THEME II: SHAPING OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE

CHAPTER 2: LANDFORMS: EARTH’S LIVING CANVAS

1. INTRODUCTION: THE EARTH AS A DYNAMIC PLANET

• The Earth is a dynamic planet, constantly shaped by forces both from within and on its surface.
• Understanding the theory of plate tectonics provides a foundation for exploring how the Earth’s
lithosphere is divided into large, moving plates.
• Beneath the surface, the interior of the Earth—comprising the: crust, mantle, core,
plays a crucial role in driving tectonic movements.
• On the Earth’s surface, external forces continuously reshape the landscape:
o Weathering breaks down rocks into smaller particles.
o Erosion and agents of gradation such as: rivers, waves and ocean currents, wind, glaciers,
underground water, transport materials and form diverse landforms.
• Examples: Rivers carve valleys, Glaciers sculpt mountains, Wind shapes deserts.
• The interplay of internal and external processes gives rise to natural disasters such as: earthquakes,
landslides, avalanches, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF), dust-storms.
• Studying these phenomena helps us: understand the forces that shape the planet, mitigate their
impact on human societies.

2. PLATE TECTONICS

2.1 Meaning and Importance of Plate Tectonics

• Plate tectonics is one of the most important scientific theories in Earth science, explaining how the
Earth’s surface is constantly changing over time.
• It describes the movement of large pieces of the Earth’s outer layer, known as tectonic plates, which
move horizontally over the asthenosphere.
• These moving plates interact with one another, causing:
o earthquakes,
o volcanic eruptions,
o mountain formation,
o creation of ocean basins.
• The theory combines earlier ideas like: continental drift and seafloor spreading to explain how the
Earth’s crust has evolved for millions of years.

2.2 Theory of Plate Tectonics

• The Earth’s outer layer, called the lithosphere, is divided into large and small plates.
• These plates move over the semi-fluid layer beneath them, known as the asthenosphere.

(A) Continental Drift Theory

• Proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912.
• He suggested that all continents were once joined together in a single landmass called Pangaea and
later drifted apart.
• Evidence given by Wegener: matching coastlines, fossils, rock formations.
• Limitation: He could not explain the mechanism behind the movement.

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(B) Seafloor Spreading Theory
• Proposed by Harry Hess and Robert S. Dietz in the 1950s.
• According to this theory:
o new oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges due to volcanic activity,
o magma rises and solidifies,
o it pushes the older crust away from the ridge,
o this causes the seafloor to spread.
• This explained how continents could move over time.
• Supporting evidence:
o magnetic striping on the ocean floor.

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(C) Convection Currents in the Mantle
• Scientists believe that heat from the Earth’s core creates convection currents in the mantle.
• These currents drive the movement of tectonic plates:
o hot material rises,
o cooler material sinks,
o circular motion pushes and pulls the plates above it.

(D) Modern Plate Tectonic Theory

• Combines all earlier ideas.
• Explains movement of both: continental plates, oceanic plates.
• Describes three types of plate boundaries:
1. Divergent boundary – plates move apart
2. Convergent boundary – plates collide
3. Transform boundary – plates slide past each other
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• Helps explain:
o earthquakes,
o volcanic activity,
o mountain formation,
o ocean trench formation.

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3. INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
3.1 Layered Structure of the Earth
• The Earth has a layered structure comprising:

3.2 Crust
• The solid outer covering of the Earth which envelopes its interior portion is called the crust.
• Average thickness varies from 5 to 40 kilometres.
• Thickness is not uniform:
o thicker under the continents,
o thinner under the oceans.
• It is made up of a great variety of rocks.
• It is the most important shell of the Earth as it sustains life.
• It includes: all continents, islands, also extends under the seas.
• It is always undergoing changes.

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3.3 Mantle
• Between the crust and the core lies the mantle, a thicker layer of rocks.
• Average thickness is about 2,900 km.
• Its density increases with increasing depth.
• The crust is separated from the mantle by a boundary called the Mohorovicic Discontinuity (named
after geologist Andrija Mohorovicic).
• The mantle is divided into:
o upper mantle
o lower mantle

3.4 Core
• The innermost shell is called the core.
• Thickness is about 3,500 km.
• It is the densest layer and is made up of metals, so it is sometimes known as the metallic core.
• The core is divided into:
o outer core
o inner core

Outer Core
• Mainly composed of iron.
• It is in a liquid state.
Inner Core
• Composed of nickel and iron.
Magnetic Nature of Earth
• Scientists feel that because of the presence of these metals, the Earth acts like a magnet.

