Protective relays:

• Protective relaying is necessary with almost every part of the power system and
no part of the power system is left unprotected.
• A protective relay is a device that detects the fault or abnormal operating
conditions and actuates the operation of the CB.
• The relay detects the abnormal conditions in the electrical system by constantly
measuring the electrical quantities like voltage, current, power, impedance,
frequency, etc, which are different under normal and abnormal conditions.
• The main functions of protective relaying are:
• To sound an alarm or to give a trip signal to CB during an abnormal operating
condition.
• To detect the faulty part to prevent subsequent faults and to minimize the damage
to the faulty part.
• To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting only the faulty part.
• To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve the system stability.
• Essential qualities of protective relay:
• To perform its function properly , the protective relaying should have the
following qualities.
• Discrimination: protective relaying system should be able to discriminate b/n
normal & abnormal operating conditions & also b/n faults within its zone &
outside the zone.
• Selectivity: It is the ability of the protective relaying system to select the part
of the system in trouble & disconnect it w/o disturbing the rest of the system.
• Speed: The protective relaying system should disconnect the faulty system as
fast as possible , so that minimize damage is caused to the equipment & stability
of the system is improved.
• Reliability: protective relaying system should be highly reliable, it should not
fail to operate for any fault within the protective zone.
• Reliability can be improved by good design, careful maintenance , good quality
materials, back up protection etc.
• Simplicity: The protective relaying should be as simple as possible.
• It should have minimize no of components possible., it is easy to maintain &
operate a simple system & also the reliability of the system is improved.
• Stability: It is defined as the quality of the protective system by virtue of which,
the protective system remains in operation & stable under certain conditions
such as system disturbance, through faults, momentary variation in currents etc.
• Sensitivity: it refers to the minimum value of the actuating quantity at which
the protective system starts operating.
• Economy: The protective relaying system should be economical also. As a
general rule, the protective system should not cost more than 5% of the
equipment protected.
• However, for the protection of important equipment like generators, power
transformers, etc., the reliability of the system is given more importance than
the economy.
• Important relay terms:
• Pick up value: It is the minimum value of actuating at which the relay operates
i.e moves from the OFF position to the ON position.
• Reset or drop out value: It is the value of the actuating quantity at which the
relay resets and comes back to the original [off] position.
• Pick up to drop out ratio is always >1 for over relay, & < 1 for under relay.
• Primary and backup protection: Primary protection is the essential protection
provided for protecting an equipment /machine, however, as a precautionary
measure, normally, an additional protection called backup protection is also
provided.
• Primary protection is the first to act and if it fails, the backup protection comes
into action.
• Primary protection may fail because of the failure of any of the following.
• i. C.T or P.T.
• ii. Supply to relay.
• iii. DC supply to the trip coil.
• iv. Relay operating mechanism.
• v. Trip circuit of the breaker.
• vi. Operating mechanism of the breaker.
• Hence it is desirable that back protection does not employ anything common
with the primary protection.
• However, when the primary protection is made inoperative for maintenance,
repair etc, backup protection acts like the main protection.
• Types of backup protection:
• Relay backup: Here both the main and backup protections use the same
breaker, but the protective systems ( relays) are different.
• Breaker backup: Here protective system for both main and backup protection
is the same, but they use different breakers, both the breakers being in the same
