surface treatments improves resistance
to chemical applications and extends the overall service life of a bridge.
7. Cleaning
8. Removal of Obstruction
9. Vegetation Growth
Walkway - is any type of defined space or pathway used by a person traveling by foot.
Sidewalks - provide dedicated space intended for use by pedestrians at the side of a road that is safe, comfortable,
and accessible to all
Walkway materials - Surfacing is typically concrete for sidewalks and asphalt pavement for shared use paths. Bricks
and pavers are also used for pedestrian facilities.
Sidewalks failure - There are a series of structural failures that lead to the vast majority of sidewalk problems and
hazards.
Types of sidewalk deformations:
1. Rigid Body Uplift or Settlement - It is the tendency for a concrete sidewalk slab to rise, subside or tilt as
a result of expansive native soil or thermal expansion of the concrete slab.
2. Tensile Shrinkage - It is a deformation resulting from tensile stresses caused by the shrinkage of underlying
soils from decreasing moisture content.
3. Sagging - The unequal movement of the slab as a result of the center of the sidewalk or path having a native
soil condition where clays swell significantly at the edges. This leads to longitudinal cracking.
4. Raised or Heaved (Hogging, fault) - Unequal movement of the slab caused by upward vertical movement
due to swelling of clay native soils
5. Surfacing Defects - The finish of the concrete is compromised. Unlike the previous conditions which
are structural in nature, surfacing defects are due to poor concrete quality and finishing.
Sidewalks maintenance - Infrastructure maintenance needs involve the repair of sidewalk by grinding, crack filling,
and patching. In many cases the only solution is to replace sidewalks or resurface paths.
Maintenance practices involving infrastructure can be categorized into three main groups: temporary; short term
measures; and longer-term measures lasting many years
Maintenance Repair Methods for Sidewalks and Paths - Temporary measures are made just to reduce tripping
hazards and last less than a year.
1. Short Term Maintenance Measures (Repairs) - Short term measures typically last one to five years and
are intended to extend the life of the sidewalk segment until it is replaced. These include patching, wedging,
grinding and horizontal cutting, mud-jacking, and overlays.
2. Long Term Maintenance Measures (Replacement) - Long term measures include sidewalks replacement.
When sidewalks are replaced as part of a street project. Horizontal cutting is a newer technique that is
similar to grinding and should have the same success rate as grinding.
Types of maintenance:
1. Routine Maintenance - "which consists of day-to-day activities that are scheduled by maintenance
personnel to maintain and preserve the condition" of facilities at a satisfactory level of service.
2. Corrective Maintenance - which is described as "activities that are performed in response to the
development of a deficiency or deficiencies that negatively impact the safe, efficient operations of the facility and
future integrity of the pavement section.
3. Preventive Maintenance which consists of treatments to extend the functional condition of a facility.
"Preventive maintenance is typically applied to pavements in good condition having significant remaining
service life"
Sidewalk Rehabilitation:
1. Patching - is a common and often effective repair when small sidewalk corners have broken off or minor
gaps have formed between sidewalk panels.
2. Cracking Repairs - deformation forces constantly at work below the grade of sidewalks and paths,
expansion joints are used to control cracking.
3. Wedging - entails the placement of an asphalt or concrete filler placed in advance of a heaved or displaced
section of a sidewalk
4. Grinding and Horizontal Cutting - another set of treatments that can be used for heaved concrete
sidewalk and path segments is grinding and cutting.
5. Mud-jacking, Concrete Raising or Slab-jacking - This repair method lifts concrete sidewalk slabs back to
their original position by ;pressure injecting cement or non-cement material under the sidewalk.
Railways - Is a means of transportation that moved passengers and goods from one place to another by wheeled
vehicles running on rails which are directionally guided by its tracks.
Railways failure - Is any failure in a train to move under its own power which adversely affects either the operation of
other trains.
Types of Railway Failures:
1. Wears - due to the passage of moving loads and friction between the wheels and the rails over it eventually
resulting in significant material loss from the rail.
2. Rolling Contact Fatigue - defined as the failure or material removal driven by crack propagation caused
by the near- surface alternating stress field.
3. Head Checks - fine, closely-spaced cracks caused by rolling contact fatigue and appearing predominantly
on the rail’s running edge.
4. Squats - is distinguishable as a dark-colored depression, and in more advanced stages of progression
squats exhibit a V-shaped
5. Skid spots - result from friction between the rails and the slipping (spinning) wheels of traction vehicles
as they accelerate.
6. Foot fatigue - usually caused by millions of cycles of sudden, high-intensity tension stresses in the rail foot,
due to the passage of millions of train wheels.
7. Plastic flow - plastic flow in low rails tends to displace material from the rail head toward the field
side.
8. Corrugation - type of track wear that develops from track and train wheel set contact over time.
9. Bolt-hole cracking / failure - cracks originating from rail- end bolt holes are the result of the repetitive
loads applied from each wheel as it passes over the joint.
Railroad right of way infrastructure includes:
1. Ballast
2. Ties
3. Track
4. Bridges
5. Tunnels
Railroad adjacent line side structures that include:
6. Signs
7. Milepost
8. Switches

In the late 1800s, the Granite Railway used early strap-iron rails that featured a wooden base atop thin iron strips for
added strength.
Today, a revolutionary design of an inverted capital “T” is placed on the ground providing a solid base while the narrow
end is the wheels’ guide way.

Gauge - a standard of measure or measurement.

Tamping - packing the track ballast under railway tracks to make the track and roadbed durable and level.
Track Ballast - the track ballast is material, usually stones,that form the trackbed upon which the railroad ties are laid.
The main types of rail maintenance or rehabilitation include:
1. Rail Grinding - This consists of grinding machines that travel along the track with grinding stones, which
rotate or oscillate longitudinally to scrape the rail’s surface.
2. Rail Replacement - This is necessary to upgrade the track to a higher gauge rail
3. Track Stabilization - track stabilizers vibrate the track in the lateral direction with a vertical load to give a
controlled settlement.
4. Ballast Injection (Stone Blowing) - ballast injection or stone blowing is conducted to correct the
longitudinal profile.
5. Sleeper Replacement - in almost all types of sleeper defects, the sleeper requires replacement. Bad
sleepers can result in the rail losing the correct gauge, which can cause derailments.
Rail is susceptible to wear and tear because of the heavy weight and high speeds the cars may reach.