3.5 Density, Temperature and Pressure

• As we move towards the centre of the Earth, the density of different layers increases.
• Temperature rises at the rate of 1°C for every 32 metres below the Earth’s surface.
• Due to extreme temperature, rocks and metals in the inner core would melt.
• However, the inner core behaves like a solid because of the extremely high pressure of the outer shell.

4. ROLE OF WEATHERING AND EROSION; AGENTS OF GRADATION

4.1 External Processes

• Various processes constantly change the surface of the Earth.
• Some processes like: volcanic activity, earthquakes work beneath the Earth’s crust.
• Other processes like: weathering, erosion, mass movements bring changes on the Earth’s surface.
• Humans also play an important role in changing the Earth’s surface.
• External processes are natural processes that take place gradually on the surface of the Earth.
• Examples:
o weathering,
o erosion,
o mass movements.

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5. WEATHERING

5.1 Definition
• Weathering is the process by which rocks exposed on the surface get broken into smaller pieces in situ
(in the same place).

5.2 Factors Influencing Weathering

1. Change in Temperature and Pressure
• Continuous heating and cooling of rocks makes them break apart.
2. Action of Water
• Water collects in cracks and pores of rocks.
• When temperature falls, water freezes and expands.
• This widens the cracks. Over many years, rocks disintegrate into pieces.
3. Wind Loaded with Sand
• Air loaded with sand works like sandpaper.
• During storms, it abrades rock surfaces and breaks rocks into small pieces.
4. Seeds and Plant Roots
• Seeds get deposited in small holes in rocks by animals, wind or water.
• Roots grow into cracks and break rocks into pieces.
5. Animals and Humans
• Animals and humans break rocks into pieces by their mechanical actions.

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5.3 Major Types of Weathering
There are three main types of weathering:
1. Physical Weathering
2. Chemical Weathering
3. Biological Weathering

5.4 Physical Weathering

• When disintegration of rocks takes place without any change in chemical composition, it is called
physical weathering.
(A) Exfoliation
• During the day, outer layers of rocks expand due to heating by the sun.
• At night, temperature falls quickly and outer layers contract.
• As a result, outer parts of rocks loosen and break away.
• This peeling of outer layers is called exfoliation.
• It is common in granitic rocks.
(B) Frost Action
• In cold lands, water in rock cracks freezes and expands.
• When ice melts, contraction occurs.
• Repeated expansion and contraction develop cracks.
• Water enters these cracks, freezes again and exerts force.
• Cracks widen and rocks break into pieces.
• This is called frost-action.
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5.5 Chemical Weathering
• Due to chemical reaction of water or air, certain portions of rocks dissolve, producing features like:
cavities, sinkholes, caverns.
• This is called chemical weathering.
• Soluble minerals such as: rock-salt, limestone, sandstone dissolve in water and are removed from their
original place.
• The gaps that develop make the rocks tumble and disintegrate under their own weight.

5.6 Biological Weathering

• Animals and plants play an important role in breaking up rocks. Plants grow in rocks and their roots
cause cracks and break them.
• Roots also produce acidic juices which cut into the rock material and slowly break rocks.
• Burrowing animals like: rabbits, rats.

6. EROSION

6.1 Definition
• Erosion is the act of carrying away weathered particles from one place to another.
Agents of Erosion: Rivers, Rainwater, Glaciers, Waves, Winds

6.2 Characteristics of Erosion

• Like weathering, erosion takes place almost everywhere and all the time. Sometimes it is slow; at
other times it is more prominent.

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6.3 Factors Affecting Rate of Erosion
The rate and ratio of erosion depend upon:
1. Rainfall at a place
2. Temperature
3. Slope of the land
4. Type of the soil
5. Presence of vegetation cover
6. Change in land use pattern

6.4 Long-Term Effect of Weathering and Erosion

• These processes have continued over millions and millions of years.
• They have changed the shape of: mountains, hills, plateaus, plains.

