GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution

Topic 6 – Inheritance, variation and evolution

Table of Content
6.1 Reproduction .............................................................................. 2
6.1.1 Sexual and asexual reproduction .............................................................................. 2
6.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual reproduction (biology only)... 2
6.1.2 Meiosis ..................................................................................................................... 3
6.1.4 DNA and the genome ................................................................................................ 4
6.1.5 DNA structure (biology only) ..................................................................................... 4
6.1.6 Genetic inheritance................................................................................................... 5
6.1.7 Inherited disorders ................................................................................................... 6
6.1.8 Sex determination..................................................................................................... 7
6.2 Variation and evolution ............................................................... 7
6.2.1 Variation ................................................................................................................... 7
6.2.2 Evolution ................................................................................................................... 8
6.2.3 Selective breeding..................................................................................................... 9
6.2.4 Genetic engineering ................................................................................................ 10
6.2.5 Cloning (biology only) ............................................................................................. 11
6.3 The development of understanding of genetics and evolution .. 13
6.3.1 Theory of evolution (biology only) .......................................................................... 13
6.3.2 Speciation (biology only) ......................................................................................... 13
6.3.3 The understanding of genetics (biology only) ......................................................... 14
6.3.4 Evidence for evolution ............................................................................................ 14
6.3.5 Fossils ..................................................................................................................... 14
6.3.6 Extinction ................................................................................................................ 15
6.3.7 Resistant bacteria ................................................................................................... 15
6.4 Classification of living organisms ............................................... 16

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 GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution
6.1 Reproduction
6.1.1 Sexual and asexual reproduction
6.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual reproduction
(biology only)
Sexual reproduction (meiosis)
• Joining of male & female gametes that produce genetically different offspring
o Gametes formed by meiosis
▪ Mixing of genetic info leads to variety in offspring
▪ Requires energy as some animals & plants produce gametes in high no. & process of
courtship requires energy
Animals Flowering plants
• Sperm (contains 46 chromosomes) • Pollen
• Egg cells • Egg cells

Advantages Disadvantages
• Produce variation in offspring • Advantages of asexual selection
• If environment changes, variation gives a
survival advantage by natural selection
• Natural selection can be sped up by human
in selective breeding to ↑food production

Asexual reproduction (mitosis)

• Involves only one parent & no fusion of gametes
• No mixing of genetic info – produce genetically identical offspring (clones) by mitosis
• E.g. Bacterial reproduce asexually when divide by binary fission
Advantages Disadvantages
• Only one parent needed • Advantages of sexual selection
• More time & energy efficient as don’t need
to find mate
• Faster than sexual reproduction
• Many identical offspring can be produced
when conditions are favourable

Some reproduce both sexually & asexually depending on the circumstances

Malarial parasite • Sexually – in human host
• Asexually – in mosquito
Fungi • Sexually – by sporesto give variation
• Asexually – by spores
Plants • Sexually – produce seeds
• Asexually – produce tiny plantlets on runners e.g. strawberry plants
– bulb division e.g. daffodils

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 GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution
6.1.2 Meiosis
• Only takes place in reproductive organs
• Male - testes
• Females – ovary

Describe how meiosis halves no of chromosomes in gametes.

1. All chromosomes made copies of their DNA
2. Chromosome pairs line up and exchange pieces of DNA (DNA crossover)
3. Cell divides into 2
4. Chromosomes line up
5. Both cells divide one more time to form 4 gametes, each with a single set of chromosomes
6. DNA is exchanged so all gametes are genetically different from each other

Describe how fertilisation restores full no of chromosomes.