station.
• Remote backup: Here, main & backup protection are provided at different
stations and are completely independent. It is most widely used for transmission
line protection.
• Back-up protection by duplication: Here, the complete protection scheme i.e
instrument transformer, relays, CB, etc are duplicated.
• Both the primary & backup protections are provided at the same station & are
arranged to operate at the same speed.
• Such protection, though highly reliable is very costly and can be justified only
for the protection of large generators, EHV, transmission lines, etc.
• Zones of protection:
• Consider the one-line diagram of the primary relaying scheme of a portion of a
typical power system.
• It can be seen that CBs are provided with each power system equipment. This
makes it possible to disconnect only the faulty element.
• It can also be seen that for protection, the power system is divided into different
zones.
• The significance of this is that any failure with a given zone will cause the
tripping of all CBs within that zone and only those CBs.
• Also, the adjacent zones of protection overlap each other. Hence, if a fault occurs
within the overlapping region, more CBs than necessary will be tripped
• Zone protection:
• However, the main advantage of overlapping zones of protection is that no part
of the power system is left unprotected.
• Classification of relays:
A. Based on construction/technology:
• Electromagnetic attraction type relays.
• Electromagnetic induction type relays.
• Thermal relays.
• Electro-dynamic relays.
• Gas actuated relay.
• Static relay.
• Microprocessor based relay.
• Microcontroller-based relay.
• B. Based on function/operating quantity:
• Voltage relay (over voltage, under voltage)
• Current relays (over current, under current)
• Power relay.
• Frequency relay
• Directional relay
• Impedance relay.
• Electromagnetic attraction relay.
• In this relays a coil energizes an electromagnet. When the value of actuating
quantity becomes large.
• The magnetic field produced by the electromagnet is high enough to attract the
armature or plunger, making contact with the trip circuit. The main types of
electromagnetic attraction relays are
• a. Attracted armature type
• b. Moving iron type
• c. solenoid plunger type
• The figure shows an attracted armature type of relay, there exists a laminated
electromagnet that carries a coil.
• The coil is energized by the operating quantity which is proportional to voltage
or current.
• The armature or moving iron is subjected to the magnetic force produced by the
actuating quantity.
• The force produced is proportional to the square of the current.
• Hence, the relay can be used for AC and DC; here, the spring produces
restraining force when the current through the coil increases beyond a certain set
limit.
• The magnetic force produced is high enough to attract the armature; it thus
makes contact with the trip circuit.
• There by closer the trip circuit, CB operates for opening operation.
• Generally number of taps are provided in the relay coil with which its turns can
be selected as per the requirement to adjust the pick-up value. The advantage
of this type of relay has high operating speed.
• Solenoid and plunger type relay:
• Operating principle of electromagnetic attraction type relay:
• The electromagnetic force produced due to operating quantity in the attraction
relay is proportional to the square of the flux, neglecting the saturation effect,
flux is proportional to current.
• Hence force is proportional to the square of the current.
• DC Operation: Here current is time-invariant. Hence electromagnetic force is
constant. When the force exceeds the restraining force produced by the spring,
the relay operates
• Electromagnetic force , Fe = k1 I2 -----(1)
• Where k1 is constant & I is the operating current in the coil.
• Restraining force, Fr =k2 ---------(2) constant
• Where Fe=Fr , the relay is on the verge of operation
• i.e k1I2 =k2
• AC Operation: Here also electromagnetic force is proportional to square of the
current, but is not constant, since the current is sinusoidal
• Fe = k1 I2 = k1 (Imax sin ɷt)2
• = ½ k1 I2max – ½ k1 I2m cos2ɷt
• Where Im is the maximum value of the operating current
