• Use of a quotation

Another method of introducing your essay is by using a quotation. This quotation can be

something you have read in a book or article. It can also be something that you have heard: a

popular saying or proverb, a current or recent advertising slogan, or a favourite expression

used by friends or families. Using a quotation in your introductory paragraph lets you add

someone else’s voice to your own.

Example

According to Rubenstein ‚most developing countries are in danger of desertification due to

tremendous pressure being exerted on forests due to rising populations‛.

• Use a shocking statement

You deliberately start with a startling fact that is aimed at raising curiosity in your readers. This

will motivate your readers as they will want to find out more about the shocker that you have

given them.

Example

If you wanted to attack private schools, you could start with a statement that may be bent at

shocking your readers i.e. talking about lack of teaching and learning resources, immorality of

the teachers and also absence of portable water and good toilet facilities.

• Ask one or more questions

Here you may ask a rhetorical question that simply wants the reader to think about possible

answers, or you ask a question you intended to answer yourself later in the essay. For example,

if you were to write a paper on love, you would come up with questions such as below:

What is love? How do we really know that we are really in love? When we meet that special

person, how can we tell that our feelings are genuine and not merely infatuation? And, if they

are genuine, will these feelings last? Love… (Langan, 2003, p. 89) .

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 • Use an incident or brief story

Stories are naturally interesting. They appeal to a readers’ curiosity. In your introduction, an

anecdote will grab the readers’ attention right away. The story should be brief and should be

related to your main idea. The incident in the story can be something that happened to you;

something you have heard about, or something you have read about in a newspaper or

magazine.

Example

A couple of months ago, I was travelling to the Northern Region. I left Lilongwe early in the

morning.

And as I drove, I kept looking sideways with an interest on our forests. My eyes didn’t

like what they saw. Most forests have been cleared and I was particularly touched by the way

trees are being removed in Chikangawa Forest. The situation is very appalling. I met many

trucks carrying timber and yet very little re-forestation is taking place. I felt like crying.

N.B. When developing an introduction, make sure that you do not use some mechanical

methods (methods that are normal but just demonstrate the routine way of doing things which

may sadly be boring because they have been used over and over again), which though simple

and pretty effective, take away the interest in the readers’ mind. In other words, mechanical

introductions sound dry. Examples of mechanical introductions are:

• The purpose of this essay is to write about

• I will now write a paper about

The above examples need to be avoided, if not, make sure that you combine them with some

better ways of introducing essays as we have discussed.

Activity 2
Think about any topic and write an introduction using any one of the methods above.

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 3.4. The body
The body of an essay deals with supporting points that are developed in paragraphs. It is

extremely important that you carefully choose material to be included in your essay. What you

include in the body will be determined by the treatment of your thesis and it is advisable that

you gather adequate information that best supports your essay before you actually take the

trouble of starting developing your body.

When you are writing, your body each of the supporting paragraphs should begin with a

topic sentence that states the point to be detailed in that paragraph.

Topic sentence

A topic sentence is a key sentence that provides a focus for a supporting paragraph. The topic

sentence is most often found at the beginning of a paragraph though occasionally it may feature

in the middle or at the end of the paragraph. To fully understand the concept of topic sentence,

read the essay below and answer questions that follow:

The hazards of movie-going

I am a movie fanatic. My friends count on me to know movie trivia and to remember every big

Oscar awarded since I was in secondary school. My friends, though, have stopped asking me

if I want to go out to the movies. While I love movies as much as ever, the inconvenience of

going out, the temptations of the theatre, and the behaviour of some patrons are reasons for me

to wait and rent the video.

To begin with, I just do not enjoy the general hassle of the evening. Since small local

movie theatres are a thing of the past, I have to drive for fifteen minutes to get to the nearest

multiplex. The parking lot is shared with several restaurants and a supermarket, so it’s always

jammed. I have to drive around at a snail’s pace until I spot another driver backing out. Then

it’s time to stand in an endless line, with the constant threat that tickets for the show I want

will sell out. If we do get tickets, the theatre will be so crowded that I won’t be able to sit with

my friends, or we’ll have to sit in a front row gaping up at a giant screen. I have to shell out a

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ridiculous amount of money- up to $8 – for a ticket. That entitles me to sit while my shoes seal

themselves to a sticky floor coated with spilled soda, bubblegum, and crushed raisins.

Second, the theatre offers tempting snacks that I really don’t need. Like most of us, I have to

battle an expanding waistline. At home, I do pretty well by simply not buying stuff that is bad

for me. I can make do with snacks like celery and carrot sticks because there is no ice cream in

the freezer. Going to the theatre, however, is like spending my evening in a Seven-Eleven that’s

been equipped with a movie screen and comfortable seats. As I try to persuade myself to just

have a diet Coke, the smell of fresh popcorn dripping with butter soon overcomes me.

Chocolate bars the sizes of small automobiles seem to jump into my hands. I risk pulling out

my fillings as I chew enormous mouthfuls of Milk Duds. By the time I leave the theatre, I feel

disgusted with myself.

Many of the other patrons are even more of a problem than the concession stand. Little

kids race up and down the aisle, usually in giggling packs. Teenagers try to impress their

friends by talking back to the screen, whistling, and making what they consider to be hilarious

noises. Adults act as if they were at home in their own living room. They comment loudly on

the ages of the stars and reveal plot twists that are supposed to be a secret until the film’s end.

And people of all ages create distractions.

They crinkle candy wrappers, stick gum on their seats, and drop popcorn tubs or cups

of crushed ice and sodas on the floor. They also cough and burp, squirm endlessly in their

seats.

(Adapted from Langan, J. (2003) College Writing Skills)

Activity 3
1 What is the topic sentence for the first supporting paragraph of the model essay?

The first topic sentence is then supported by the following details (fill in the missing details):

a) Have to drive fifteen minutes

b) ______________________________________________
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 c) Endless ticket line

d) ______________________________________________

e) ______________________________________________
f) Sticky floor

2 What is the topic sentence for the second supporting paragraph of the essay?

The second topic sentence is then supported by the following details:

a) At home, the only snacks are celery and carrot sticks.

b) Theatre is like a Seven-Eleven with seats

i) Fresh popcorn

ii) _________________________________________

iii) _________________________________________

3 What is the topic sentence for the third supporting paragraph of the essay?
The third topic sentence is then supported by the following details:

a) _____________________________________________

b) _____________________________________________

c) ______________________________________________

d) ______________________________________________

Based on the explanatory text and the activity, you should remember that the body of an essay

has a topic sentence that is supported by some sentences found in the paragraph.

3.4.1. Methods of organising the body

You need to use some methods that help foster clarity and cohesion of your essay. You may use

one or a combination of the following methods:

• Using division of parts of a unit

You must split your essay into different parts. You do this mainly by carefully analysing points

that fully support your thesis. When you are certain, you are at liberty to divide the supporting

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points into different parts, i.e. first part, second part, third part etc. Once these divisions are

made, you will develop your body part by part by initially tackling the first part and progress

on chronologically. This method is important as it enhances clarity, brevity and coherence in

your essay.

• Division of a process (explanation of how something is done)

In this method, you take the trouble of explaining how something is executed. For example, if

you were to write about how nsima is prepared, you would talk about all the processes involved

from the moment the pot is cleaned through to the moment when the meal is ready for

consumption. Conversely, if you were to write an essay about steps of doing a thing, you would

write your essay by chronologically highlighting what happens at each stage or step. By doing

this, your essay is going to demonstrate the highest degree of unity and coherence.

• Using a narrative approach

When you are writing your essay, using this approach, you write in a story telling manner. You

tell about events that happen i.e. personal events, incidents or experiences.