7. MASS MOVEMENTS
7.1 Meaning: Mass movements bring changes in the Earth’s surface. They are caused by gravity, which pulls
materials downward.
7.2 Areas Where Common: Mountainous regions such as: Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir.
7.3 Effects: Loose rock masses slide down slopes causing: environmental hazards, loss of human lives, damage
to property.

7.4 Types of Mass Movements

1. Landslide: When dry soil and rock pieces move down a steep slope, it is called a landslide.
2. Earth Flow: When rock materials like clay and silt, saturated with water, move down a gentle slope, it is
called an earth flow.
3. Mud Flow: When water-saturated rock debris move down channels on steep hillsides, it is called a mud-
flow.

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8. AGENTS OF DENUDATION / DEGRADATION

8.1 Meaning of Denudation

• Denudation literally means making open or bare.
8.2 Agents of Denudation
1. Rivers
2. Rainwater
3. Ice or Glaciers
4. Sea waves
5. Winds

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8.3 Rivers
• Rivers transport huge quantities of broken rocks from mountains to lowlands.
• They erode land into: gorges, valleys, etc.

8.4 Rainwater
• Some rainwater seeps underground through fissures or pores in rocks.
• Underground water has been used by man by digging wells.
• In hilly areas, underground water may reappear as springs.

8.5 Ice or Glaciers

• Moving mass of ice on mountains is known as glaciers.
• When they melt along their edges, they give birth to rivers.
• They erode V-shaped valleys into U-shaped valleys.

8.6 Sea Waves

• Sea waves cause erosion of the coast.
• They also deposit material along the shore when they recede.
• Their work includes: erosion, transportation, deposition.

8.7 Winds
• Wind action is most significant in desert areas such as: Thar Desert in Rajasthan, Sahara in Africa.
• Winds remove dry particles of dust or sand very easily.

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9. ROLE OF HUMANS IN CHANGING THE LAND SURFACE

Man plays a vital role in changing land surfaces and is responsible for land degradation in many ways:
• By cutting trees indiscriminately, land turns into wasteland.
• Indiscriminate building activities swallow land and degrade surrounding land.
• Dirty and poisonous factory effluents degrade surrounding lands and render them waste.
• Dumping city waste on land leads to its degradation.

10. WORK OF THE RIVER AS AN AGENT OF EROSION AND DEPOSITION

10.1 Three Stages of a River Course
1. Upper Course / Mountain Stage
2. Middle Course / Plain Stage
3. Lower Course / Delta Stage

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10.2 Upper Course / Mountain Stage
• Slope is generally very steep.
• River water rushes down with great speed.
• The river: erodes sides and bed, carries stones and rock fragments.
• Main work: erosion, transportation
Landforms formed
• Gorges, V-shaped valleys, Waterfalls, Rapids
Gorge
• A narrow valley with steep walls is called a gorge.

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V-shaped Valley
• When a river flows through soft rocks and heavy rainfall occurs, sides are easily eroded.
• This creates widened valleys called V-shaped valleys.
Waterfall
• A waterfall is a sudden descent of water over a big vertical step formed in a river bed.
• Examples: Niagara Falls, Victoria Falls, Highest: Angel Falls in Venezuela (about 980 metres high)
Rapids and Cascades
• Rapids form where the river bed is sloping and rocky with many up and down curves.
• Water jumps over and falls continuously.
• A series of rapids, big or small, are called cascades.
• River in this stage is not useful for navigation.

10.3 Middle Course / Plain Stage

• Slope becomes gradual. River slows down.
• River becomes fit for: navigation, irrigation.
Flood Plains
• When the river overflows its bank, it deposits alluvial sediments on both sides. This forms flood plains.
• Flood plains are very fertile.
Meanders
• In flat plains, irregularities force the river to swing from side to side.
• Big loops formed are called meanders.
Human Use
• Many towns grow near river banks during this stage.

10.4 Lower Course / Delta Stage

• This is the last stage before the river merges into the sea. Speed slows down further.
• It becomes difficult to carry sediments. Therefore, deposition begins rapidly.
• The river bed rises.
• River divides into many channels called distributaries before entering the sea.
• This forms deltas, which contain alluvium and are therefore very fertile.

