EE 531 –PROTECTION
UNIT 5: DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
BY DR. ESAU ZULU
Introduction
• Differential protection is one of the most reliable and selective
forms of protection used in electrical power systems
• It is designed to detect and isolate faults within a protected zone by
comparing electrical quantities (current or voltage) at the
boundaries of the zone
• Differential protection is inherently unit protection (because it is
dedicated to protecting a particular
• It does not coordinate with other protection schemes
Qualities of differential protection
• Differential protection must have the following qualities:
1. High sensitivity: Because the current through the relay is small, the relay
must exhibit great sensitivity to even the smallest differences in currents
2. High speed operation: The relay is not expected or supposed to
coordinate with other relays. Therefore, it’s operation is made
instantaneous
3. Stability against ‘through faults’: By nature, differential protection is
dedicated to particular equipment (very selective). Therefore, the relay
must not act for faults falling outside of the protected zone
Working principle of differential protection
• Differential protection is based on the fact that any fault within an
electrical equipment would cause the current leaving the
equipment be different from the current entering it
• Thus detection of faults is based on comparison of currents
entering and leaving the equipment in magnitude or phase or both
Simple Differential Relay
• The key components of current balance
differential protection are relay and the CTs
• The relay is an OC relay called the Merz –
Price relay connected in the spill path
• If the current in the spill path 𝐼𝑑 is greater
than a preset value 𝐼𝑆 , the relay sends a trip
command, i.e.,
𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 > 𝐼𝑆 → 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑝 (4.1)
• The CTs must be of high quality
Selection of CTs for differential protection
• Current Transformers (CTs) play a critical role in differential protection.
Incorrect CT selection can lead to mal-operation. The key requirements of the
CTs are:
1. Same Ratio CTs: Ideally, CTs on both sides should have identical turns ratio.
• If different ratios exist, auxiliary CTs or taps on relays must compensate.
2. Matching Characteristics:
• Similar saturation levels to avoid false differential currents.
3. Class of CTs:
• High Accuracy Class (Class X or Class PX): Ensures minimal errors.
• Knee-Point Voltage: Must be sufficient to avoid saturation during faults.
4. CT Polarity:
• Correct polarity ensures proper current summation.
CT dot markings
• The direction of current flow is very important
in differential relaying
• The dot marking provide a good guide on the
direction of current flow
• From the dot notation, it follows that the
current entering a dot on the primary side of
the CT must be leaving the dot on the
secondary
• Therefore, special attention must be given to
the dot markings for proper application in
differential protection
Behavior of Simple differential relay under normal
load conditions
• Under normal load
conditions, the current
entering the protected unit
equals the current leaving
• The current therefore
circulates in the secondary of
the CTs cancelling out in the
spill path
• No trip command is issued
Behavior of Simple differential relay under internal
fault conditions
• Under internal fault conditions,
the current entering the
protected unit is more than the
current leaving it
• Therefore, there is a current in
the spill path 𝐼𝑑
• Thus a trip command is issued
Behavior of Simple differential relay under external
fault conditions
• Under external fault
conditions, ideally the current
entering the protected unit is
same as the current leaving it
• Therefore, there is no current
in the spill path
• Thus no trip command is
issued
Problems with Simple differential protection
1. CT mismatch: Mismatches in CTs may result from:
• Differences in ratio and phase angle errors ~ this results in small current appearing in
the spill path even under normal load conditions leading to false relay operation
under normal load condition
• Differences in magnetization (saturation) characteristics: Because of this, under
external faults (through faults), one CT may get saturated while the other is not. This
may lead to operation under through faults which is not correct
2. Uneven lead resistances: The leads connecting CT1 to the relay may not have
the same resistance and that of the leads connecting CT2 to the relay. This
mismatch may lead to mal-operation of the CT under heavy load conditions or
external faults
Mitigation measures against problems with Simple
Differential protection
To alleviate the problems of CT characteristic mismatches and lead loop resistance
differences which may lead to relay mal-operation, the following methods maybe
used
1. Use of stabilizing resistor: Connecting a resistor in the spill path in series with the
relay increases the impedance of the relaying path. This makes the relay more
stable against through faults. This is a High Impedance Differential Relay
2. Use of percentage bias relay: This relay has both operating and restraining coils
which makes it more robust against mal-operation on heavy loads or through
faults
Through Fault Stability and Stability ratio
• Because of CT mismatches, as the through 𝐼𝑑 𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
fault current increases, the spill way 𝐼𝑠
current increases as well
• Therefore, there will be a point at which 𝐼𝐶𝑇1 − 𝐼𝐶𝑇2
the spill way current surpasses the relay Operate
pick up setting and the through fault 𝐼𝑠
current increases Restrain
• That point represents the extent of the 𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏 𝐼𝑓,𝑒𝑥𝑡
relay’s stability Maximum through fault current
• The ratio of the maximum through fault
current to the pick up setting is called Fig. 4.5: Variation of differential current against external faults
‘stability ratio’.