When developing your body using this method, you may either use chronological order

or flash-forwards and flashbacks. In chronological order, your essay starts at the beginning of

a sequence of events and follows those events step by step until the conclusion. For example:

I had an important a ppointment in town yesterday, and I had planned to leave for the city at 2:30 p.m. I

drove to Luwinga Filling Station with plenty of time to spare but then discovered that I had left my wallet

in the office. I raced back to collect it unfortunately the road was very congested and I was forced to drive

at a snail’s pace. A five-minute journey took me almost fifteen minutes.

By the time I got back to the filling station, it was too late. My appointment was at 3 p.m. but I

had not yet arrived to the venue. Though I finally got there, I was late by a good ten minutes.

The above example gives us clear details of how the above event unfolded. It starts from the

beginning until the end. That is how you should write your essay when the narrative approach
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is used. On the other hand, use flash-forwards and flashbacks to create a special emphasis. A

flash-forward is a device that you use to tell about an event before it actually happens. A flash -

back tells about an event that happened at an earlier time. Look at the following illustration to

appreciate how the flash-forward works:

When I stepped on the stage at the age of six to give my first violin recital, my heart was racing and the

blood was pounding in my throat. I walked timidly to the centre of the stage, made a stiff bow, brought

the instrument up to my shoulder, and started to play.

Had I been able to anticipate the thunderous applause that would greet me at the end of my

performance, I would have been less nervous. My mother shouted “bravo” my father leapt to his feet and

cheered, and my grandmother led the audience in a rousing display appreciation. There were ca lls for an

encore, which I gladly granted.

But all that adulation had been far from my mind as I made those scratchy noises on my half-size

violin. At the start of the recital, all I had wished was its conclusion.

(Adapted from Word-power 2, p. 217)

• By using comparison and contrast

You write your essay based on comparison and contrast. Comparison refers to statements of

similarities between two or more related things and on the other hand, contrast refers to

statements of differences between two or related things. What you do is to group together all

similar points and those that are not similar. Sometimes you may synchronise points or ideas

that are similar with those that are different in order to come up with a balanced argument.

• By argumentation

Here you write an essay by presenting an argument. You construct an argument by giving facts

and examples; relate incidents and present opposing views. An effective argument must be

supported by evidence. It is not enough to simply give an opinion. Som etimes in order to

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impress your readers, you can either put strong points first or end with weak points or vice

versa. You may also advance arguments by looking at both sides of the coin that present both

advantages and disadvantages. If you are interested in having a very sound argument, you

may look at an idea from the left, centre and right. This will bring about an essay that

encapsulates different facts and ideas that make your write up worthwhile and weighty.

3.5. The conclusion

This is a crucial part of the essay and it needs to be given all the time and effort. You do not

have to rush otherwise; you will spoil all the good work you have done in the introduction and

the body.

Make sure you impress your readers for the last time by writing a conclusion that is catchy. The

concluding paragraph often summarises the essay briefly by restating the thesis and at times,

the main supporting points. In addition, the writer often presents a concluding thought about

the subject of the paper.

3.5.1. Functions of the conclusion

The conclusion performs the following functions:

• It satisfies the reader’s interest that was aroused in the introduction. The conclusion

should complement what the introduction does. The introduction arouses the reader’s

interest and the conclusion satisfies the reader. The introduction makes the reader

curious, raises expectations in the reader concerning what the writer intends to do. The

conclusion makes the reader feel that his/her expectations have been m et.

It makes the reader feel that the job the writer set out to do has indeed been completed.

• It reminds the reader about the thesis. As you close your essay, make sure that you touch

on the thesis so that your reader can be reminded about the focus of your discussion.

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 • It provides the writer the last opportunity to impact on the readers’ mind in order to

create the desired effect on them. Make sure that you develop your conclusion in an

enticing way so that you retain your readers’ attention up to the last word of your essay

and probably leave a life-long impression on them.

3.5.2. Types of conclusion

In this section, we look at best methods of developing a conclusion. Any one of the ways below,

or a combination of ways, may be used to round off your essay. What is important though is to

see to it that your conclusion clearly relates to the thesis of your essay.

• Conclude w ith a quotation

You end on a high note if you choose a very good punch-line to conclude your essay. You must

observe that the quotation you choose has some bearing on your thesis. It may not help matters

choosing a quotation though good but very divergent from the thesis of your essay.

Example

In summary, it has been discussed that ‚deforestation is indeed a major problem in most

developing countries and that unless something is done the entire Sub -Saharan Region will be

a huge desert‛ (Banda, 2004 p. 34).

• End w ith a summary and final thought

Here you follow three classical steps of wrapping up your essay:

a) Tell them what you are going to tell them

b) Tell them

c) Tell them what you have told them

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Steps (a) and (b) are executed in the introduction and body respectively. However, step (c) ‚Tell

them what you have told them‛ is executed in the conclusion where you restate the thesis with

supporting points. Don’t use the exact wording you used before though.

Example

In this essay, we have been talking about deforestation. And as it has been highlighted,

deforestation is more rampant in developing countries where among others things high

population growth, urbanisation and need for settlement land are exerting pressure on the

forests.

 Conclude w ith a thought-provoking question or a series of questions

Concluding with a question is another good way to successfully end your essay. A question

tends to grab the reader’s attention. It is a direct appeal to your reader to think further about

what you have written. A question should follow logically from the points you have already

made in the paper. Your question must deal with one of these areas:

a) Why the subject of your paper is important?

b) What might happen in the future?

c) What should be done about this subject?

d) Which choice should be made?

In your conclusion, you may provide an answer to your question. Be sure though, that the

question is closely related to your thesis.

Example

In conclusion what is pollution? What causes pollution? What are the dangers of pollution and

how can we avoid pollution?

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 • Conclude w ith a call to action

Here you may present a recommendation that asks your readers to do something. This will be

in light of your thesis statement. For instance, if you had been writing an essay on ‚poor

educational standards in primary schools‛ you would ask your readers to embrace measures

that will address this problem.

Example

It’s now crystal clear that standards of education have gone low. We are now calling on the

government and all stake holders to put mechanisms in place which will improve our

educational standards as soon as possible.

• Conclude w ith a summary of the main points

This is one the easiest way of ending the essay. You just present a summary of what your essay

has highlighted. In doing this, concentrate on main points and condense them in a manner that

gives one a picture of what your essay is all about. Generally, this method is most appropriate

for complex topics.

Example

This essay has highlighted four main causes for the decline in education standards. We have

cited proliferation of private secondary schools, lack of well trained teachers, poor salaries and

lack of learning and teaching materials. It has been suggested that unless these challenges are

addressed, our education standards will keep on going down.

• Conclude w ith a w arning

When using this method, make sure you present a sentence that sounds a warning. It is

particularly effective when you are writing on a subject that has social connotations. You

structure your conclusion in such a way that the warning is clearly seen.

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Example

HIV is real. If we do not change our attitudes we may all die.

• Conclude w ith a restatement of the thesis

This is another simple but effective way of ending your essay. You merely restate the thesis.

Concluding thesis should be paraphrased in slightly different words from your earlier thesis.

You should also aim at pointing at the significance of the thesis statement.

Example

From the overwhelming evidence provided in this essay, it can safely be said that abstinence is

the only way of avoiding HIV and AIDS.

Lesson 2 Stages in essay writing

Lesson Introduction
Having looked at the structure of an essay, it is now important that we get into the nitty-gritties

on how that structure can be put together in order to create a meaningful essay. Many students

struggle to put their ideas together let alone to get started. Writing the first paragraph is such

a tall order for many students. This lesson has therefore, been arranged in such a way that it

will give you guide you step by step on how you can get started and finish your essay. We

hope that at the end of this lesson you will write essays without any struggles.

