Samacheer Kalvi Class 12 Physics

Unit 4: Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current

Long Answer Questions and Explanations

Q1. Establish that relative motion between a coil and a magnet induces an emf.
Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed coil changes, an emf is induced and a current flows in the circuit.
This can be shown in two ways.
Experiment 1 (magnet and coil): When a bar magnet is moved toward a stationary coil, the flux through the coil
increases, and a transient current flows in one direction (detected by a galvanometer). When the magnet is pulled
away, the flux decreases, and the current reverses direction. The current appears only while there is relative motion,
confirming that a changing flux — not a static field — produces the emf.
Experiment 2 (two coils): A primary coil P is connected to a battery through a switch, and a secondary coil S is
connected to a galvanometer. Closing the switch causes the primary current (and hence its magnetic field) to build
up, so the flux through S increases and a momentary current appears in S. Once the primary current becomes steady,
the flux stops changing and the secondary current vanishes. Opening the switch causes the reverse transient. Both
experiments show that a deflection appears only when there is a change in flux, confirming electromagnetic
induction.

Q2. Illustrate how Lenz's law is used to find the direction of induced current.
Illustration 1 — sliding rod: A rectangular frame ABCD lies in a uniform field directed into the page, with arm AB
free to slide. If AB slides right, the enclosed area and hence the flux increases; the induced current opposes this
increase by setting up a field out of the page inside the loop, which by the right-hand rule means the current flows
anticlockwise. If AB slides left, flux decreases, and the induced current flows clockwise to oppose the decrease.
Illustration 2 — bar magnet and solenoid: As the north pole of a bar magnet approaches a solenoid, flux through the
solenoid increases. By Lenz's law, the induced current must oppose the approaching magnet, so the near end of the
solenoid becomes a north pole (repelling the magnet). When the magnet is withdrawn, the near end becomes a south
pole to attract it and oppose the motion. In each case the current direction is worked out from the pole that must
form, using the right-hand rule.

Q3. Show that Lenz's law follows from conservation of energy.

● Moving a magnet toward or away from a coil produces an induced current in a direction that opposes the
motion (Lenz's law).
● An external agent must therefore do work against this opposing force; that mechanical work is converted
into electrical energy and then into heat in the coil — energy simply changes form.
● If the induced current instead aided the motion (the opposite of Lenz's law), a small push would make the
magnet accelerate on its own, generating current — and therefore energy — with no external input.
● That would be a perpetual motion machine, which is impossible, so the induced current must oppose the
change that produces it. This confirms Lenz's law is consistent with energy conservation.

Q4. Derive motional emf using the Lorentz force.

Consider a conducting rod AB of length l moving with constant velocity v to the right, perpendicular to a uniform
field B directed into the page. Free electrons in the rod move with the rod, so each feels a magnetic (Lorentz) force F
= -e(v × B), which pushes electrons toward end A. This accumulation of charge sets up an electric field E inside the
rod directed from B to A, which exerts an opposing electric force on the electrons.
Equilibrium is reached when the electric force balances the magnetic force: eE = evB, so E = vB. The potential
difference across the rod is V = El = Blv. Since this potential difference arises from the rod's motion, it is called the
motional emf: ε = Blv.
Q5. Derive motional emf from Faraday's law.
Consider a rectangular conducting loop of width l, partly inside a uniform field B directed into the page. Let x be the
length of the loop still inside the field, so the enclosed area is lx and the flux is ΦB = Blx. When the loop is pulled
out with constant velocity v, x decreases with time, so the flux decreases.
By Faraday's law, the induced emf is ε = dΦB/dt = Bl(dx/dt) = Blv, where v = dx/dt is the loop's velocity. This
matches the motional emf obtained from the Lorentz-force approach, showing the two methods are consistent.

Q6. Give the uses of eddy (Foucault) currents.

Induction stove: A coil beneath the cooking zone carries high-frequency AC, producing an alternating magnetic
field that induces strong eddy currents in the (magnetic) cooking pan. Resistive heating of these eddy currents cooks
the food quickly and efficiently.
Eddy current brakes: Used in high-speed trains and roller coasters. Electromagnets near the rails (or a disc attached
to a wheel) induce eddy currents when the brake is applied; these currents oppose the relative motion, slowing the
vehicle without mechanical contact.
Eddy current testing: An AC-carrying coil is brought near a test specimen, inducing eddy currents in it. Surface
cracks, voids, or other defects change the phase and amplitude of these eddy currents, revealing flaws non-
destructively.
Electromagnetic damping: In galvanometers, the coil is wound on a metal frame. Eddy currents induced as the coil
moves oppose its motion, damping oscillations so the pointer settles quickly at the correct reading.