• In sexual reproduction (fertilisation), gametes join together
• Cell now has normal no of chromosomes

Explain why sexual reproduction could produce new variety of onion. (3)
• Meiosis produces 4 gametes from an original cell
• Fusion of gametes in fertilisation
• These gametes are genetically different from each other & have different alleles, produced by
meiosis which causes variation

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 GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution
6.1.4 DNA and the genome

(See 6.1.5 DNA structure (biology only) for more notes)

6.1.5 DNA structure (biology only)
Structure of nucleotide DNA polymer

Describe where DNA is found in a human cell. (2)

• In chromosome in nucleus

What is a section of DNA which codes for one specific protein called? (1)
• A gene

In which part of an animal cell is DNA found? (1)

• Nucleus

Describe the function of DNA. (3)

• DNA carries coded info which controls order of amino acids to form specific proteins

Describe difference between alleles & genes (2)

• Alleles - different forms of gene controlling a characteristic & occupying same site on homologous
chromosomes
• Genes - units of DNA on chromosomes carrying info that determines characteristics

Why is sequence of compounds A,C,G & T in gene important? (2)

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 GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution
• They are codes for order of amino acid which make a specific protein

Protein synthesis
• Protein - polymers of amino acids
• Sequence of bases in gene determines order of amino acids (aka codes for sequence)
• Specific order of amino acids determines shape of protein
• Shape of protein determines function eg enzyme (amylase), structural protein (collagen),
hormones (insulin)

Describe stages of protein synthesis

• Proteins are synthesised on ribosomes, according to a template
• Carrier molecules bring specific amino acids to add to growing protein chain in correct order
• When protein chains are complete, it folds up to form a unique shape. This unique shape enables
proteins to work as enzymes, hormones or forming structures in body [Link]

In the cell, where are proteins synthesised? (1)

• Ribosomes

Describe how protein is synthesisd. (3)

• A sequence of 3 bases is coded for 1 amino acid
• Amino acids make up a protein

Explain how DNA is responsible for structure of proteins. (3)

• DNA carries coded info which controls order of amino acids to form specific proteins
• A sequence of 3 bases is coded for 1 amino acid
• …

Explain how mutation could causes enzyme not to work. (5)

• A sequence of 3 bases is coded for 1 amino acid
• Mutation changes DNA code from CAG to TAG
• Changes order of bases, change order of amino acids, change shape of protein that change active
site
• So enzyme no longer fits substrate

6.1.6 Genetic inheritance

Gamete An organism’s reproductive cell (egg in female & sperm in male), which has
half no of chromosomes

Chromosome A structure found in nucleus which is made up of long strand of DNA

Gene Small section of DNA on chromosome that codes for a particular sequence of
amino acids to make specific protein that determine characteristics

Allele Different forms of a gene controlling a characteristic & occupying same site on
homologous chromosome

Dominant Only expressed if recessive allele is not present

eg B Will show a characteristic if inherited from one or both parents

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 GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution
Recessive Only expressed if dominant allele is not present.
eg b Will show a characteristic only if inherited from both parents

Homozygous A genotype with two same alleles

eg BB or bb
Homozygous dominant A genotype with two dominant alleles
eg BB
Homozygous recessive A genotype with two recessive alleles
eg bb
Heterozygous A genotype with one dominant & one recessive allele
eg Bb
Genotype Genetic make-up of an organism represented by letters

Phenotype Physical characteristics of an organism as described by words

Explain why it looks similar to its parents. (1)

• DNA passed from parents

Explain why not identical to its parents. (2)

• DNA from 2 parents
• Different alleles
• Environmental effect e.g. mutations

Why might your prediction not proved right? (1)

• It's down to chance / only a prediction

6.1.7 Inherited disorders

Polydactyly • Have extra fingers / toes
• Caused by dominant allele

Cystic fibrosis • A disorder of cell membranes

• Caused by recessive allele

Solution – Embryo screening

• Embryos are tested to see if alleles for inherited disorders are present

Describe how embryos can be screened for the alleles that cause genetic disorders. (4)

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 GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution
• DNA isolated from embryo
• Fluorescent probe mixed with embryo DNA
• Probe then binds with embryo DNA
• UV light to show alleles / gene for disorder

Advantages Disadvantages
• ↑chance of having a baby without disorder • Operation hazard eg infection
• Disorder won’t be passed on to future • Ethical - potential damage to embryo
generation • Expensive
• ↓ppl suffer • Large no of embryo created but only small
• There’re many regulations to stop it going no are implanted – remaining embryos
too far destroyed
• Use more than 1 embryo so more chance of • Promote prejudice as it suggests ppl with
success genetic disorders are unwanted
• Spare embryo have potential use – could be • Encourage ppl to pick characteristics
used in stem cell treatment • Embryos might not develop

