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Introduction to Electric Circuits and Current (I): Current is the rate at Inductors: Norton’s Theorem:
Network Analysis which electric charge flows through a Any collection of batteries and
conductor, measured in amperes (A). Inductors are coils of wire that store resistances with two terminals is
Electric Circuits: One ampere is equivalent to one energy in a magnetic field when current electrically equivalent to an ideal
coulomb of charge passing through a flows through them. Inductance is current source ININ in parallel with a
An electric circuit is a path through point in one second. Current can be measured in henries (H). Inductors are single resistor RNRN.
which electric current flows. It can be as either direct (DC) or alternating (AC). used in filters, transformers, and energy Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
simple as a single loop consisting of a Basic Laws: storage applications. Maximum power is transferred from a
battery and a resistor, or as complex as Ohm's Law: Ohm's Law states that the Capacitors:Capacitors are devices that source to a load when the load
the wiring system in a building. The current through a conductor between store energy in an electric field created resistance equals the source resistance
essential components of a circuit are two points is directly proportional to between a pair of conductors. as seen from the load.
sources (like batteries and generators), the voltage across the two points. The Capacitance is measured in farads (F). Voltage and Current Division
loads (like resistors and motors), and law is usually expressed as V=IRV=IR, Capacitors are used in filters, energy Voltage Division:
conductors (like wires). where V is voltage, I is current, and R is storage, and timing applications. In a series circuit, the voltage is divided
Network Variables: resistance. Basic Concepts of DC Circuits among the resistors in proportion to
Voltage (V): Voltage, also known as Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL): DC Circuits: their resistance values. The voltage
electric potential difference, is the force KCL states that the total current Direct Current (DC) circuits involve across a resistor ViVi in a series circuit
that pushes electric charges through a entering a junction (or node) must current flowing in one direction. is given by:
conductor. It is measured in volts (V). equal the total current leaving the Sources of DC include batteries and DC Vi=Vtotal⋅RiRtotal
Voltage is analogous to the pressure in a junction. This law is based on the power supplies. Vi=Vtotal ⋅RtotalRi
water system. principle of conservation of charge.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL): KVL 5. Circuit Elements Basic Elements: Current Division:
states that the sum of all electrical Active Elements: In a parallel circuit, the current is
voltages around any closed network is Active elements are those that can Resistors: Components that oppose divided among the branches in inverse
zero. This law is based on the principle deliver or provide energy to the circuit. the flow of electric current, measured in proportion to their resistance values.
of conservation of Examples include: ohms (Ω). The current through a resistor IiIi in a
Charge (Q):Charge is a fundamental Voltage Sources: Devices that maintain Voltage Sources: Devices that provide parallel circuit is given by:
property of matter that causes it to a constant voltage, such as batteries and a fixed voltage, such as batteries. Ii=Itotal⋅RtotalRi
experience a force when placed in an power supplies. Current Sources: Devices that Ii=Itotal⋅RiRtotal
electric and magnetic field. Charge is Current Sources: Devices that provide provide a fixed current. Star-Delta Transformation
quantized and measured in coulombs a constant current, such as certain types 2. Series and Parallel Circuits Star (Y) to Delta (Δ) Transformation:
(C). The elementary charge is of electronic current sources. Conversion between star (Y) and delta
approximately Passive Elements: Series Circuits: (Δ) configurations of resistors. This is
1.602×10−191.602×10−19 coulombs. Passive elements are those that used to simplify complex resistor
Current (I): Current is the flow of consume energy. Examples include: In a series circuit, components are networks. Formulas for transformation:
electric charge. It is measured in Resistors (R): Devices that resist the connected end-to-end, so the same For RYRY to RΔRΔ:
amperes (A). There are two types of flow of electric current, converting current flows through each component. RΔ1=RY1RY2+RY2RY3+RY3RY1RY1
current: Direct Current (DC): Flows electrical energy into heat. The total resistance RtotalRtotal is the RΔ1=RY1RY1RY2+RY2RY3+RY3
in one direction. Examples include Inductors (L): Coils of wire that store sum of the individual resistances: RY1 For RΔRΔ to RYRY:
current from a battery. energy in a magnetic field when electric Rtotal=R1+R2+R3+… RY1=RΔ1RΔ2RΔ1+RΔ2+RΔ3
Alternating Current (AC): Changes current flows through them. Rtotal=R1+R2+R3+… RY1=RΔ1+RΔ2+RΔ3RΔ1RΔ2
direction periodically.