Q7. Define self-inductance in terms of (i) flux and (ii) induced emf.
(i) In terms of flux: Self-inductance L of a coil is the flux linkage (NΦB) per unit current through it: L = NΦB / i.
Equivalently, L is numerically equal to the flux linkage produced when a current of 1 A flows through the coil.
(ii) In terms of emf: When the current changes with time, a self-induced emf appears, given by ε = -L(di/dt), so L = -
ε / (di/dt). The negative sign shows this emf always opposes the change in current. If di/dt = 1 A/s, then L = -ε, so L
can also be defined as the opposing emf induced when the current changes at 1 A per second.

Q8. How is the unit of inductance defined?

● Inductance is a scalar quantity with SI unit weber per ampere (Wb A⁻¹), also called the henry (H): 1 H = 1
Wb A⁻¹ = 1 V·s·A⁻¹.
● Its dimensional formula is M L² T⁻² A⁻².
● If a current of 1 A produces a flux linkage of 1 Wb-turn, the inductance is 1 H.
● Equivalently, if a current changing at 1 A/s induces an opposing emf of 1 V, the inductance is 1 H.

Q9. What is the physical significance of self-inductance?

Self-inductance is the coil's flux linkage per unit current, and it governs the self-induced emf ε = -L(di/dt) that
appears whenever current changes.
Physical significance: when a circuit is switched on, the growing current induces an emf that opposes the growth
(delaying the current from reaching its final value instantly). When the circuit is switched off, the decaying current
induces an emf that opposes the decay (keeping current flowing briefly). In both cases, inductance resists any
change in current and tends to preserve the existing state — much like inertia resists a change in velocity in
mechanics.

Q10. Derive the self-inductance of a long solenoid.

Consider a long solenoid of length l, cross-sectional area A, and n turns per unit length, carrying current i. The
magnetic field inside is essentially uniform: B = μ₀ n i.
The flux through each turn is ΦB = BA = μ₀ n i A. With total turns N = nl, the total flux linkage is NΦB = (nl)(μ₀ n
i A) = μ₀ n² A l i.
Since NΦB = Li by definition of self-inductance, comparing gives L = μ₀ n² A l. This shows L depends only on the
solenoid's geometry (turn density, area, length) and the medium inside. If the core has relative permeability μr, then
L = μ₀ μr n² A l.

Q11. How much energy is stored in an inductor carrying current i?

As current builds up in an inductor, the induced emf ε = -L(di/dt) opposes the growth, so work must be done against
it. Let dW be the work done in moving charge dq = i·dt against this opposition: dW = -ε·dq = -ε·i·dt = L i (di/dt) dt
= Li di.
Integrating from 0 to the final current i gives the total work done, which is stored as magnetic potential energy in the
inductor: UB = (1/2) L i².

Q12. Show that mutual inductance between a pair of coils is the same in both directions (M12 = M21).
When current i1 flows in coil 1, part of its flux Φ21 links coil 2 (with N2 turns). The total flux linkage in coil 2,
N2Φ21, is proportional to i1: N2Φ21 = M21 i1, where M21 is the mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1
— numerically the flux linkage in coil 2 per unit current in coil 1.
When i1 changes with time, an emf is induced in coil 2: ε2 = -M21(di1/dt). Similarly, if current i2 in coil 2 changes,
an emf ε1 = -M12(di2/dt) is induced in coil 1, where M12 is defined analogously.
It can be shown (using the energy stored in the coupled system, or reciprocity of the Biot-Savart/flux-linkage
calculation) that M21 = M12 = M for a given pair of coils. In general, M depends on the size, shape, number of
turns, relative orientation of the coils, and the permeability of the surrounding medium.

Q13. How is emf induced by changing the area enclosed by a coil?

Consider a conducting rod of length l sliding with velocity v on a rectangular conducting frame, the whole system in
a uniform field B directed into the page. As the rod moves a distance v·dt in time dt, the enclosed area decreases, so
the flux decreases.
The change in flux is dΦB = B × (area swept) = B·l·(v·dt), so dΦB/dt = Blv. The induced emf is therefore ε = Blv
— the same motional emf derived earlier, now viewed as arising from a changing enclosed area rather than a
moving charge. The current direction is clockwise, as given by Fleming's right-hand rule.