Example 5.1
A 15 MW, 17.5 kV, 50 Hz salient-pole synchronous generator is protected by a high-impedance
differential protection scheme. The scheme uses a numerical relay with a nominal current input
of 1 A. The main current transformers (CTs) on both the neutral and line sides of the generator
have a ratio of 500/1 A, are class 5P20, and are identical in design.
During commissioning, a through-current test is performed. At a primary current of 500 A (rated
current), it is observed that:
• The line-side CT secondary current is exactly 1.00 A
• The neutral-side CT secondary current is 0.95 A (due to a slight manufacturing asymmetry in
the excitation curve)
The relay’s differential current setting (Is1) is configured to 10% of the relay’s nominal current
(i.e., 0.1 A)
1. Calculate the maximum through fault current (in primary amperes) for which the relay will
remain stable (i.e., not trip), assuming ideal CT behaviour except for the stated ratio error
2. Determine the effective stability limit of this protection scheme expressed as a multiple of
the generator’s rated current (use 3 significant figures)
High Impedance Differential Protection
• To improve the differential relay
stability against through faults and
mal-operation due to CT saturation,
High impedance differential relay is
used
• The relay presents a very high
resistance to the circulating current on
the secondary side by introducing a
stabilizing resistor 𝑅𝑅 in the spill path
in series with the relay
Fig.4.6: High impedance differential relay
High Impedance Differential Protection
• At relay setting current 𝐼𝑆 the voltage 𝐼𝐹,𝑒𝑥𝑡
appearing across the spill path is:
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 + 𝑅𝑅 4.2
• Assuming CT H saturates under 𝐼′𝐹,𝑒𝑥𝑡
external fault condition, current in spill
path 𝐼𝑑 is:
𝑅𝐶𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿𝐻
𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼′𝐹,𝑒𝑥𝑡 4.3
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝐶𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿𝐻
Fig.4.7: High impedance differential relay under fault
Stabilizing Resistor
• For stability against through faults, relay pick up current setting is
𝐼𝑆 ≥ 𝐼𝑑
𝑅𝐶𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿𝐻
𝐼𝑆 ≥ 𝐼′
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝐶𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿𝐻 𝐹,𝑒𝑥𝑡 4.4
• Therefore, to maintain stability against through faults up to 𝐼𝐹,𝑒𝑥𝑡 , the stabilizing
resistor value must be:
𝐼′𝐹,𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝐶𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿𝐻 −1 4.5
𝐼𝑆
𝑅𝐶𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿𝐻 is the CT resistance + lead resistance on CT H; 𝐼′𝐹,𝑒𝑥𝑡 is the through fault current on
CT G secondary; 𝑅𝑅 is the stabilizing resistor against through faults; 𝐼𝑑 is current in the spill path
Differential relays in three phase connection
Fig.4.7: Layout of CTs and High impedance differential relays in 3-phase systems
𝑅𝑆𝑇 is the stabilizing resistor against through faults; 𝑅𝐴 , 𝑅𝐵 , 𝑅𝐶 relay resistances in each phase
Relay Voltage Setting Requirement
• From equation 4.4, the value of external fault for which relay remains stable can
be increased by increasing stabilizing resistor 𝑅𝑅
• However, increasing 𝑅𝑅 would result in increase in 𝑉𝑆 according to eq. 4.2 which
leads to operation of CT G near the knee-point voltage
• This would drive CT G into saturation as well
• To avoid driving the CTs into saturation, the operating or setting voltage across
the spill way must be less than half of the knee point voltage i.e.,
1
𝑉𝑆 ≤ 𝑉𝐾 4.6
2
Metrosil
• Under through fault conditions, the voltage appearing across the CT in the worst
case scenario is given as:
𝑉𝐹 = 𝐼′𝐹,𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑅𝐶𝑇 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆𝑇 + 𝑅𝑟 4.7
• Thus, the relay setting voltage must be set greater than the voltage appearing
during fault
𝑉𝑆 > 𝐼′𝐹,𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑅𝐶𝑇 + 𝑅𝐿 4.8
• The peak voltage appearing across the CT under this condition is:
𝑉𝑃 = 2 2𝑉𝐾 𝑉𝐹 − 𝑉𝐾 4.9
Metrosil
• If 𝑉𝑃 is very big, the CT insulation might
be compromised
• Therefore, as a rule of thumb, if 𝑉𝑃 >
3𝑘𝑉 a should metrosil will be connected
in parallel with the relay
• A metrosil is a non-linear resistor which
helps in reducing the peak voltage
across the CT
Fig.4.8: Metrosil units for limiting voltage across the spill path
Example 5.2
A 15 MW, 17.5 kV, 50 Hz salient-pole synchronous generator is protected by a high-impedance
differential protection scheme. The scheme uses a numerical relay with a nominal current input
of 1 A. The main current transformers (CTs) on both the neutral and line sides of the generator
have a ratio of 500/1 A, are class 5P20, and are identical in design. The CTs and their leads have
resistance 0.2 Ω and 0.05 Ω respectively. The relay resistance is 0.05 Ω.