11. COMPARISON OF MOUNTAIN GLACIERS AND CONTINENTAL GLACIERS

11.1 Mountain Glaciers

• Move down from mountain tops along valleys.
• Move slowly because the valley floor retards movement.
• Melt along edges and give birth to rivers.
• Rivers Ganga and Yamuna rise due to melting of mountain glaciers.
• Erode V-shaped valleys into U-shaped valleys.
11.2 Continental Glaciers
• Comparatively bigger in size and slower in movement.
• Occupy large areas exceeding thousands of square kilometres.
• Thick ice sheets covering the entire land surface.
• Generally occur in Polar Regions.

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12. MAJOR LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH

12.1 Introduction
• The Earth’s surface is neither even nor regular.
• It gives rise to landforms such as: mountains, plateaus, plains.

12.2 Mountains
Definition
• A mountain is a high landmass with sharply sloping surfaces.
• It is considerably higher than surrounding areas.
Occurrence
• Mountains usually occur in chains or ranges extending over hundreds of kilometres.
Young Mountains
• Very high with pointed peaks.
• Examples: Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies
Old Mountains
• Low in height with rounded tops due to erosion by wind and water over thousands of years.
• Examples: Aravalli, Appalachian
Types of Mountains
1. Fold Mountains
2. Block Mountains
3. Volcanic Mountains

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Fold Mountains
• Created due to internal movements in the Earth.
• Cooling and contracting of molten magma causes the crust to fold.
• Elevated parts become mountains; depressions become valleys.
• Examples: Himalayas, Alps, Appalachians, Ural Mountains
Block Mountains
• Created when large masses of land are broken and displaced vertically.
• Examples: Rhine valley, Vosges mountain
Volcanic Mountains
• Formed due to volcanic activity.
• Examples: Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mount Fujiyama

Life in Mountain Regions

• Hard and rocky terrain makes life difficult.
• Difficult to construct: roads, railway lines.
• Climate is harsh.
• Therefore, few people reside there.

12.3 Plateaus
Definition
• A plateau is a broad and more or less level stretch of upland that rises sharply above neighbouring
lowland.
• Also called a tableland.
Characteristics
• Surface is not always smooth.
• Generally rugged and rocky.
Examples
• Deccan Plateau
• Tibet Plateau (highest in the world; called “Roof of the World”)

Distribution
• Large plateaus occur in:
o Africa
o Australia
o Asia
o North America
o South America

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Importance
• Plateau land is generally rich in mineral deposits.

Life in Plateau Regions

• Land is not smooth.
• Hinders laying of: roads, railways, canals.
• Therefore, these areas are not much populated.

12.4lains
Definition
• A plain is a relatively flat and low-lying vast expanse of land.
Characteristics
• Some plains are extremely level.
• Others may be rolling or undulating.
Formation
• Most plains are formed by major rivers and their tributaries, which deposit: silt, stones, sand
along their courses.

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Examples: Great Northern Plain of India (formed by the river Ganga and tributaries), H wang-Ho Plain in China,
Nile Valley Plain in Egypt
Importance
• Of all landforms, plains are most suitable for human habitation.
• Plains formed by river deposits are very fertile.
• Therefore, they are thickly populated.

13. NATURAL DISASTERS AND LANDFORMS

13.1 Meaning of Natural Disasters

• Natural disasters are powerful events caused by natural processes of the Earth that can lead to
widespread destruction, loss of life, damage to environment and property.
• They occur due to various geological and climatic factors and often strike without warning.
• Examples:
o earthquakes,
o landslides,
o avalanches,
o GLOFs,
o dust storms.
• These may be triggered by: tectonic movements, heavy rainfall, rapid snowmelt, climate change,
strong winds.
• Understanding them is important for: disaster preparedness, risk reduction, effective management.

14. EARTHQUAKES

14.1 Definition
• A sudden shaking of the Earth is the result of instability and sudden release of energy.

• An earthquake causes trembling of: buildings, trees, poles, dams, etc.

14.2 Onset Type and Warning

• Earthquakes are regarded as a “sudden-onset hazard”.

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 • Humans have not yet invented any instrument that can predict the sudden outburst of this energy
accurately.
• Over 1 million earthquakes occur at any time of the year in any part of the world, including oceans.
• Underwater earthquakes generate tsunamis.