6.1.8 Sex determination

Human body cell – 23 chromosomes
• 22 pairs – control characteristics
• 1 pair – carriers genes that determines sex
• Sex chromosomes – Male (XY), Female (XX)

What is the chance of having a female child? Give the reason

for your answer. (2)
• 50% coz 2 out of 4 boxes are XX

6.2 Variation and evolution

6.2.1 Variation
Variation - differences in the characteristics of individuals in a population
Cause of variation
• genes they have inherited (genetic causes)
• conditions in which they have developed (environmental causes)
• combination of genes and the environment
See topics below for more notes

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 GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution
6.2.2 Evolution
Evolution
• Change in the inherited
characteristics of a population
over time via natural selection
• Form new species

Natural selection (Charles Darwin)

• Published in On the Origin of
Species (1859)

Explain process of natural selection (6)

1. Individual organisms within a
particular species show wide
range of variation of
characteristics controlled by
different alleles caused by
mutations
2. Individuals with characteristics
most suited to the environment
are more likely to survive & breed
successfully (aka survival of the
fittest)
3. The beneficial characteristics /
alleles which enable individuals to
survive are passed on to their
offspring (to next generation)
4. Over many generations, frequency
of alleles for this beneficial characteristic increase within the population

Why many ppl didn't accept his theory? (3)

• They believed God made all living things
• Insufficient evidence & proof
• Mechanism of inheritance & variation not discovered

Why the theory of evolution by natural selection was only gradually accepted? (3)
• Challenged the idea that God made all the animals and plants that live on Earth
• Insufficient evidence at the time the theory was published to convince many scientists
• Mechanism of inheritance and variation was not known until 50 years after the theory was
published

An organism during its lifetime can be inherited (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck)

• Changes that occur in an organism during its lifetime can be inherited
• If an individual continually repeated an action, characteristic that allow it to do this would develop
further
• But we now know that in vast majority of cases, this type of inheritance cannot occur as changes in
environment does not pass on to offspring

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 GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution
Use Lamarck's theory to explain how elephant's trunk evolved (2)
• Ancestor continually stretched its nose to reach food
• This characteristic of stretching its nose develop further during its lifetime
• This characteristic then passed on to offspring

Explain how 2 different species could have developed from a common ancestor (6)
• 2 populations separated by geographical barrier
• Different environmental conditions cause alleles to mutate differently in each population
• Individuals with characteristics more suitable for environment are more likely to survive and breed
successfully
• Beneficial characteristics / alleles which enable species to survive are passed on to their offspring
• Over many generations, frequency of alleles for this beneficial characteristics increases within each
population
• Eventually 2 types cannot interbreed successfully
Suggest how scientist prove they come from same species
• Interbreeding successfully between island types
• DNA analysis

Suggest why 2 species have not become more different over time (2)
• Similar environment so similar adaptations
• Original ancestor already well adapted

6.2.3 Selective breeding

Selective breeding (artificial selection)
• Process by which humans breed plants and
animals for particular genetic characteristics
• By choosing parents with desired
characteristics from a mixed population &
breed them together

Why – to choose characteristics for usefulness or

appearance
• Food crops – disease resistance
• Animals – produce more meat or milk
• Domestic dogs - gentle nature.
• Flowers - large / unusual

Advantages Disadvantages
• Produces organisms that are useful to us • Selective breeding can lead to inbreeding
eg ↑food production (some breeds are particularly prone to
disease or inherited defects eg pedigree
dogs have hip problems)
• ↓no of alleles in a population - ↓variation
of species - if environment changes,
organisms can’t cope & die

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 GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution

6.2.4 Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering
• Process which involves modifying the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from another
organism to give a desired characteristic
• Plant crops – resistance to diseases, produce bigger better fruits (See GM crops)
• Bacterial cells – produce useful substances eg insulin to treat diabetes

Describe process of genetic engineering (6)

1. Use enzyme to isolate required gene
2. Insert isolated gene into a vector (bacterial plasmid / virus) which is cut opened using enzyme
3. Use vector to insert gene into required cells
4. Transfer gene to animals / plants cells or microorganisms at an early stage in their development so
they develop with desired characteristics

Genetically modified crops (GM crops)