3.6. Stages in Essay Writing

The following paragraphs highlight different stages in the essay writing process:

3.6.1 Prewriting
Many people have trouble getting started with writing. You may not be able to think of an

interesting topic or thesis. Or you may have trouble coming up with relevant details to support

a possible thesis. Sometimes even after starting your essay, you may hit snags- moments when

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you wonder, “What else can I say?” or “Where do I go next?”. Before you begin writing you

decide what you are going to write about. Then you plan what you are going to write. This is

called pre-w riting. The following pages describe stages or techniques that will help you think

about and develop a topic and get words on a piece of paper: (1) brainstorming, (2) listing, (3)

clustering, and (4) free writing.

• Technique 1: Brainstorming

In this technique, you ask the six big questions: Who? Where? When? Why? What? How? These

questions will help you generate details for your topic. Asking questions can be an effective

way of getting yourself to think about the topic from a number of different angles.

• Technique 2: Listing

In this technique, you make a list. You collect a list of ideas and details that relate to your subject.

Pile these items up, one after another randomly (without trying to sort out major details from

minor ones or trying to put details in any special order). Your goal is just to make a list of

everything about your subject that occurs to you.

• Technique 3: Clustering

This is also known as mind mapping or diagramming. This method is useful for people who

like to do their thinking in a visual way. In clustering, you use lines, boxes, arrows, and circles

to show relationships among the ideas and details that occur to you.

Begin by stating your subject in a few words in the centre of a blank sheet of paper. Then

as ideas and details come to your mind, put them in boxes or circles around the subject and

draw lines to connect them to each other and to the subject. Put minor ideas or details in

smaller boxes or circles and use connecting lines to show how they relate as well. Keep in mind

that there is no right or wrong way of diagramming or clustering. It is a way to think on paper

about how various ideas and details relate to one another. Below is an example of how

diagramming can be used:

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 Diagramming of hazards of movie going

traffic getting line at box

t theatre office
o

too many
people

Hazards of
movie going

noisy people
temptations

teenagers
chocolate popcorn adult
ba
r

yelling telling
showing coughing plo
of & sneezing t
f

• Technique 4: Free-w riting

Free-writing means jotting down in rough sentences or phrases everything that comes to the

mind about a possible topic. See if you can write non-stop for ten minutes or more. Do not

worry about spelling or punctuating correctly, about erasing mistakes, about organising

material, or about finding exact words. Instead, explore an idea by putting down whatever

pops into your head. If you get stuck for words, repeat yourself until more words come. There

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is no need to feel inhibited, since mistakes do not count and you do not have to hand in your

paper.

Free-writing will empower your writing muscles and make you familiar with the act of

writing. It is a way to break through mental blocks about writing. Since you do not have to

worry about mistakes, you can focus on discovering what you want to say about a subject.

Your initial ideas and impressions will often become clear after you have gotten them down

on paper and they may lead to other impressions and ideas.

3.6.2. Drafting your essay

When you have gathered your facts in the prewriting stage, it is now time to get started in

writing your essay. The first step in this journey is by coming up with a draft where you prepare

rough work. Drafting involves making preliminary version of your essay. In the first-draft stage,

you want to get all your thoughts and ideas down on paper.

With your writing purpose, audience and method of development in mind, write your

first draft fairly quickly. Do not stop to make corrections in such areas as spelling, grammar

and punctuation as your main aim is to put your ideas on paper. The mistakes committed here

will be rectified later on. As you develop your draft, make sure you stick closely to your outline

otherwise if you do not then your piece of work lacks sound organisation.

Lesson 3 Revising your essay

Introduction
Writing a good essay is a process that involves navigating different stages. In this lesson we

will look at how we can revise our work in order to create work that is free from avoidab le

mistakes and grammatical errors.

3.6.3. Revising your essay

The literal meaning of revise is ‚to look again‛. Therefore, during revision you should see if you

have said what you wanted to say and if you have said it clearly and effectively. Ensure that

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you take a careful look at the following: content (the material you have included in your essay
i.e., is it suitable?); organisation i.e., has the material been well organised? and language i.e.,

have you used language effectively- thus have you used the right words in the right manner?

Things to consider w hen revising

If you want to do a good job during revision then the following things have to be considered:

a) Coherence

This refers to the fitting together of all parts of the essay. It is important when you are writing

to ensure that your essay clearly connects to the thesis. Coherence should also be achieved

within and without a paragraph(s). This is attained by having sentences that proceed logically.

Coherence can also be achieved by using transitional markers. Transitional or linking sentences

are used between paragraphs to help tie together the supporting paragraphs in an essay. They

enable the reader to move smoothly from one idea to another. Here are some examples of

transitional words:

• Addition signals: one, first of all, second, the third reason, also, next, in addition,

moreover, furthermore, finally, last of all

• Time signals: first, then, next, after, as, before, while, meanwhile, soon, now, during,

finally

• Space signals: next to, across, on the opposite side, to the left, to the right, above, below

near, nearby

• Change of direction signals: but, however, yet, in contrast, although, otherwise, still, on

the contrary, on the other hand

• Illustration signals: for example, for instance, specifically, as an illustration, once, such

as, to illustrate

• Conclusion signals: therefore, consequently, thus, then, as a result, in summary, to

conclude, last of all, finally, in a nutshell, to sum up.

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The above list is not exhaustive. You will come across many more transitional words. What is

important though is to use them in your essays so as to achieve the coherence we are talking

about. You can also achieve coherence by repeating key words in the preceding paragraph.

What this entails is identifying key words in a paragraph and repeating them in the next

paragraph. By doing this, you will allow for smooth transition from one paragraph to another.

b) Language

Another area that needs careful consideration when you are writing an essay is language. It is

important to note that your essay is a formal document as such it must maintain formality.

Always use formal language and never use any contracted versions of words. For instance,
never write can’t instead write cannot. You should also guard against use of slang language

(these are very informal words and expressions that are more common in spoken language,

especially used by a particular group of people). For example, words like ‚guys‛, ‚bucks‛

‚buddies‛ etc should not find any place in your essay.

You should also avoid using clichés. As you may recall, a cliché is an expression that has

lost its impact and meaning due to overuse. It may sound as a good expression but the fact

that a myriad others have used it, renders it useless. More importantly, use of clichés
undermines your creativity. Some examples of clichés include last but not least and green with

envy.

c) Unity

An essay should show unity when all the components are related to the thesis statement or

topic sentence. In other words, if you advance a single point and stick to that point, your essay

will have unity. When writing make sure that all the material you include in your essay relates

to the thesis. In addition, all the ideas in a paragraph should relate to the topic sentence. Avoid

wandering off the topic.

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 To achieve unity, remove or rephrase all sentences that do not relate to the thesis and the

topic sentence.

d) Support

Points advanced in your essay have to be supported with specific evidence. Make sure that the

topic sentence of each paragraph is fully supported i.e. proved by adequate material such as

examples and explanations. Do not just make an argument without any backing points. Also

make sure that the treatment of your thesis is fully supported with materials it promises. You

will recall that your thesis may state some points to be expounded in your body and when you

are developing the body, ensure that this is done by providing as many facts as possible.

e) Sentences

Another way to demonstrate that you are a good writer is by writing good sentences. Good

sentences are those that are free from errors and are composed in an especially impressive way.

This is done by varying sentence lengths and sentence patterns. On sentence lengths, what you

have to do is ensuring that your essay has both short and long sentences. Short sentences are

particularly useful when you are emphasising points or introducing ideas. No matter what,

never confine yourself to one type of sentences but always blend. Remember variety is the spice

of life.