14.3 Vulnerability
• Settlements along geological fault-lines are most vulnerable to: earthquakes, landslides, floods due to
breach of river banks or dams.
• Vulnerability depends on:
o density of settlements,
o soil and rock types,
o geology of the area,
o steepness of slope,
o type of structures.

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14.4 Typical Effects
• Panic
• Collapse of buildings, cracks in ground, roads, bridges, walls, tanks, dams
• Public health hazards, disruption of civic services
• Disruption of economic activities
• Fire due to inflammable substances

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14.5 Mitigation Strategies
Structural Mitigation
• Engineered structures should be designed to withstand ground shaking.
• Soil type must be analysed before construction.
• Structures should not be built on soft soil.
Non-Structural Mitigation
• Public awareness and education.
• Information through: radio, television, newspapers.
• Public should know: real causes, how waves are recorded, do’s and don’ts, geology and risks of the
area.
• Sensitization of: engineers, architects, doctors, government functionaries, bankers, financiers.

15. LANDSLIDES

15.1 Definition
• A landslide is a sudden movement of masses of rock, earth or debris down mountain slopes or river
banks under their own weight.
15.2 Areas: Common in: Himalayas, Western Ghats, North Eastern region in India.

15.3 Causes: Heavy rains, Heavy snowfall, Earthquakes, Floods, Volcanoes

15.4 Warning
• Most landslides occur without prior warning. Prediction is difficult.
• High-risk areas can be determined using: geology, hydrology, vegetation cover, past occurrence.
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15.5 Mitigation
Structural: Drainage correction, Engineered structures, Retaining walls, Restoration of vital lifelines, Building
bylaws and codes, Vegetation cover / afforestation
Non-Structural: Land-use practices, Hazard mapping, Awareness generation

Landslide retaining walls

16. AVALANCHES

16.1 Definition
• An avalanche is a sudden and rapid flow of snow, ice, and sometimes rocks down a mountain slope.
16.2 Causes: Heavy snowfall, Weak snow layers, Temperature changes, Steep slopes (30° to 45°), Human
activities, Earthquakes or vibrations

16.3 Mitigation
1. Monitoring and early warning systems
2. Controlled avalanches
3. Protective structures
4. Land use planning
5. Afforestation
6. Public awareness and training
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17. GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD (GLOF)

17.1 Definition
• A GLOF is a sudden and massive release of water from a glacial lake.
• These lakes form when melting glaciers accumulate water behind natural dams made of ice, loose rock
debris.
17.2 Areas of Occurrence
• Common in: Himalayas, Andes, other glacier-fed areas.
•

17.3 Causes: Melting of glaciers, Ice avalanches or landslides, Earthquakes, Heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt

17.4 Mitigation
1. Regular monitoring and risk assessment
2. Early warning systems
3. Controlled drainage
4. Strengthening natural dams
5. Land use planning
6. Community awareness and preparedness

18. DUST STORMS

18.1 Definition
• Dust storms are severe environmental disasters that occur when strong winds lift large amounts of
dust and sand from dry, bare soil into the atmosphere.
• They reduce visibility and affect: human life, agriculture, infrastructure, environment.
18.2 Effects
• Respiratory problems: asthma, bronchitis, eye infections.
• Disrupt transportation.
• Damage crops, degrade soil fertility.
• Contaminate water sources.
• Contribute to air pollution and climate change.

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18.3 Causes
Natural Causes: Prolonged drought, High temperatures, Strong winds, Sparse vegetation cover
Human-Induced Causes: Deforestation, Overgrazing, Poor agricultural practices, Urbanization, Excessive land
clearing, Climate change

18.4 Mitigation
• Afforestation and reforestation
• Sustainable land management
• Early warning systems
• Improved weather forecasting
• Public awareness campaigns
• Regional cooperation
• Sustainable environmental practices
• Disaster preparedness strategies

19. CONCLUSION

• The Earth’s surface is continuously shaped by internal forces such as plate tectonics and external
forces such as weathering, erosion, and mass movements.
• These processes create major landforms like: mountains, plateaus, plains and also cause natural
disasters like: earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, GLOFs, dust storms.
• Understanding these processes helps in:
o learning how landforms are formed,
o disaster preparedness,
o risk reduction,
o protecting life and property.

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