Advantages Disadvantages
• Resistant to disease • Affect population of wild flowers & insects -
• Resistant to insect attack / herbivores ↓ biodiversity
• ↑yields /produce bugger & better fruits - • Haven’t fully explored effects on GM crops on
↓starvation in less developed countries human health
• Improve nutritional value • Shouldn’t interfere with God’s creation
eg Golden rice contains carotene -
↓ chance of vitamin A deficiency

GM mosquitoes
Advantages Disadvantages
• ↓mosquitos spreading malaria • ↓crops reproduce
• ↓ppl get malaria • ↓crop yield
• ↓healthcare needed • High cost of GM production
• Better economically for developing • Disrupt food chain
countries

Figure 1 shows how scientists produce GM crop plants. The scientists use a GM-bacterium can invade
plant cells.

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 GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution

Explain why scientists add glyphosate to agar? (2)

• The resistance gene will be transferred from bacteria to some plant cells

6.2.5 Cloning (biology only)

Plants – tissue culture & cutting
Tissue culture
• Using small groups of cells from part of a plant to grow identical new plants
• Importance - preserving rare plant species or commercially in nurseries
Process
1. Remove leaf from plant
2. Scrape off small group of cells
(tissue) sample from part of plant
onto agar jelly.
3. Grow tissue in agar with nutrients &
plant hormones to stimulate plant
cells to divide to form big mass of
identical plant cells called callus.
4. Use different mixture of hormones &
conditions to form tiny identical
plantlets.

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 GCSE/IGCSE Biology notes Inheritance, variation and evolution
5. Plantlet clones grown on.
Advantages / Why use tissue culture Disadvantages
• ↑ yields • Expensive
• Quick
• Little space
• Grow all year

Cuttings
• An older, but simple, method used by gardeners
• To produce many identical new plants from a parent
plant
• Quick & cheap
Process
1. Cut off a branch from parent plant
2. Plant stem in damp compost
3. Keep cuttings in moist & warm conditions
4. After a few weeks, new roots develop & new plant
produced

Animals – Embryo transplant & Adult cell cloning

Embryo transplant
Process
1. Split cells apart from developing animal
embryo before they become specialised
2. Each cells grows into identical embryo in lab
3. Transplant identical embryos into host
mothers
4. Identical cloned calves born

Advantages Disadvantages
• Produce more animals • Expensive
• Ppl can transfer high-quality embryos • Need skilled labour
around the world
• Produce medically useful compounds

Adult cell cloning

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Process
1. Remove nucleus from unfertilised egg cell
2. At the same time, take nucleus from adult
body cell eg skin cell of another individual
of same species
3. Insert nucleus from adult cell into egg cell
4. Give egg cell an electric shock to stimulate
it to divide to form an embryo
5. When embryo has developed into ball of
cells, insert it into womb of adult female to
continue its development

Advantages Disadvantages
• Produce animals with desirable • Reduce variation in a population - less able to
characteristics eg cows produce large survive if environment changes
quantity of milk • Expensive
• Produce large no of cloned medically • Can help infertile couples but can also be
useful animals abused
• Save animals from extinction • Unethical
• Clone pets/prized animals so DNA • Possible operation complications
continue after original died

6.3 The development of understanding of genetics and evolution

6.3.1 Theory of evolution (biology only)
See 6.2.2 Evolution

6.3.2 Speciation (biology only)

Speciation
• Populations become extremely varied & no interbreed anymore
• Formation of new species (a group of organisms able to interbreed & produce fertile offspring)

Charles Darwin – see 6.2.2 Evolution

Alfred Russel Wallace

• Published joint writings with Darwin in 1858
• Best known for his work on warning colouration in animals & his theory of speciation

Describe the steps which give rise to new species

1. Genetic variation – each population has wide range of alleles that control characteristics
2. Natural selection
3. Speciation
4. Isolation
• 2 population of a species become geographically separated
• Different mutations take place in isolated groups
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• Overtime species evolve to be different to each other – cannot interbreed
6.3.3 The understanding of genetics (biology only)
Gregor Mendel
• Carried out breeding experiments on pea
plants
• Inheritnace of each characteristic is
determined by ‘units’ (genes) that are passed
onto descendants unchanged