Q14. Show that rotating a coil in a magnetic field over one full rotation generates one cycle of alternating emf.
Consider a rectangular coil of N turns and area A rotating with angular velocity ω about an axis perpendicular to a
uniform field B. At t = 0, take the coil's plane perpendicular to B, so the flux is maximum, Φm = BA.
After rotating through angle θ = ωt, the component of flux normal to the coil is Φm cos ωt, so the flux linkage is
NΦm cos ωt. By Faraday's law, the induced emf is ε = -d/dt(NΦm cos ωt) = NΦm ω sin ωt.
The maximum emf occurs at θ = 90°, giving εm = NΦmω = NBAω. So the induced emf at any instant is ε = εm sin
ωt — a sine function of time. Over one complete rotation, ωt goes from 0 to 2π, and ε traces exactly one full sine
cycle, which is why coil rotation produces sinusoidal (alternating) emf.

Q15. Describe the standard construction of an AC generator (alternator).

An alternator has two main parts: the stator (stationary) and the rotor (rotating). In commercial machines, the
armature winding — where emf is generated — is mounted on the stator, and the field magnet is on the rotor.
Stator: consists of the stator frame (outer housing providing support and ventilation), the stator core (a laminated
hollow cylinder, usually iron or steel alloy, laminated to reduce eddy-current loss, with slots cut on the inner
surface), and the armature winding (coils placed in these slots, either as single-layer or double-layer windings).
Rotor: carries the field windings, magnetized by a DC source fed through slip rings and brushes. Two common rotor
types exist: the salient-pole rotor, which has projecting poles and is used in low-speed alternators, and the cylindrical
(non-salient) rotor, a smooth solid cylinder with slots along its length, used in high-speed alternators. The frequency
of the generated emf is proportional to rotor speed, so the rotor speed is kept constant to maintain a steady output
frequency.

Q16. Explain the working of a single-phase AC generator with a diagram.

In a single-phase alternator, all armature conductors are connected in series to form one circuit generating a single
alternating emf. In a simplified two-slot version, conductors PQ and RS form a single rectangular loop PQRS on the
stator, while a two-pole rotor carries the field winding.
As the field magnet rotates (say clockwise), the flux through PQRS changes continuously. When the field is
perpendicular to the loop's plane, the induced emf is zero. As the field magnet rotates 90°, the field becomes parallel
to the loop plane and the induced emf reaches its maximum value (found using Fleming's right-hand rule, applied to
the conductor as seen relative to the rotating field).
After 180° rotation, the emf returns to zero; after 270°, it reaches a maximum again but in the opposite direction;
and after 360° it returns to zero, completing one full cycle. Plotting emf against the rotation angle traces a sine
curve, confirming the output is alternating (sinusoidal) with a frequency set by the rotor's rotational speed.

Q17. How are three separate emfs generated in a three-phase AC generator? Describe their phase
relationship.
A generator that produces more than one alternating emf is called a poly-phase generator; with three separate coils
producing three separate emfs, it is a three-phase generator.
In a simplified construction, the stator core has six slots, spaced 60° apart, with six armature conductors. Conductors
1 and 4 form coil 1, conductors 3 and 6 form coil 2, and conductors 5 and 2 form coil 3 — so the three coils are
physically 120° apart around the stator.
As the field magnet rotates, each coil generates a sinusoidal emf, but because the coils are 120° apart in position,
each coil's cycle is delayed relative to the previous one: emf ε1 in coil 1 starts its cycle first, ε2 in coil 2 starts after
the field has rotated a further 120°, and ε3 in coil 3 starts after 240°. The three emfs are therefore identical in shape
and frequency but mutually displaced by 120° in phase — this is the basis of three-phase power generation and
distribution.

Q18. Explain the construction and working of a transformer.