Similarly, make sure that your sentence patterns are varied. It is important to see to it

that your essay contains simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences.

Below is the meaning of these types of sentences:

Simple sentence: is a sentence that has only one main clause and no subordinate.

Examples: The boy ate the banana.

A man and his son watched the football match.

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Compound sentence: is a sentence that has two or more main clauses and has no dependent

clause.

Examples: John went to the market and James went to church.

The guests have no money; someone must lend them.

Complex sentence: is a sentence that has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Examples: Although I was sick, I still wrote the examination.

After I finished washing my clothes, I went to the library.

Compound - complex sentence: is a sentence that has more than one main clause and at least

one subordinate clause.

Example:If we win this game, we will go to Lilongwe; if we won’t, we will lose everything.

3.6.4. Editing your essay

After revising your essay, the last thing you have to do is to edit your work. In editing, you

carefully examine what you have written. Look for mistakes in grammar, punctuation,

capitalisation, omission (words mistakenly left out), spellings and tenses. The best way to do

this is to read your essay aloud to yourself or better still give it to trusted friends who will help

you identify the errors committed.

Activity 4
1 Why is a thesis important?
a) Think of any topic and write a thesis statement.

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 b) What type of approach have you used to develop the thesis?

2 Of the four stages in the essay writing process, which one appeals to you? Give reasons.

3 Define the term cliché.

a) Write five examples of clichés.

Lesson 4 Types of essays

Lesson Introduction

As a student, you will be asked to write different types of essays. It follows therefore, that you

get acquainted to various essay types. Much as there are different types, it should be borne in

your mind that at times, the assignments you will be given will demand that you blend more

than one type in your write up in order to come up with a more powerful and persuasive essay.

Please take note of the differences and similarities for in the types of essays and see how you

can successfully integrate them in your writing.

3.7. Types of essays

In this last segment, we will look at how we can write different essays. Make sure you notice

the distinct features in each type.

3.7.1. Expository essay

Expository essays are simply essays that explain something with facts, as opposed to opinion.

Development of these essays centres on the 5W’s and H writing style (use of who, what, why,

when and how). As you write expository essays, make sure you present and explain

information. Mostly, expository essays are written in response to questions that ask the writer

to expose or explain a specific topic. These implied questions may include:

• Who or what is the person or thing under discussion?

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 • Why is the person or thing important?

• What does the person do?

• How does the thing work?

• When did the event take place? Etc.

A response to the above questions will yield:

• Essays that describe how to do something

• Essays that analyse events, ideas, objects, or written works

Essays that explain/describe an historical event

As you write expository essays, make sure you are thorough enough and present sufficient

information that fully explain the topic. Also bear in mind that expository essays should have

the same basic structure as any typical essay. They must have an introduction, body and

conclusion.

3.7.2. Descriptive essay

The word ‚description‛ means to narrate something in such a way that the reader is able to

visualise the image that is portrayed. It also means to paint a word picture. In light of this,

descriptive essays are those that say what somebody or something is like. A descriptive essay

mirrors the mood of the writer and conjures images that breathe. It has the ability to transfer

emotions to the reader through the use of words.

A good descriptive essay arouses and appeals to the reader’s senses. The arousal is so

powerful that it impacts on the reader’s mind to evoke a correct response.

As you write descriptive essays, make sure that your description focuses on the most

significant details about your subject. Do not waste time dealing with trivia stuff. Also use

concrete language as opposed to abstract language. Let us now look at how we can use

concrete language.

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 The word happy much as it shows someone’s state is abstract. We need to use a concrete word

like laughing which physically shows the happiness in an individual. Similarly avoid saying

‚She is sad‛ as the word ‚sad‛ is abstract. Instead use a more concrete word like ‚She is sobbing”.

3.7.3. Argumentative essay

This type of essay is also known as persuasive. It does not only give information but also

presents an argument with the pros (supporting ideas) and cons (opposing ideas) of an

argumentative issue. It may also dwell on arguing from as many different perspectives or

viewpoints as possible.

In this type of essay, your primary objective is to convince your audience to agree with

your facts, share your values, accept your argument and conclusion and adopt your way of

thinking or point of view. To achieve this, make sure that you clearly take your stand and write

in a persuasive manner. It is also important to ensure that you aim at convincing your reader

to agree with your ideas or convince him or her to follow a particular course of action.

Organisation of an argumentative essay

An argumentative essay follows the basic principles of essay writing. Make sure you handle

the entire essay parts well.

Introduction

Your introduction should provide background information on your topic or controversy and

hook your reader’s attention. This should end with a clear statement of your main idea or point

of view.

Body paragraphs

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Here is where you advance your argument in a convincing and persuasive manner. Make sure

that your body paragraphs present the points in support of your main point or your viewpoint.

Always support your views with sound reasons. It does not help matters merely giving

opinions without substantiating them.

Ways of supporting an argument

You can support your arguments by using:

• Facts- this is a powerful means of convincing your readers. You can get facts from your

reading, observation or personal experience.

• Statistics- these can provide excellent support to your essay. Be sure your statistics come

from responsible sources and always cite your sources.

• Quotes -use of direct quotes from leading experts or authorities in support of your

arguments is valuable.

• Examples- examples enhance your meaning and make your ideas concrete. They are also

a proof of the validity of your arguments.

To make your argument prominent, start by presenting opposing views and then proceed to

counter them. You can also either deal with less important points first and work up to serious

ones later or reverse the procedure, discussing the serious ones first then tailing off into minor

ones towards the end.

It is also imperative to provide a balanced argument. Make sure that you explore the

weaknesses and bombard them with the merits from left, centre and right.

Make your meaning clear. Do not be vague because vagueness has no place in an argumentative

essay. Be explicit and make sure that your reasons, facts and opinions are expressed in such a

way that the reader does not ask about what you are trying to mean.
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Conclusion

It is important to creatively restate your main argument and supporting points. Give a

summary of your argument at the end by stating a course of action you feel the readers should

take. Finally, try to leave your audience even more connected to your topic and persuaded by

your main idea or perspective.

Patterns of organising argumentative essays

As you are aware, all argumentative topics have PROS and CONS. Before starting writing, it is

imperative to make a list of these ideas and choose the most suitable ones among them for

supporting and refuting. There are three possible organisation patterns:

Pattern 1

Thesis statement

PRO idea 1

PRO idea 2

CON(s) + Refutation(s)

Conclusion

Pattern 2

Thesis statement:

CON(s) + Refutation(s)

PRO idea 1

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 PRO idea 2

Conclusion

Pattern 3

Thesis statement:

CON idea 1 -----> Refutation

CON idea 2 -----> Refutation

CON idea 3 -----> Refutation

Conclusion

Activity 5
1 Using any two relevant points, compare and contrast expository and argumentative essays.

2 What does a descriptive essay do?

3 Some scholars have argued that there is a thin line between expository and argumentative

essay. Why is this so?

Self-assessment test

1 In your own words, define what an essay is.

2 Discuss why an introduction is one of the most important parts of your essay.
3 Mention any three methods of concluding your essay.

4 Of the three methods in (3) which, one in your opinion, is the best method? Provide reasons

for your choice.

5 Think of any topic and identify the subject and the treatment.

6 Using your topic in (5) write an essay of not more than 300 words.

7 Why could division of essays into different types be merely a question of convenience than

what the essays actually reveal on the ground?

