Vectors 1

ˆj

x
k̂
î
z
Fig. 0.1

Chapter

0
Vectors
Introduction of Vector (7) Orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and kˆ are called orthogonal unit
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and obeying laws of vectors. These vectors must form a Right Handed Triad (It is a coordinate
vector algebra are called vectors. system such that when we Curl the fingers of right hand from x to y then
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, we must get the direction of z along thumb). The
impulse, weight, thrust, torque, angular momentum, angular velocity etc.
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction both, then it does ˆi  x , ˆj  y , kˆ  z
not always imply that it is a vector. For it to be a vector the third condition x y z
of obeying laws of vector algebra has to be satisfied.  x  xˆi , y  yˆj , z  zkˆ
Example : The physical quantity current has both magnitude and
(8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or point of application .
direction but is still a scalar as it disobeys the laws of vector algebra.
Example displacement and force etc.
Types of Vector (9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational effects and are always
along the axis of rotation in accordance with right hand screw rule. Angular
(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be equal when they velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc., are example of physical
have equal magnitudes and same direction. quantities of this type.
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel Axial vector Axis of rotation
when
(i) Both have same direction.
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero multiple of another
vector. Anticlock wise rotation Clock wise rotation

(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be Axis of rotation Axial vector
Fig. 0.2
anti-parallel when
(10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors are called
(i) Both have opposite direction.
coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane. Two (free) vectors are always
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple of another coplanar.
vector.
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under consideration can Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors
share the same support or have a common support then the considered If two non zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a
vectors are collinear. triangle taken in same order then B
the resultant is given by the
(5) Zero vector (0 ) : A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary closing side of triangle in opposite R  AB
direction (not known to us) is a zero vector.
order. i.e. R  A  B
(6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude is a unit vector. Unit B
vector for A is A ˆ (read as A cap or A hat).  OB  OA  AB O A
A
Fig. 0.3
ˆ  A  A AA
Since, A ˆ .
(1) Magnitude of resultant
A
vector
Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the direction.
 2 Vectors

AN (2) Direction
In  ABN , cos   AN  B cos
B CN B sin
tan   
BN ON A  B cos
sin   BN  B sin
B Polygon Law of Vector Addition
In OBN , we have OB  ON  BN 2 2 2 If a number of non zero vectors are represented by the (n – 1)
B sides of an n-sided polygon then the resultant is given by the closing side or
the n side of the polygon taken in opposite order. So,
th

R
B B sin R  ABCD E
 
O A A N OA  AB  BC  CD  DE  OE
B cos D D C
2Fig. 0.4
 R  ( A  B cos  )  (B sin )
2 2

E C
 R 2  A 2  B 2 cos 2   2 AB cos   B 2 sin2 
 R 2  A 2  B 2 (cos 2   sin2  )  2 AB cos  E B

 R 2  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
R B
 R A 2  B 2  2 AB cos
O A
(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If  is angle between A and A
Note :  Resultant
Fig.of0.6
two unequal vectors can not be zero.
B, then
 Resultant of three co-planar vectors may or may not be
| A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos zero
 Resultant of three non co- planar vectors can not be
If R makes an angle  with A, then in OBN ,
zero.
BN BN
tan    Subtraction of vectors
ON OA  AN
B sin Since, A  B  A  ( B) and
tan  
A  B cos
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos

If two non zero vectors are represented by the two adjacent sides of
 | A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos (180 o   )
a parallelogram then the resultant is given by the diagonal of the
parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of the two vectors. Since, cos (180   )   cos
(1) Magnitude
Since, R 2  ON 2  CN 2  | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
 R 2  (OA  AN )2  CN 2
R sum  A  B
 R 2  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
B
 R | R | | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
B C  1
2 A
180 – 
R  AB B
B B sin
B
 

R diff  A  ( B )
O A N
A B cos Fig. 0.7
Fig. 0.5 B sin
tan 1 
Special cases : R  A  B when  = 0 o
A  B cos
R  A  B when  = 180 o