Describe the development of our understanding of

genetics including the work of Mendel
1. Mid-19th century – Gregor Mendal carried out
breeding experiments on plants
2. Late 19 – behaviour of chromosomes during
cell division was observed
3. Early 20th century – chromosomes and Mendel’s ‘units’ behaved in similar ways - led to the idea
that the ‘units’, now called genes, were located on chromosomes.
4. Mid-20th century - structure of DNA was determined & the mechanism of gene function worked
out

Why using large no of offspring plants can improve the investigation (2)
• Large no so more reliable
• Anomalies can be identified

Why importance of Mendel's discovery wasn't recognised at that time? (2)

• DNA not discovered
• Mendel wasn't considered as a scientist / wasn't part of academic establishment

6.3.4 Evidence for evolution

See 6.3.5 Fossils, 6.3.6 Extinction & 6.3.7 Resistant bacteria

6.3.5 Fossils
Fossils - the ‘remains’ of organisms from millions of years ago, which are found in rocks

Where are fossils formed? (3)

• Parts of organisms that have not decayed because one or more of the conditions needed for decay
are absent
• When parts of the organism are replaced by minerals as they decay
• As preserved traces of organisms, such as footprints, burrows and rootlet traces

How fossils are formed?

• Animal / plant dies & body covered in sediment
• Soft parts decay
• Hard parts (bones) don’t decay and are replaced by minerals
• Lack of O2 and moisture prevent microorganisms to decay
• Preserved traces of organisms eg footprints, burrows & rootlet traces
• Soft parts decay, bones / shells don't decay

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Suggest how insects came to be preserved in the amber (2)

• Trapped and engulfed by amber
• Prevented decay (due to lack of O2 and moisture)

How can fossils give evidence for evolution? (1)

• Show how organisms changed as life developed on Earth

Why scientists are uncertain about how life began on Earth? (1)
• Insufficient evidence

Suggest 2 reasons why there are gaps in the fossil record (2)
• Fossils not found yet
• Fossils are destroyed by geographical activities eg volcanoes
• Conditions not right for fossilisation

6.3.6 Extinction
Extinction – occur when there are no remaining individuals of a species still alive

Why a species may become extinct? (3)

• Environmental changes – species can’t adapt fast enough
• Natural disaster eg flooding, drought
• New predator / disease eg no resistant alleles
• Human activities eg hunting, deforestation
• Competition for food / mates
• Catastrophic event wipe out species eg asteroid killed dinosaurs

6.3.7 Resistant bacteria

Bacteria can evolve rapidly because they reproduce at a fast rate

How pathogens produce new strains via mutation (6)

1. Mutations of bacterial pathogens produce new strain
2. Some strains might be resistance to antibiotics and so are not killed
3. Some survive and reproduce by binary fission
4. Gene for resistance passed on to offspring so pathogen being immune
5. Population of resistant strain rises
6. Resistant strain then spread coz ppl not immune to it & has no effective treatment

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

• Bacterium that has evolved to be resistant to lots of antibiotics (superbugs bacteria)

How to reduce rate of development of antibiotic resistant strains? (3)

• Doctors reduce use of antibiotics for non-serious / viral infections
• Patients complete course of antibiotics to kill all bacteria so none survive to mutate & form
resistant strains
• Restrict agricultural use of antibiotics

Development of new antibiotics

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• Costly
• Slow
• Unlikely to keep up with the emergence of new resistant strains

6.4 Classification of living organisms

Classification – process by which living
things are placed into groups depending
on their structure & characteristics in a
system

Linnean system (Carl Linnaeus)

• Linnean system – Dear Kate
Please Come Over For Great
Spagetti)

Describe the impact of developments in

biology on classification systems
• Improvements in microscope
• Better understanding of biochemical process
• Evidence of internal structures become more developed
• New models of classification proposed

‘Three-domain system’ (Carl Woese)

• Archaea - primitive bacteria usually
living in extreme environments
• Bacteria - true bacteria
• Eukaryota - includes protists, fungi,
plants and animals

Evolutionary trees
• A method used by scientists to
show how they believe
organisms are related
• Use current classification data
for living organisms & fossil
data for extinct organism

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