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 Unit summary
In this unit, we have talked about what an essay is and how you can write it. If you may recall,

we have said that an essay is a group of paragraphs that support a thesis. We have also

highlighted some useful tips on how to get started and develop your essay in an impressive

format that can fetch you good marks. Besides, we have analysed different types of essays you

are likely to encounter in your academic work. It is our hope that you will be able to write good

academic essays. In the next unit, we will talk about how you can maintain logic and sound

reasoning as you advance your arguments.

Answers to Unit Activities

Activity 1
This is a personal question and there is no single correct answer. All you have to do is to

compose any statement and be able to identify the subject and treatment as has been explained

in this Unit.

Activity 2
You should write an introduction using one or a blend of the techniques for writing an effective

introduction as has been highlighted in this Unit.

Activity 3

This is a straightforward activity. All you have to do is to fill in the blank spaces using the

answers that have been presented by referring to the passage that has been given to you in this

Unit.

Activity 4
1 It is important because it acts a roadmap for the essay thereby providing direction which

you will take as you write you essay in order to be focussed.

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 2 a) You are at liberty to come up with any topic and ensure that the thesis statement you

develop has subject and treatment as has been highlighted in this Unit. Think of any

topic and write a thesis statement.

b) Answer to this will depend on how you have developed your thesis and make sure
you are able to justify why you think you have used a particular approach.

3 This is a personal question that depends on what stage appeals to. Whatever stage you

choose, make sure you give reasons to substantiate your answer.

4 It is an expression that has lost its impact due to overuse is best used in conversations

not formal writing. Provide any examples of clichés.

Self-assessment test
1. Use your own words to define what an essay is. Remember an essay has multiple

paragraphs that support a thesis.

2. Because that’s where focus and roadmap of your essay is presented.

3. Mention any three methods for concluding essays as highlighted in this Unit.

4. This question gives you a leeway to choose any method that appeals to you. All you should

remember to do is to give reason for any choice you make.

5. Develop a thesis statement from a topic of your choice and be able to identify the subject
and treatment.

6. Using your topic in (5) you should write an essay that reflects its basic structures as well as
effective techniques for developing all the essay parts.

7. Because in normal circumstances one is bound to write an essay that blends all the types

discussed in this Unit.

References
Gallo, J & Rink, W. (1996). Shaping college writing: Paragraph and essay. New York:

Harcourt Brace, Jovanovich.

Langan, J. (2003). College writing skill:,Media edition. New York: McGraw Hill.

Singleton, J. & Luckhurst, M. (2000). The creative writing handbook. New York: Pal-grave.

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Strong, W. & Lester, M., (Ed). (1996) Writer’s choice: Grammar and composition. New York:

McGraw Hill.

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Unit 4 – Referencing and Citation

Introduction

In the previous Unit you learnt about essay writing. This Unit builds on that and adds a new

dimension in the essay writing process which is known as referencing. The Unit emphasises

the importance of acknowledging information that you use in writing different types of

academic papers. It also explains the different methods of presenting information and

provides examples of how different materials can be cited. We hope that after studying this

Unit, you will be able to effectively cite in all your sources of information.

Areas of emphasis

 Definition of an essay
 Parts of an essay
 Stages in the essay writing process
 Types of essays

Key w ords

 Referencing,  Paraphrasing,

 References,  Summary,

 Citation,  Quotation,

 Reference entry,  APA citation style,

 Plagiarism,  Publication information

Prerequisite knowledge

It is very likely that you have written essays before. If not, definitely you have come across

essays, read them, or probably analysed them. More importantly, in our previous Unit, we

talked about how you can acknowledge information when writing essays. This knowledge

is very important and it forms the bedrock for your understanding of this unit.
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Learning outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

 Define the term referencing.

 Explain the importance of referencing

 Explain reasons for avoiding plagiarism

 Differentiate different techniques of citing information within text

 Apply APA citation style in your writing

Resources needed

 Any text book containing sample essays

 Pens and sheets of paper
 Newspapers
 Journal article

Time required

You will need at least 20 hours to adequately study this unit.

Unit Outline

Lesson 1: Referencing and citation

Lesson 2: Plagiarism

Lesson 3: Presentation of source material in a text

Lesson 4: How to use American Psychological Association Citation Style

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Lesson 1 – References and Citation

Lesson Introduction

Academic institutions (particularly academic writing) and scientific publications demand

references for all sources used in the course of writing. Students and researchers often view

this as a complicated process that requires too much time and effort. The complexity of this

exercise, to the students, increases as there are various types of information materials

consulted in the course of writing there research and related assignments (term papers, essays,

articles, research projects, among others). In any academic writing you will be expected to

write reference or cite sources of information that you have used. Such sources of Information

materials include all print and non-print materials such as books, journals, magazines,

newspapers, reports, students’ projects (like theses and dissertations), dictionaries,

encyclopaedia, letters, lecture/class notes, posters, manuals, brochures, directories and,

photographs etc. Other electronic resources include web pages, social network text, archived

e-mails and messages, online audio and video files.

In this Unit, citation and referencing process is set out in detail. You as both a student

and a researcher, are reminded of the importance of citation and referencing. In this Unit you

will also be drilled on how you can use American Psychological Association citation in all your

academic pieces of writing. It is hoped that this Unit will give you the basic foundation for your
academic writing.

4.1. Referencing and Citation

In academic writing Referencing is also known as documenting. It refers to citing,

acknowledging or giving credit to sources of the information or views on which you are

expressing your own opinion in your essay. Citing a source means that you show, within the

body of your text, that you took words, ideas, figures, images, etc from another place. What this

implies is that in academic work, referencing is the appropriate acknowledgem ent of

ideas and work that originate from another person. Referencing also denotes that the

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information that you have included in your work that comes from some other source
(which is not common knowledge or widely accepted).

The terms cite and refer (or citation and reference) are often used to mean the

same thing since to cite a piece of work is to provide a reference to its source. A citation

is the part of the reference that you include within the main body of your work whenever you

directly quote from, paraphrase, summarize or refer to work produced by another author In

academ ic writing you must always cite (list/show) your sources of inform ation, in

other words, you should alway s give credit where it is due. Citations consist of

standard elements, and contain all the information necessary to identify and track

down publications, including: author name (s), titles of books, articles, and journ a ls,
date of publication, page numbers, volume and issue numbers (for articles)

4.1.1. Importance of Referencing

There are a number of reasons for referencing information. Some of them are:

 To avoid plagiarism, i.e. using someone else’s ideas as if they were your own. In other

words, plagiarism is stealing some one’s ideas or words. This is a very serious offence

in academic writing and can land you onto punishments like disqualification. If it is

found that you have plagiarised- deliberately or inadvertently, you may also face

serious consequences- getting a zero grade, or even getting dismissed from the

university.

 To facilitate development of ideas and scientific discoveries in all academic disciplines.

This is so because information from experts can be used as a yardstick in dealing with

different issues as well as in presenting theories that can help solve different problems.

 To make your material authentic, reliable, believable or respectable. It supports and

strengthens your argument. Every academic paper is in essence an argument, not in the

everyday use of this word, but an argument in the sense that you take a position on an

issue and support it with evidence gathered from the sources you have read.

 To give the readers a chance to read more on the subject, or to inspect your source for

themselves (to track down the sources you used). Referencing demonstrates that you

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 have read. As a student writer your purpose is to show your reader (your marker) that

you have read, thought about and come to a point of view on the assigned topic. This

provides details of sources referred to in your paper so that readers can access them.

 To demonstrate that you are a responsible scholar by giving credit to other researchers

and acknowledging their ideas.

 It is a proof that research is substantial and is based on facts.

 It shows the theoretical foundation of the research.