B sin(180   )
and tan  2 
A  B cos (180   )
R A 2  B 2 when  = 90 o
 Vectors 3
But sin(180   )  sin and cos(180   )   cos Ry Ry
 cos    m
R R x2  R y2  R z2
B sin
 tan  2 
A  B cos
Rz Rz
 cos    n
Resolution of Vector Into Components R R x2  R y2  R z2
Consider a vector R in X-Y plane as
Y Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the vector R and
shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal vectors
R x and R y along x and y axes respectively, R x2  R y2  R z2
l 2  m 2  n 2  cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   1
by law of vector addition, R  R x  R y
Ry R R x2  R y2  R z2


Now as for any vector A  A nˆ so, Rx
X Note : When a point P have coordinate (x, y, z)

R x  ˆi R x and R y  ˆjR y Fig. 0.8 then its position vector OP  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ
 When a particle moves from point (x , y , z ) to (x , y ,
so R  ˆi R x  ˆjRy
1 1 1 2 2

…(i) z ) then its displacement vector

2


But from figure R x  R cos  …(ii)
r  (x 2  x 1 )ˆi  (y 2  y1 )ˆj  (z 2  z1 )kˆ
and R y  R sin …(iii)
Scalar Product of Two Vectors
Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii) and (iii) give the (1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors is
defined as the product of the magnitude of two vectors with cosine of angle
magnitude of the components of R along x and y-axes respectively.
between them.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its
components, the components themselves can be used to specify the vector Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle  between
as
them, then their scalar product written as A . B is defined as A . B
(1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by squaring and  AB cos 
adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.
(2) Properties : (i) It is always a scalar B
R R x2  R y2 which is positive if angle between the vectors is
acute (i.e., < 90°) and negative if angle between

(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing equation them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< < 180°).
(iii) by (ii), i.e.
(ii) It is commutative, i.e. A . B  B . A
tan   (Ry / R x ) or   tan 1 (Ry / R x ) (iii) It is distributive, i.e.
A
Fig. 0.10

Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector A . (B  C)  A . B  A . C

R  R x  R y  R z q or R  R x ˆi  R y ˆj  R z kˆ (iv) As by definition A . B  AB cos 

Y  A. B 
The angle between the vectors   cos 1  
 AB 

(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when

R
Ry
Rx cos  max  1, i.e.   0 o , i.e., vectors are parallel

X ( A . B)max  AB
Rz

Z (vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when

Fig. 0.9 | cos  |  min  0, i.e.   90 o
If R makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis and  with z axis,
( A . B)min  0
then
i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes the vectors
Rx Rx are orthogonal.
 cos    l
R R x2  R y2  R z2 (vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self dot
product and is given by ( A)2  A . A  AA cos   A 2
 4 Vectors

i.e. A  A . A

(viii) In case of unit vector n̂

nˆ . nˆ  1  1  cos 0  1 so nˆ . nˆ  ˆi .ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  kˆ . kˆ  1

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and kˆ ,

ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . kˆ  kˆ . ˆi  1  1 cos 90  0 Fig. 0.12

(x) In terms of components The direction of A  B, i.e. C is perpendicular to the plane

A . B  (iAx  jAy  k Az ). (iBx  jBy  k Bz )  [ Ax Bx  Ay By  AZ Bz ] containing vectors A and B and in the sense of advance of a right

(3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant force work is handed screw rotated from A (first vector) to B (second vector) through
defined as, W  Fs cos  …(i) the smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed screw whose axis is
perpendicular to the plane framed by A and B is rotated from A to B
But by definition of scalar product of two vectors, F. s  Fs cos  through the smaller angle between them, then the direction of advancement
…(ii) of the screw gives the direction of A  B i.e. C
So from eq (i) and (ii) W  F.s i.e. work is the scalar product of
n

(2) Properties
force with displacement.
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a vector
(ii) Power P : perpendicular to the plane containing these two vectors, i.e., orthogonal to
dW ds both the vectors A and B, though the vectors A and B may or may
As W  F . s or  F. [As F is constant]
dt dt not be orthogonal.

or P  F . v i.e., power is the scalar product of force with (ii) Vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e.,
A  B  B  A [but   B  A]
 dW ds 
velocity.  As  P and  v 
 dt dt  Here it is worthy to note that
ds 
B
(iii) Magnetic Flux  : | A  B | | B  A |  AB sin