During commissioning, a through-current test is performed. At a primary current of 500 A (rated
current), it is observed that:
• The line-side CT secondary current is exactly 1.00 A
• The neutral-side CT secondary current is 0.95 A (due to a slight manufacturing asymmetry in
the excitation curve)
The relay’s differential current setting (Is1) is configured to 10% of the relay’s nominal current
(i.e., 0.1 A), the maximum
1. Calculate the value of stabilizing resistor if the scheme is to remain stable for through-
faults up to 5000A.
2. Determine whether the metrosil is needed or not in this set up.
Percentage Differential Relay
• Simple differential protection is
made more stable by providing a
restraining torque which is
proportional to through fault
current, operating torque remains
proportional to spill current
• The restraining coils are provided in
the circulating current path on each
side of the spill path.
Fig.4.9: Percentage differential relay
Percentage Differential Relay
• The torque produced by the
restraining coil is:
2
𝑁𝑟
𝑇𝑟 = 𝑀 𝐼 + 𝐼2 4.10
2 1
• The restraining torque produced by
the spring is 𝑇𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 , thus total
restraining torque is:
2
𝑁𝑟
𝑇𝑟 = 𝑀 𝐼 + 𝐼2 + 𝑇𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 4.11
2 1
Fig.4.9: Percentage differential relay
Percentage Differential Relay
• The torque produced by the
operating coil is:
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑀 𝑁𝑜 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 2 4.12
• In order for the relay to operate,
operating torque must be greater
than restraining torque. Neglecting
string torque, for trip, we get:
𝑁𝑟 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ≥ 4.13
𝑁𝑜 2
𝑀 torque constant; 𝑁𝑟 turns on restraining coil;
𝑁𝑜 turns on operating coil Fig.4.9: Percentage differential relay
Percentage Differential Relay
𝑁𝑟 𝐼𝑑 𝐼𝐶𝑇1 − 𝐼𝐶𝑇2
• Let the ratio = 𝐾1 , then 4.13 𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏
𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐼𝑠
becomes: Operate
𝐼1 +𝐼2
𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ≥ 𝐾1 4.14 %slope
2
• Accounting for string torque eq. 4.14 𝐼𝑠 Restrain
Minimum
becomes: pick up
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 Maximum through fault 𝐼𝑓,𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ≥ 𝐾0 + 𝐾1 4.15 current (simple diff)
2
Maximum through fault current (bias
𝐾0 is the minimum pick up 𝐾1 is the slope diff)
of the percentage (bias) characteristic Fig.4.10: Percentage differential relay characteristic
Percentage Differential Relay
• To operate, the spill current must be a 𝐼𝑑 𝐼𝐶𝑇1 − 𝐼𝐶𝑇2
𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏
definite percentage of the through fault 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐼𝑠
current (hence the name)
Operate
• The percentage relay does not have a
%slope
fixed pick up value Restrain
𝐼𝑠
• The pick up varies with the level of Minimum
through fault current pick up
Maximum through fault 𝐼𝑓,𝑒𝑥𝑡
• It can be appreciated that the stability of
current (simple diff)
the percentage bias relay is substantially
Maximum through fault current (bias
higher than that of the simple differential diff)
relay
Fig.4.10: Percentage differential relay characteristic