Activity 1

1. Define the term referencing?

2. State any four reasons why referencing is important.

3. Using one example in each case, distinguish common knowledge from well-known fact.

Lesson 2 Plagiarism

Lesson Introduction

As the foregoing section has already indicated, academic writing does not condone stealing of

other people’s ideas. It is recommended that every time you lift information from other sources,

you must cite that. This lesson therefore, emphasises the concept of plagiarism and gives you

some tips on how it is committed and how you can avoid it. It is expected that after going

through this lesson you will gain good grounding on the importance of avoiding plagiarism.

4.2. Avoid Plagiarism

Plagiarism is when you copy directly from someone else's work without acknowledg in g

(citing) the original author. In other words, it appears as if the work is all your own. This

looks as if you are taking credit for someone else's work. It is a form of cheating and in

academic writing, there can be severe penalties for plagiarism. Plagiarism occurs when you

borrow another persons’ words (or ideas) and do not acknowledge that you have done so. In

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academia, our words and ideas are our intellectual property and cannot be used without our

permission.

Most assignments require you to read widely and refer to the work of other people.

In both written work and oral presentations, you need to refer to the published work of

others as evidence of the accuracy and reliability of the ideas and information. Failing to

acknowledge the source (plagiarism) can be a very serious offence in academic studies.

Plagiarism can be avoided if you reference your sources properly. Therefore, it is important

to know how to correctly acknowledge the sources you use and to be familiar with the

referencing style(s) used in your courses.

4.2.1 How plagiarism occurs in academic writing

In written assignments, plagiarism occurs if the sources of information are not

acknowledged when:

 using words or sentences ‘word-for-word’ from the original text (quoting)

 presenting someone else’s tables, graphs or images

 expressing ideas from a text in different words (paraphrasing)

 giving a short version of someone else’s ideas (summarising).

4.2.2. Other Instances of Plagiarism

Plagiarism can also occur if:

 you copy another student’s assignment, in part or in whole

 you write your assignment in conjunction with other students without prior

permission (This does not mean you shouldn’t meet with other students initially

to discuss the assignment topic and/or analyse the question.)

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  the assignment you submit has already been submitted for assessment in another

course

 you give a direct reference to an author you have not read (although you may have

read about them)

 you falsify data.

Whether plagiarism occurs deliberately or by accident, it is still your responsibility and the

best way to avoid plagiarism is to cite your sources- both within the body of your paper

and in a bibliography/references of the sources you used at the end of your paper.

4.3. Knowing what material requires acknowledging

It is important to appreciate that not all material requires acknowledging. For instance, when

you are writing about issues of common knowledge, you are not supposed to cite the source.

For example, if you are in Malawi, you are not required to cite the fact that Mzuzu is one of

the cities. What you would cite is when you want to name the date when Mzuzu was declared

a city. Similarly, if you were to say that Nyasaland was a British protectorate until 1964 or

Muluzi was elected president in 1994. You do not need to cite this information. But if you gave

the total number of votes that Muluzi won in the 1994 Parliamentary and General Elections,

then you must cite the source of the figures so that others can verify whether what you are

saying is correct or wrong.

Apart from issues of common knowledge, you are also not required to cite well known

facts. For instance, you do not need to attribute the fact that Britain was one of the countries

that fought the Slave Trade. But you must acknowledge the source of an argument that Britain

fought the Slave Trade because she wanted to replace it with a more profitable and more

convenient trade in raw materials.

The following are examples of materials that require to be acknowledged:

 Direct quotations: whenever you use someone’s words, even if it is just a phrase, put

quotation marks around it and acknowledge the source.

 Facts that are not widely known such as statistics and can be questioned by other people.
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  Judgements or opinions of others. Whenever you present another person’s opinion, even

if you paraphrase it, you must cite the source of the opinion.

 Statistics, charts, tables, diagrams and graphs must all be acknowledged if they do not

originate from your own field research. Even when a chart or a graph is your own, you

must acknowledge the source.

 To acknowledge the sources of all specific information, be it from primary or secondary

source.

Activity 2
1. In your own words, state what plagiarism is.

2. Why is plagiarism an academic offense?

3. Why may it be necessary to cite the sources of opinions and judgements?

Lesson 3 Presentation of Source Material in a Text

Lesson Introduction
Presentation of information from different sources does not happen haphazardly. It needs to be

done in an orderly fashion and using a systematic way otherwise your academic may lack the

necessary impact. This lesson therefore, aims at teaching you how you can weave other people’s

ideas or information in your piece of academic writing. Much as we have different methods,

you must appreciate that you are at liberty to integrate all of them in one write up. What matters

though is using each method as effectively as possible.

4.4. Methods to use when presenting source material in your text

4.4.1. Using Paraphrases

A paraphrase is when you write published information and ideas in your own words

without changing its original meaning. Thus, what you do is to restate the material in

your own words (to express what somebody has said or written in different words,

especially in order to make it easier to understand)It is a legitimate way to include the

ideas of others, when appropriately referenced. A paraphrase is usually about the sam e

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length as the original, as opposed to a summary which is usually much shorter. It is

important that the sentence structure and the vocabulary are different from the original.
Writing a paraphrase

To paraphrase, use the following steps:

 Change the structure of the sentences
 Change the words

It is not enough to do just one of these; you need to change both the structure and the
words.

Changing the structure of a sentence or paragraph

Use the following steps to change the structure of a text.

1. Read the original until you understand its full meaning.
2. Write down the main points or words. Do not copy down entire sentences.
3. Put the text away and, using the main points, write your paraphrase. This
means that you are not copying the text word for word.
1. Check what you have written against the original text. You should check that
they are not the same, as well as checking that the meaning is still the same, as
well as checking that the meaning is still the same.

Changing the w ords

People's writing styles and the words they use are very distinct. It is generally easy to tell

when someone has copied directly from a textbook, as the language and the words used

change from the writer's normal style and vocabulary. To paraphrase a text, follow these

steps.

1. Read the sentence or paragraph you want to paraphrase a number of times to get

the meaning of the text. Once you understand it, write out the sentence in your

own words. If you do not fully understand the text, do not attempt to paraphrase

it, as you will just copy it.

2. Circle the specialised words, i.e. the words that the text is actually about.

These will need to be included in your paraphrase, as without these words,

the meaning of the paraphrase can change.

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 3. Underline any keywords that can be changed.

4. Find other words and phrases that have similar meanings that can be used to

replace the keywords in the text. Use a thesaurus or dictionary, or look for

synonyms in your word processing software.

4.4.2. Using Summaries

These are short statements that give only the main points of something, not details. A

summary is a concise record of the main points, of a text presented in your own words.

In your citation, summaries are used when you want to present in brief only the general

idea of large amounts of information from other people.

Unlike a paraphrase, which is generally of a similar length to the original text, a

summary is much shorter. When summarising, you should not alter:

 the author's original idea(s)

 the degree of certainty with which the ideas are expressed.

To create a good summary, you should read the article or text a number of times to

develop a clear understanding of:

 the author's ideas and intentions

 the meaning and details

 the force with which the ideas are expressed.

Writing a summary

Use the following steps to write a summary.

1. Write notes in point form using keywords; this will make it easier to express

the ideas in your own words.

2. Write the summary directly from your notes without re-reading the passage.

3. Refer back to the original to ensure that your summary is a true reflection of the

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 writer's ideas.
Tips

 Topic sentences provide a quick outline of the topic and the main idea in a

paragraph.

 When summarising a chapter or article, the introduction and conclusion should

provide a good overview of the content.

 Summaries need to be referenced. Whether you have summarised or paraphrase d

an author's words, ideas, or diagram, a reference to the original source must be

provided.