Voltage (V): Capacitors (C): Devices that store A
Parallel Circuits: . DC Transients
Voltage, or electric potential difference, energy in an electric field between their
is the energy per unit charge provided plates. In a parallel circuit, components are Transient Response in DC Circuits:
by an electric source such as a battery. 6. Active Elements connected across the same two points,
It is measured in volts (V). One volt is so the same voltage is applied to each When a sudden change occurs in a
equivalent to one joule per coulomb. Independent Sources: component. The total resistance DC circuit, such as switching on or off,
Power (P): Ideal Voltage Source: Provides a RtotalRtotal is found using the the circuit undergoes a transient period
Power is the rate at which electrical constant voltage regardless of the reciprocal sum of the individual before reaching steady-state. This
energy is transferred by an electric current drawn from it. It is an idealized resistances: involves charging or discharging
circuit. It is measured in watts (W). concept and does not exist in reality. 1Rtotal=1R1+1R2+1R3+… capacitors and the buildup or decay of
Power is calculated as P=VIP=VI, Practical Voltage Source: Has an Rtotal1=R11+R21+R31+… current in inductors.
where P is power, V is voltage, and I is internal resistance, and its output Kirchhoff’s Laws
current. voltage drops as the current increases. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): Time Constant:
Energy (E): Ideal Current Source: Provides a The algebraic sum of currents
Energy is the capacity to do work. In constant current regardless of the entering a junction equals the sum of The time constant ττ is a measure of
electrical systems, energy is typically voltage across it. It is also an idealized currents leaving the junction. the time it takes for a transient response
measured in joules (J). One joule is concept. Mathematically, to decay to a certain level. For an RC
equivalent to one watt-second. Practical Current Source: Has an ∑Iin=∑Iout circuit, τ=RCτ=RC; for an RL circuit,
internal resistance, and its current ∑Iin=∑Iout τ=LRτ=RL.
varies with the voltage. Capacitors and Inductors in DC
Circuits
4. Ohm's Law Dependent (Controlled) Sources: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): Capacitors:
Definition: Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source The algebraic sum of all voltages Capacitors store energy in an electric
Ohm's Law states that the current (I) (VCVS): The output voltage is around a closed loop equals zero. field and oppose changes in voltage. The
passing through a conductor between proportional to an input voltage. Mathematically, voltage across a charging capacitor in a
two points is directly proportional to Current-Controlled Voltage Source ∑V=0 DC circuit is given by:
the voltage (V) across the two points, (CCVS): The output voltage is ∑V=0 V(t)=V0(1−e−tτ)
with the constant of proportionality proportional to an input current. Network Theorems V(t)=V0(1−e−τt)
being the resistance (R) of the Voltage-Controlled Current Source Superposition Theorem: Inductors:
conductor. The formula is V=IRV=IR. (VCCS): The output current is In a linear circuit with multiple
Limitations: proportional to an input voltage. sources, the voltage or current for any Inductors store energy in a magnetic
Ohm's Law is not applicable to Current-Controlled Current Source element is the algebraic sum of the field and oppose changes in current.
non-linear elements like diodes and (CCCS): The output current is voltages or currents produced by each The current through an inductor in a
transistors, where the relationship proportional to an input current. source acting alone, with all other DC circuit is given by:
between voltage and current is not Passive Elements sources replaced by their internal I(t)=I0(1−e−tτ)
linear. Resistors: Resistors are devices that resistances. I(t)=I0(1−e−τt)
It is also not valid for non-metallic oppose the flow of electric current, Thevenin’s Theorem: where I0I0 is the final current and
conductors such as semiconductors. resulting in a drop in voltage. The Any linear circuit with voltage and τ=LRτ=RL.
resistance is measured in ohms (Ω). current sources and resistances can be
Resistors are used to control the current replaced at terminals A-B by an
in a circuit and to divide voltages. equivalent voltage source VthVth in
series with a resistance RthRth.