Principle: A transformer works on mutual induction — a changing current in one coil induces an emf in a
neighbouring coil.
Construction: Two coils of high mutual inductance are wound on the same laminated core (usually silicon steel, to
reduce energy loss). The coil connected to the input AC source is the primary (P); the coil from which output is
drawn is the secondary (S). The coils are electrically insulated from each other but magnetically coupled through the
core.
Working: An alternating voltage applied to the primary sets up an alternating flux in the core. Assuming no flux
leakage, the same changing flux links both coils, inducing emfs εp and εs in the primary and secondary respectively,
proportional to their turns Np and Ns: εp ≈ -Np(dΦ/dt), εs = -Ns(dΦ/dt). For an ideal transformer, Vs/Vp = Ns/Np =
Ip/Is = K, the transformation ratio.
If Ns > Np (K > 1), the secondary voltage is higher and current lower — a step-up transformer. If Ns < Np (K < 1),
the secondary voltage is lower and current higher — a step-down transformer.

Q19. What are the various energy losses in a transformer?

Transformers have no moving parts, so their efficiency is generally higher than rotating machines, but some energy
is still lost through the following mechanisms.
Core (iron) loss: Repeated magnetization and demagnetization of the core by the alternating primary voltage causes
hysteresis loss (dissipated as heat), minimized by using high-silicon steel for the core. The alternating flux also
induces eddy currents in the core itself, causing eddy-current loss, minimized by laminating the core into thin,
insulated sheets.
Copper loss: The resistance of the winding wires causes I²R (Joule) heating as current flows through them; this is
reduced by using thicker wires (lower resistance).
Flux leakage: If not all the primary's flux links the secondary, some magnetic energy is lost; this is reduced by
winding the coils one over the other for tighter magnetic coupling.

Q20. Explain the advantage of AC for long-distance power transmission, with a worked example.
Electric power generated at power stations (often far from consumers) is transmitted over long distances through
transmission lines. A fraction of this power is inevitably lost as heat (I²R) in the resistance of these lines.
This loss can be reduced either by lowering the resistance R (using thicker conducting wires — expensive and often
impractical) or by lowering the current I. Since AC can be stepped up and down easily using transformers, power is
transmitted at a high voltage and correspondingly low current (P = VI, so for fixed P, high V means low I),
drastically cutting I²R losses. At the receiving end, a step-down transformer restores a safe, usable voltage for
consumers.
Worked example: For 2 MW of power sent through lines of resistance 40 Ω — at 10 kV, the current is I = P/V = 200
A, giving a power loss of I²R = 1.6 × 10⁶ W, i.e. 80% loss. At 100 kV, the current drops to 20 A, giving a loss of I²R
= 1.6 × 10⁴ W, only about 0.8% loss. This dramatic reduction illustrates why power is transmitted at high voltage.

Q21. Find the phase relationship between voltage and current in a purely inductive AC circuit.
For a pure inductor L connected to an alternating source υ = Vm sin ωt, applying Kirchhoff's voltage law
(accounting for the back-emf L(di/dt)) gives L(di/dt) = Vm sin ωt. Integrating: i = -(Vm/Lω) cos ωt = (Vm/Lω)
sin(ωt - π/2), taking the integration constant as zero since only the time-varying part is physically relevant.
Writing Im = Vm/(Lω) as the peak current, i = Im sin(ωt - π/2). Comparing with υ = Vm sin ωt shows the current
lags the voltage by π/2 (90°) in a purely inductive circuit — confirmed by both the phasor diagram and the
waveform plot.
Inductive reactance: Comparing Im = Vm/(Lω) with the resistive-circuit form Im = Vm/R shows that ωL plays the
role of an effective resistance, called inductive reactance XL = ωL = 2πfL, measured in ohms. For steady DC (f = 0),
XL = 0, so an ideal inductor offers no opposition to a constant current.

Q22. Derive an expression for the phase angle between voltage and current in a series RLC circuit.
For a series RLC circuit with an alternating source υ = Vm sin ωt, let i be the resulting current. The voltage across R
is in phase with i; across L it leads i by π/2; across C it lags i by π/2.
Using a phasor diagram with current as reference: the phasors for VR, VL, and VC are drawn accordingly, and since
VL and VC are opposite in phase, the net reactive voltage is (VL - VC). Combining VR and (VL - VC) using the
parallelogram law gives the resultant voltage amplitude: Vm = Im√[R² + (XL - XC)²], where Z = √[R² + (XL -
XC)²] is the impedance of the circuit.
The phase angle φ between voltage and current satisfies tan φ = (XL - XC)/R.
● If XL > XC: φ is positive — voltage leads current (or current lags voltage); the circuit behaves as inductive.
● If XL < XC: φ is negative — current leads voltage; the circuit behaves as capacitive.
● If XL = XC: φ = 0 — voltage and current are in phase; the circuit behaves as purely resistive.