4.4.3. Using Quotations

A quotation refers to a group of words or short piece of writing taken from a book, play,

speech, etc. and repeated because it is interesting or useful. Direct quotes show where

another person's original thoughts, words, ideas, images etc., have been used word-

for-word. Quotations are used to:

 acknowledge the direct use of someone’s words, thoughts, etc.

 enable the reader to access your sources.

When you are writing essays you are supposed to use quotations but always remember

that your essay must be in your own words. Depend on other people’s words as little as

possible. Avoid over-quoting in your essay.

Only quote:

 A statement expressed so effectively by the author that it cannot be paraphrased

without altering its meaning.

 To allow words of an author (expert) to strengthen your argument.

In your text, the quoted sentence of fewer than 40 words should always appear in double

quotation marks. However, display a quotation of more than 40 words in a free-standing block
and omit quotation marks. Start such a block quotation on a new line, indented five spaces from

the left margin. Type the entire quotation double-spaced on the new margin and leave space

or a line before any subsequent paragraphs.

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 For a quotation of less than 40 words follow these steps to use direct quotes in your

assignments:

1. Copy the exact words from the original source.

2. Use the quotation within your own sentence, i.e. don’t quote an entire sentence

and use on its own.

3. Use quotation marks at the beginning and end of the copied text.

4. Reference with appropriate author, year and page-number information in the

reference style used in your course.

The following examples illustrate the application of American Psychological Association

(APA) style to direct quotation of a source:

Quotation 1

He stated that, ‚many people catch the virus willingly not ignorantly because of their failure

to exercise self-control‛ (Smith, 2002, p. 200).

Quotation 2

Smith (2002) found that ‚many people catch the virus willingly not ignorantly because of their

failure to exercise self-control‛ (p. 200).

Quotation 3

Smith (2002) found the following:

Many people catch the virus willingly not ignorantly because of their failure to exercise self-

control. This is particularly true amongst the youths who spend much of their time talking

about sexual issues, watch pornographic films as well as read materials that arouse them. By

the end of the day, because these people do not have reliable girlfriends they end up hooking

prostitutes with whom they engage in unsafe sex. Sadly, instead of changing, this trend

persists. As a result, many youths are dying prematurely leaving behind old parents in need

of support. (p.200)

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You can place a quotation anywhere in your text: at the beginning of a paragraph, in the

middle or at the end of a paragraph.

[Link]. When do we use and what does the word “Sic” mean?

The Latin adverb sic ("thus"; in full: sic erat scriptum, "thus was it written") inserted

immediately after a quoted word or passage, indicates that the quoted matter has been

transcribed exactly as found in the source text, complete with any erroneous or archaic

spelling, surprising assertion, faulty reasoning, or other matter that might otherwise be taken

as an error of transcription. It means “that’s really how it appears in the original.” It is used

to point out a grammatical error, misspelling, misstatement of fact, or, as above, the

unconventional spelling of a name.

Activity 3

1. What is the difference between a paraphrase and a summary?

2. In what circumstances do you use a quotation?

3. Take any newspaper of your choice, read three paragraphs and write:

a) a summarised version of the three paragraphs.

b) a paraphrase of the three paragraphs.

4. Read a paragraph in any book and present short and long quotations from that

paragraph.

Lesson 4 Styles of Documenting Information in Your Text

Lesson Introduction

There are several types of referencing styles (formats) and these depend on the field

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understudy or institutional choice (s). Whatever style you adopt, always ensure that

uniformity is maintained in your citations, i.e., do not mix different referencing styles in one

document or paper. In this lesson, you will be provided with detailed information on how

you can cite information from various sources using American Psychological Association

(APA) Style. In case your Department does not recommend APA, please, be prepared to

master the other citation styles.

4.5. Styles of documenting information in your text

There are a number of referencing styles and some are simple to use while others are hard.

Preference on which style to use is dependent on the institution in question and it may vary

from place to place. In this section, we will discuss American Psychological Association. Much

as this is the case, you should appreciate that there also other styles such Modern Language

Association (MLA), Vancouver, Havard and Chicago Manual of Styles. At Mzuzu University,

we recommend usage of APA style of citation but you should be prepared to learn how to use

other citation styles as may be prescribed by specific departments and faculties at the

University.

4.5.1. The American Psychological Association (APA) style

Style of documentation

This style, in most cases, resembles the Harvard System of referencing save for a few

distinctive features. The APA style presents sources in parentheses. As a result, in most cases

it is commonly known as The APA style for parenthetical citation. All quotations, paraphrases,

summaries and other material from other sources are documented within the text of your

paper. Generally, the APA format does not use foot notes and is often favoured by people

because of its simplicity. There is no need to re-order and re-number references as it happens

with other styles.

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4.5.2. Footnotes

Footnotes are used to provide additional content or to acknowledge copyright permission

status.

[Link]. Content footnotes

Content footnotes supplement or amplify substantive information in the text; they should not

include complicated, irrelevant, or nonessential information. Because they can be distracting

to readers, such footnotes should be included only if they strengthen the discussion. A content

footnote should convey just one idea; if you find yourself creating paragraphs or displaying

equations as you are writing a footnote, then the main text or an appendix probably would be

a more suitable place to present your information. Another alternative is to indicate in a short

footnote that the material is available online as supplemental material. In most cases, an author

integrates an article best by presenting important information in the text, not in a footnote.

Number all footnotes consecutively in the order in which they appear in the essay with

superscript Arabic numerals. Footnote numbers should be superscripted, like this,' following

any punctuation mark except a dash. A footnote number that appears with a dash-like this 2-

always precedes the dash. (The number falls inside a closing parenthesis if it applies only to

matter within the parentheses, like this.') Do not place footnote numbers in text headings,

Subsequent references to a footnote are by parenthetical note: the same results (see Footnote

3), do not use Ibid.

[Link]. What does Ibid mean?

Ibid is an abbreviation of the Latin word “ibidem,” which means “in the same place.”It is used

in formal writing to indicate that a reference is from the same source as a previous reference

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in other words it is used in citations to refer again to the last source previously referenced. It

is not used in APA Style; instead give each citation using author names as usual.

4.5.3. How to use the APA format for parenthetical citations

When using APA parenthetical citation observe the following features:

 Parenthetical citations correspond to full bibliographic entries in a list of references at

the end of the text.

 Generally, the author’s name is used in a signal phrase to introduce the cited material,

and the date, in parentheses, immediately follows the author’s name

 For a quotation, the page number, preceded by p.,pp., appears in parentheses after the

quotation.

4.5.4. APA format for a list of references

Before we consider the format for arranging references when you are using APA style, it is

important to appreciate the differences between reference and bibliography.

References refer to the alphabetical list of the sources cited in your essay. On the other hand,

bibliography is a list of everything you have read as background for your essay.

References should capture only those materials actually cited in your paper where as a

bibliography will contain both cited and uncited material. The terms bibliography and

reference may be used the other way round when you are dealing with other styles of citation.

When you are writing references or bibliography make sure that you follow these:

 Start your list on a separate page after the text of your essay but before any appendices

that explain your research procedures or results and any notes.

 Continue the consecutive numbering of pages.

 Type the heading ‘References,’ neither underlined nor in quotation marks, centred on

top of the page.

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  Double-space and begin your first entry.

 Do not indent the first line of each entry, but indent any subsequent lines of the entry

five spaces.

 Double-space the entire list.

 List your sources alphabetically (i.e. from A to Z) by author’s last names.

 If the source is anonymous author, alphabetise it by the first major word of the title.

The APA style specifies treatment and placement of four basic elements - author,

publication date, title, and publisher information. These are integral parts and every time you

are writing academic papers ensure that you have used them appropriately. Let us now look

at these four basic elements in detail:

Author

List all authors last name first, and use only initials for first and middle names. Separate the

names of multiple authors with commas and use an ampersand (abbreviated ‘and’) before the

last author’s name. For example, Banda, L., & Phiri, K.