Magnetic flux through an area is i.e. in case of vector A  B and B  A magnitudes are equal but

given by d  B ds cos …(i) directions are opposite.
But by definition of scalar O (iii) The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors
is strictly maintained, i.e.
product B . d s  Bds cos ...(ii)
Fig. 0.11
So from eq (i) and (ii) we have
n
A  (B  C)  A  B  A  C
(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be maximum when
d  B . d s or    [Link] sin  max  1, i.e.,   90 o
(iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric dipole of moment [ A  B]max  AB nˆ
p is situated in an electric field E or a magnetic dipole of moment M
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal.
in a field of induction B, the potential energy of the dipole is given by : (v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be minimum when
U E   p . E and U B   M . B | sin |  minimum = 0, i.e.,   0 o or 180 o

Vector Product of Two Vectors [ A  B]min  0

(1) Definition : The vector product or cross product of two vectors i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, the
is defined as a vector having a magnitude equal to the product of the vectors are collinear.
magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle between them, and
direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors in (vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself
accordance with right hand screw rule. vanishes, i.e., is null vector A  A  AA sin 0 o nˆ  0

C  AB (vii) In case of unit vector nˆ  nˆ  0 so that

Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their vector product ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0

written as A  B is a vector C defined by

(viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, ˆi , ˆj, kˆ in accordance with
C  A  B  AB sin nˆ right hand screw rule :
 Vectors 5

ˆj ˆj  a  b  c …(ii)

Pre-multiplying both sides by a

k̂ a  (a  b)  a  c  0  a  b  a  c
î î
 ab  ca …(iii)
k̂
Fig. 0.13 Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by b
ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi and kˆ  ˆi  ˆj
b  (a  b)   b  c  b  a  b  b  b  c
And as cross product is not commutative,
ˆj  ˆi  kˆ , kˆ  ˆj  ˆi and ˆi  kˆ  ˆj   a  b  b  c  a  b  b  c …(iv)

(x) In terms of components From (iii) and (iv), we get a  b  b  c  c  a

ˆi ˆj kˆ Taking magnitude, we get | a  b | | b  c | | c  a |
A  B  Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz  ab sin(180   )  bc sin(180   )  ca sin(180   )

 ab sin  bc sin  ca sin 

 ˆi ( Ay Bz  Az By )  ˆj( A z B x  A x B z )  kˆ ( A x B y  A y B x )
Dividing through out by abc, we have
(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors is a vector, vector
physical quantities (particularly representing rotational effects) like torque, sin sin  sin
  
angular momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge in a magnetic field a b c
and can be expressed as the vector product of two vectors. It is well –
established in physics that : Relative Velocity
(1) Introduction : When we consider the motion of a particle, we
(i) Torque   r  F assume a fixed point relative to which the given particle is in motion. For
example, if we say that water is flowing or wind is blowing or a person is
(ii) Angular momentum L  r  p running with a speed v, we mean that these all are relative to the earth
(which we have assumed to be fixed).
(iii) Velocity v    r
Y
Y P
(iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with velocity v in a
magnetic field B is given by F  q(v  B)
r
PS '
(v) Torque on a dipole in a field  E  p  E and  B  M  B r
PS
X
S
Lami's Theorem rS ' S
S X
In any  A B C with sides a, b, c
Fig. 0.15
Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative to another
sin sin  sin moving object, consider a particle P whose position relative to frame S is
 
a b c  
rPS while relative to S  is rPS  .
180 – 

 If the position of frames S  relative to S at any time is r S S then
  
c b from figure, rPS  rPS   rS S
Differentiating this equation with respect to time
  180 – 
  
drPS drPS  drS S
180 –  a  
dt dt dt
i.e. for any triangle the ratioFig.of0.14
the sine of the angle containing the
    
side to the length of the side is a constant. or v PS  v PS   v S S [as v  d r /dt ]
For a triangle whose three sides are in the same order we establish
  
the Lami's theorem in the following manner. For the triangle shown or v PS   v PS  v S S
a  b  c  0 [All three sides are taken in order] …(i)