Q23. Define inductive and capacitive reactance, with their units.

Inductive reactance (XL): the effective opposition offered by an inductor to alternating current, XL = ωL = 2πfL,
measured in ohms. It increases with frequency.
Capacitive reactance (XC): the effective opposition offered by a capacitor to alternating current, XC = 1/(ωC) =
1/(2πfC), also measured in ohms. It decreases with increasing frequency, and becomes infinite for DC (f = 0),
showing that a capacitor blocks steady current.

Q24. Derive an expression for the average power in an AC circuit over a cycle, and discuss special cases.
For υ = Vm sin ωt and i = Im sin(ωt + φ), the instantaneous power is P = υi = VmIm sin ωt sin(ωt + φ) = VmIm(cos
φ sin²ωt - sin ωt cos ωt sin φ).
Averaging over a complete cycle, the mean of sin²ωt is 1/2 and the mean of sin ωt cos ωt is zero, giving Pav = (1/2)
VmIm cos φ = VRMS IRMS cos φ, where cos φ is called the power factor and VRMS IRMS is the apparent power.
This Pav is the true (average) power delivered to the circuit.
● Purely resistive circuit: φ = 0, cos φ = 1, so Pav = VRMS IRMS (maximum power transfer for given RMS
values).
 ● Purely inductive or capacitive circuit: φ = ±π/2, cos φ = 0, so Pav = 0 (no net energy is consumed over a
cycle).
● General series RLC circuit: φ = tan⁻¹[(XL - XC)/R], so Pav = VRMS IRMS cos φ.
● Series RLC circuit at resonance: φ = 0, cos φ = 1, so Pav = VRMS IRMS.

Q25. Show that total energy is conserved during LC oscillations.

In an LC circuit, energy oscillates between the capacitor's electric field and the inductor's magnetic field, but the
total energy U = q²/(2C) + (1/2)Li² remains constant throughout, since no resistance dissipates energy.
Case 1 — charge maximum, current zero (q = Qm, i = 0): U = Qm²/(2C), entirely electrical (stored in the capacitor).
Case 2 — charge zero, current maximum (q = 0, i = Im): U = (1/2)LIm², entirely magnetic (stored in the inductor).
Case 3 — general instant (charge q, current i, with q = Qm cos ωt and i = -Qmω sin ωt): substituting into U =
q²/(2C) + (1/2)Li² and using ω² = 1/(LC), the expression simplifies back to the constant value Qm²/(2C) for every
instant t. This confirms that although energy continuously shifts between the capacitor and the inductor, the total
remains fixed — LC oscillations conserve energy.

Q26. Prove that energy is conserved during electromagnetic induction (LC circuit vs spring-mass analogy).
The total mechanical energy of a spring-mass system is E = (1/2)mv² + (1/2)kx², and since E is constant,
differentiating with respect to time gives m(dv/dt) + kx = 0 — the equation of simple harmonic motion, with general
solution x(t) = Xm cos(ωt + φ).
The electromagnetic energy of an LC system is analogously U = (1/2)Li² + q²/(2C). Since U is likewise constant (no
resistive loss), differentiating with respect to time gives L(di/dt) + q/C = 0 — the same form of differential equation
as the mechanical oscillator, confirming that the LC circuit's energy is conserved in exactly the same mathematical
sense as the spring-mass system's mechanical energy.

Q27. Compare LC electromagnetic oscillations with spring-mass mechanical oscillations to find the LC
oscillator's angular frequency.
The spring-mass differential equation, m(d²x/dt²) + kx = 0, has solution x(t) = Xm cos(ωt + φ) with ω = √(k/m). The
analogous LC equation, L(d²q/dt²) + q/C = 0, has the same mathematical form, with charge q playing the role of
displacement x, inductance L playing the role of mass m, and 1/C playing the role of spring constant k.
By direct correspondence, the charge oscillates as q(t) = Qm cos(ωt + φ), and differentiating gives the current i(t) =
dq/dt = -Qmω sin(ωt + φ) = -Im sin(ωt + φ), where Im = Qmω — showing the current is itself sinusoidal with the
same angular frequency ω.
Substituting q(t) back into the LC differential equation and simplifying gives the angular frequency of LC
oscillations: ω = 1/√(LC), matching the result obtained from the qualitative analogy with the spring-mass system.