Publication date

Enclose the date in parentheses (brackets). Use only the year for books and journals, use the

year, a comma, and the month or month and day for magazines. Do not abbreviate the month.

Title

Underline titles (or italicise titles) and subtitles of books and periodicals. Do not enclose titles

of articles in quotation marks. For books and articles capitalise only the first word of the title

and subtitle and any proper nouns or proper adjectives.

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Publication information

For a book, list the city of publication (and the country or postal abbreviation for the state if
the city is unfamiliar), a colon, and the publisher’s name, dropping any Inc., Co., or Publishers.

For a periodical, follow the periodical title with a comma, the volume number, the issue

number (if appropriate) in parentheses, a comma and the inclusive page numbers of the article.

For newspapers, include the abbreviations p. (‘’page‛) or pp. (‚pages‛).

Let us now look at how different materials are presented in in-text citation and

bibliography or references for various kinds of sources:

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In the text

Placement In-text citations generally consist of the surname(s) of the author(s), the year of
publication of the work cited, and page number(s) if necessary, enclosed within
parentheses. For example:
The most recent report (Smith, 2016) on the use of …
If the author’s name forms part of the discussion, the parenthesis can be limited to
the year of publication. For example:
Smith (2016) found that the use of …

If both the author’s name and the year form part of the discussion, no parentheses
need be added. For example:
In 2016, Smith’s report on the use of …
If a citation appears within parenthetical text, place the year within commas (not
square brackets). For example:

Even if a reference includes a month and a day of the month, include only the year
in the in-text citation.

Page, chapter, (Smith, 2016, p. 6) or (Chen, 2016, Chapter 5)

etc. number
Page number ranges are preceded by “pp.” and a space, and linked with an en
dash, e.g. “pp. 156–163”.

With a quotation This is the text, and Smith (2016) says “quoted text” (p. 1), which supports my
argument.
This is the text, and this is supported by “quoted text” (Smith, 2016, p. 1).

This is a displayed quotation. (Smith, 2016, p. 1)

One author Author named in signal phrase

David (2003) argues that many women are unfairly discriminated against contesting
in parliamentary seats.
As Briggs (1970) observes, parents play an important role in building their children’s
self-esteem because “children value themselves to the degree that they have been
valued” (p. 14).
Smith (2016) or (Smith, 2016). Arrange multiple works by the same author in
different years in chronological order, separated by a comma (e.g. Smith, 1990,
1995, in press). If the primary authors of two or more works in the reference list have
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 the same surname, include the first author’s initials in all in-text citations even if the
year of publication differs (J. Dawson, 1990; M. Dawson, 1986).
Author named in parenthetical citation
When you do not name the author in your text, give the name and the date,
separated by a comma, in parentheses at the end of the cited material.
One study has found that 68 % of people working as sex workers in the Northern
Region of Malawi are HIV positive (Phiri, 2000).
Two authors Use both names in all citations. Join the names with and in a signal phrase, but
use the abbreviated and (&) instead in a parenthetical reference.
Smith and Jones (2016) or (Smith & Jones, 2016). If both authors of a work
have the same surname, include the first author’s initials in all in-text citations
(e.g.
M. A. Light & Light, 2008).

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Three to five Cite all authors’ names the first time the reference occurs in the text (e.g.
authors Kisangau, Lyaruu, Hosea, & Joseph, 2007). In subsequent citations, include only
the name of the first author followed by “et al.” and the year of publication, e.g.
Kisangau et al. (2007) or (Kisangau et al., 2007).

Six or more Cite only the surname of the first author followed by “et al.” and the year of
authors publication, e.g. Smith et al. (2016) or (Smith et al., 2016).

Multiple works by Add a, b, c, etc. after the year; repeat the year. The sequence is determined by the
the same author order of the entries in the reference list, where such references are ordered
or author group alphabetically by their title:
with the same
(Chen, 2011a, 2011b, in press-a; Chen et al., 2016a, 2016b).
publication date

Non-identical If the first author’s name and the year of publication are identical for two or more
author groups references, cite the surname of the first author and as many co-authors as
with the same necessary to distinguish the references, followed by a comma and et al. Include
first author in the just enough names to eliminate ambiguity. For example:
same year
Ireys, Chernoff, DeVet, et al. (2001) and Ireys, Chernoff, Stein, et al. (2001)

Multiple citations When two or more works are cited within the same parentheses, arrange them into
within the same the same order in which they appear in the reference list:
parentheses
(Brown, 1980; Dawson & Briggs, 1974; Dawson & Jones, 1974; A. L. Smith, 1978;
G. T. Smith, 1978; Smith et al., 1978; Tyndall et al., 1978; Willis, 1978)
An exception to this rule is that a major citation may be separated from other
citations within parentheses using a phrase such as “see also”:

(Willis, 1978; see also Brown, 1980; Dawson & Briggs, 1974; Dawson & Jones,
1974; A. L. Smith, 1978; G. T. Smith, 1978; Smith et al., 1978; Tyndall et al., 1978)

Organization as The name of an organization can be spelled out each time it appears in an in-text
author (group citation, or spelled out only the first time and abbreviated thereafter. A general rule is
author) that enough information needs to appear in the in-text citation to enable the
reference to be located easily in the list.
An abbreviation (if required) is introduced when the name of the organization first
appears in an in-text citation, e.g.
American College of Surgeons (ACS, 2001) or
(American College of Surgeons [ACS], 2001)
For subsequent in-text citations, ACS (2001) or (ACS, 2001) would be used.

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No identified If a work has no identified author, begin the in-text citation with the first few words of
author the reference list entry (usually the title or the first few words, e.g. “Editorial,” 2000). If
the author is designated as “Anonymous”, cite the work as such in the text
(Anonymous, 1998).
The school profiles for the Division substantiates this trend (Guide to Secondary
Schools, 1983)

Specific parts of a
If you want to cite specific parts of a source such as a chapter or section, use
source abbreviations (chap., p., and so on) in parenthetical citation to name the part
you are citing.

Montgomery (1988, chap. 9) argues that his research yielded the opposite results.
Multiple dates For in-text citations to publications with a range of dates, give the first and last
years of publication linked with an en dash: (Author, 1959–1963).
For in-text citations to reprinted publications, give the date of the original and of
the reprint linked by a solidus/forward slash: (Author, 1970/1988).

Unknown date For in-text citations to publications with no date, use “n.d.” within parentheses:
(Author, n.d.)

Classical or Works such as the Bible and the Qur’an are cited only in the text. Identify in the
religious work first in-text citation the version used, e.g. 1 Cor. 13:1 (King James Version)

Personal Personal communications include private letters, memos, personal interviews,

communication telephone conversations, email, and messages from online discussion groups,
etc. Where they do not provide recoverable data, personal communications are
cited only in the text and not included in the reference list. Include the initials as
well as the surname of the communicator and provide as exact a date as
possible, for example:
T. K. Lutes (personal communication, April 18, 2001)
(V.-G. Nguyen, personal communication, September 28, 1998)

Tables and figures

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 References in a table are usually most appropriately put in footnotes to the table.
If references must appear within the field of a table, use a separate column or row
for them and supply an appropriate heading to identify them.
Do not use references within figures, charts, graphs or illustrations. If such
references are needed to support the data or methods, put them in the caption.

Reference list

Order At the end of a document, list the references to sources that have been cited in the
text, including those found in tables and figures, under the heading “References”.
Place references in alphabetical order by the surname of the first author followed
by the initials of the author’s given name. Arrange references with the same

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