• k1 is a constant
• Hence electromagnetic force consists of 2 components
• i. constant independent of time
• ii. Pulsating at double the frequency of applied voltage or current
• The total electromagnetic force thus pulsates at double the frequency
• If this force is greater than Fr, the restraining force, the relay operates, as shown
below
• If Fr is constant, the relay picks up at time t1 and drops off at time t2, this
causes the relay to hum and produce noise, which may damage the relay
contacts also.
• It is overcome by dividing the flux in the air gap into two acting
simultaneously, but phase difference.
• Advantage of Electromagnetic relay:
• Can be used for both AC & DC
• They have fast operation and fast reset operation is almost instantaneous
(usually a few milliseconds)
• Modern electromagnetic relays are compact, simple, reliable & robust
• Disadvantages
• Directional feature is absent
• Due to fast operation, there may be mal-operation due to transients
• Applications of electromagnetic relays:
• The protection of AC & DC equipment’s
• The over/under current/voltage protection of various DC & AC equipment’s
• In the definite time lag over current relay and earth fault relay.
• For the differential protection.
• Electromagnetic Induction relay:
• These relays work on the principle of the induction motor or an energy meter.
• In this relays a metallic disc is allowed to rotate b/n the two electromagnets.
• The coils of the electromagnets are energized with the help of alternating
currents.
• The torque is produced in these relays due to the interaction of one alternating
flux with eddy currents induced in the rotor by another alternating flux.
• The two fluxes have same frequency but are displaced in time & space.
• As the interaction of alternating fluxes is the base of operation of these relays ,
these are not used for the DC quantities. Only for AC.
• Basic principle (Torque equation):
• An Induction relay essentially consists of a rotor placed in two alternating
magnetic fields of the same frequency, but displaced in time & space as shown
below
Two alternating fluxes differing in phase by θ induced emfs in the rotor & hence
cause the circulation of eddy currents I1 & I2 in the rotor.
• Φ2 leads Φ1 by an angle θ
• Φ1= Φ1 max sin ɷt ---(1) :
• Φ2 = Φ2 max sin (ɷt + θ)--------(2)
• Assuming that the eddy current paths through the rotor have negligible
inductance, the rotor current will be in phase with the corresponding emf’s
 𝑑∅1
• 𝐼1 œ 𝑒1 œ œ ∅1𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos ɷt -------------------------(3)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅2
• 𝐼2 œ 𝑒2 œ œ ∅2𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos (ɷt + θ) -----------------(4)
𝑑𝑡
• Torque is produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields
with the currents induced in the disc by the other field.
• i.e F1 œ Φ1 I2 ------------------------ (5)
• F2 œ Φ2 I1 ----------------------------- (6)
• These two forces oppose one another
• Hence net operating force, Fo = F2 –F1
• Fo = Φ2 max sin (ɷt + θ) * Φ1max cos ɷt - Φ1 max sin ɷt * Φ2max cos (ɷt + θ)
• Fo = Φ1max Φ2 max [sin (ɷt + θ) cos ɷt - cos (ɷt + θ) sin ɷt ]
• Fo = Φ1max Φ2 max sin θ
• Net operating force or torque œ Φ1max Φ2 max sin θ
• Where Φ1 & Φ2 are RMS values of the fluxes.
• Form the above equation:
• Maximum torque is produced where θ is 900 &
• no torque is produced, where θ is 0 (two fluxes are in phase)
• Net operating force is constant at every instant (it is not time-variant)
• The direction of net force & hence the direction of motion of the rotor depends
upon which flux is leading.
• Structure commonly used in induction relay:
• Wattmeter structure:
• As shown in the figure , this type of structure consists of 2 electromagnets.
• The upper electromagnet has 2 windings , primary & secondary , primary
winding is connected to the actuating quantity (i/p).
• Current in the primary sets up its own flux Φ1 , which induces emf in the
secondary.
• Hence current I2 is circulated through the secondary circuit.
• This creates a flux Φ2 in the lower magnet, which lags Φ1 by an angle θ .
• The fluxes Φ1 & Φ2 differing in phase by θ acting on the disc produces a
driving torque œ Φ1 Φ2 sin θ
• Shaded pole structure:

• This type of structure consists of a pivoted aluminum disc free to rotate in the
air gap of an electromagnet; one half of each pole of the electromagnet is
surrounded by a copper band known as a shading ring .
• The effect of the shading ring is to produce a flux Φs in the shaded portion,
which is displaced from flux Φu (lagging) by an angle θ.
• These two fluxes acting on the disc produce a driving torque œ Φu Φs sin θ
• Since Φu & Φs are ‘œ’ current I in the relay coil .
• To œ I2 sin θ
 • 𝑇 ∝ ∅𝑠∅𝑢 sin œ • 𝑇 ∝ 𝐼 2 sin θ

• T=kI2
• T = Torque
• Induction cup relay:
• This relay operates on the same principle as the induction motor. The relay has the
two, four, or more electromagnetic energized by the relay coils.
• A stationary iron core is placed between these electromagnets as shown in the
figure.
• The rotating field is produced by the two pairs of coil wounds on four poles as
shown in the fig.
• The rotating field induces the current in the cup causing it to rotate in the same
direction.
• The induction cup structure is a more efficient torque producer than the shaded
pole or the watt-hour meter structure.
• This relay is very fast in operation and has an operating time of less than 0.01
seconds.
• Induction type non directional overcurrent relay/earth fault relay:

• Figure shows the non directional over current/earth fault relay which uses watt
hour meter structure .
• It consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate b/n the poles of two
electromagnets.
• The upper electromagnet has a primary & a secondary winding ,the primary is
connected to the input, secondary of a CT & is tapped at intervals.
• The tapping's are connected to a plug setting bridge by which the desired current
setting for the relay can be obtained.
• The secondary is energized by induction by primary & is connected in series
with the winding in the lower magnet.
• The restraining torque is provided by a spiral spring .
• The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contact
connected to trip circuit , when disc rotates through a pre set angle.
• Under normal condition the driving torque œ Φ1Φ2sinθ is less than the
restraining torque & hence disc remains stationary
• However when the current in the protected circuit exceed the pre set value ,
driving torque is greater than the restraining torque the relay operates to close its
contacts.
• The circuit breaker then operates for the opening operation to isolate the faulty
section.
• Fault current in the relay coil=actual fault current x CT ration;
• Suppose we have connected on protection CT of ratio 200/1 A, and the
current setting is 150%.
• Hence, pick-up current of the relay is 1×150% =1.5A
Now, suppose the fault current in the CT primary is 1000 A.
• Hence, fault current in the CT secondary, i.e., in the relay coil, is
• 1000 × 1/200 = 5A
• Therefore, PSM of the relay is 5 / 1.5 =3.33
• Terms associated with overcurrent relay:
• Current plug setting: the pickup current of an overcurrent relay can be adjusted
to the desired value with the help of the current/plug setting.
• The pick up current of the relay = Rated secondary current of CT x current setting.
• Usually, the plug setting range varies from 50% to 200% in steps of 25% for
phase fault relays and 10% to 90% in steps of 10% for earth fault relays.
• Plug setting multiplier: it is the ratio of fault current in the relay coil to pick up
current.
• i.e, PSM = Fault current in relay coil/ Pick up current
• Time/PSM curve:
• It is the curve drawn b/n the time of operation of the relay & Plug setting
multiplier (PSM). The figure shows an operating time/PSM curve for an IDMT
relay.
• Usually, for PSM of > 20, the time of operation becomes constant. (minimum
time).
 For eg PSM = 10 and TSM = 0.5 s.
From the Graph, the time of operation of Relay
for PSM = 10 is 3 s.
Therefore,
Actual Time of Operation of Relay = 3s x TSM
= 3 x0.5 s =1.5 s
Thus we can say that actual time of operation of
Relay is equal to the time obtained from the PSM
& Operating Time Graph multiplied by TSM.
• Time setting multiplier: To adjust the actual time operation
of the relay. Usually TSM values range from 0.1 to 1 in steps
of 0.1
• actual time operation= TSM x time of operation obtained
from time/PSM curve.
• Problem: 1
• Determine the time of operation of a 5A , 3 sec OC relay having plug setting of
125% & a time multiplier of 0.6 connected to supply current through a 400/5
CT, when the circuit carries a fault current of a) 4000 A b) 4100 A c) 4500 A.
Time /PSM curve with TSM=1 is given below

Time of 9 5.8 4.2 3.5 3 2.8 2.5

operatio
n
PSM 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
• Solution:
𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
• PSM =
𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑢𝑝 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛
fault current x CT ratio
• =
rated sec current of CT x plug setting
• pick up current = rated sec current of CT x plug setting
• 5 x 1.25 = 6.25 A
5
• fault current in the relay coil = x 4000 =50 A (fault current /CT ratio)
400
• = 50A
50
• =8
6.25
• From time/PSM curve , with TSM=1
• Time of operation for PSM =8 is 3.5 sec
• Actual time of operation = 3.5 x TSM
• = 3.5 x 0.6 =2.1 sec
• Problem 2:.The current rating of a relay is 5A, plug setting 150%, TMS = 0.4,
CT ratio = 80, fault current = 6000 A . Determine the operating time of the relay,
at TMS =1, operating time at various PSM are:
PSM 2 4 5 8 10 20

Operating 10 5 4 3 2.8 2.4

time in SEC

• Soln: CT ratio: 400/5

𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
• PSM =
𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑢𝑝 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛
fault current x CT ratio
• =
rated sec current of CT x plug setting
• Relay current setting =5 x 1.5 = 7.5 A
• =6000 x 5/400/7.5 = 10
• From the chart for PSM 10, operating time is 2,8 sec (TMS=1)
• Operating for TMS = 0.4 is 2.8 x 0.4 =1.12 sec
•
• Directional relay (reverse power relay):

• Directional relay is energized by two quantities , voltage & current , which sets
up two fluxes Φ1 & Φ2 acting on the disc .
Here flux Φ1 œ V & Φ2 œ I:
• To œ Φ1 Φ2 sin œ
• To œ V I sin œ where œ = (90-Φ)
• To œ V I sin (90- Φ)
• To œ V I cos Φ
• To œ Power
• During normal conditions, angle b/n actuating quantity supplied to the relay
is kept b/n 900 & 1800 so that the torque is –ve & the relay does not operate.
• when power flows in reverse direction Φ 1 is < 900 & To is + ve .Hence the relay
can operate.
Advantages of reverse power relay
• Prevents power from flowing in the reverse direction and damaging the generator
stator
• Prevents damage to the prime mover
• Prevents fire or explosions that may be caused by unburned fuel in the generator
• Induction type Directional Over Current relay:

• The directional power relay is unsuitable for directional protective relays under
short circuit conditions.
• When a short circuit occurs, the system voltage falls to a low value, and there
may be insufficient torque developed in the relay to cause its operation.
• This difficulty is over come in the directional over current relay which is
designed to be almost independent of system voltage & pf.
• Construction: it consists of two relay elements mounted on a common base
• a. directional element
• b. non-directional element
• The directional element consists of a directional power relay, which operates
when power flows in a specific direction.
• The potential coil of this element is connected through a potential
transformer(PT) to the system voltage.
• The current coil of the element is energized through a CT by the circuit current.
• This winding is carried over the upper magnet of the non-directional element.
• The directional element's trip contacts (1 &2) are connected in series with the
secondary circuit of the OC element.
• Therefore the latter element cannot start to operate first (i.e contact 1&2 should
close in order to operate the overcurrent element.
• Non directional element is overcurrent element is similar in all respects to a non-
directional OC relay.
• The spindle of the disc of this element carries a moving contact which closes the
fixed contacts (trip circuit contact) after the operation of directional element.
• The plug setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current setting (not
shown in the figure), the tapings are provided on the upper magnet of over
current element.
• Working: under normal operating condition , power flows in the normal
direction in the circuit protected by the relay.
• Therefore the directional power relay (upper element) does not operate, thereby
keeping the OC element (lower element) energized.
• When the SC occur there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in the
reverse direction, contacts 1& 2 are close by rotating the disc in upper element.
• This completes the circuit for OC element. The disc of this elements rotates &
the moving contact attached to it close the trip circuit.
• This operates the CB which isolates the faulty section.
• Over current relay can be classified has based on type of characteristics:
• Instantaneous OC Relay
• Definite minimum time relay
• Inverse time over current relay
• Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) OC relay:
• Instantaneous OC Relay:
• This relay operates as soon as the current in the coil gets higher than pick up
setting current. There is no intentional time delay applied.
• But there is always an inherent time delay which we cannot avoid practically.
• In practice, the operating time of an instantaneous relay is of the order of a few
milliseconds.
• The characteristic of instantaneous OC relay is as shown

• Application: The relay protects the system from earth fault and is also used for protecting the system
from circulating current.
• The instantaneous overcurrent relay is placed in the outgoing feeder.
• Definite minimum time:
• This relay is created by applying intentional time delay after crossing the pick-up value of the
current.
• A definite time overcurrent relay can be adjusted to issue a trip output at an exact amount of time
after it picks up. Thus, it has a time setting adjustment and pickup adjustment.
• Definite minimum time overcurrent relay is used as:
• Back up protection of distance relay of transmission line with time delay.
• Back up protection to the differential relay of the power transformer with time delay.
• Main protection to outgoing feeders and bus couplers with adjustable time
delay setting.
• The characteristic of definite time OC relay is as shown

• Inverse time OC relay:

• The relay operates only when the magnitude of their operating current is
inversely proportional to the magnitude of the energize quantities.
• The operating time of the relay decreases with the increases in the current.
• The operation of the relay depends on the magnitude of the current.
• The relay will not operate when the value of the current is less than the pick value.
• The relay is used for the protection of the distribution lines.
• The inverse time relay is of three types.

Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) OC relay:

• The relay whose operating time is approximately proportional to the fault current is
known as the IDMT relay.
• The operating time of the relay is maintained by adjusting the time delay setting.
• The IDMT relay uses the electromagnetic core because it can easily saturate for the
current having a larger magnitude than the pick-up current.
• The relay is used for the protection of the distribution line.
• it is clear that a certain range of faulty levels, an inverse time relay shows specific
inverse characteristics.
• But after this level of fault, the CT becomes saturated and relay current does not
increase further with increasing faulty level of the system.
• As the relay current does not increase further, there would not be any further
reduction in the time of operation in the relay.
• Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
• Gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT.
• Used where there is a reduction in fault current, as the distance from source
increases.
• Particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep characteristics.
• Suitable if there is a substantial reduction of fault current as the fault distance
from the power source increases.
• Very inverse overcurrent relays are particularly suitable if the short-circuit current
drops rapidly with the distance from the substation.
• The grading margin may be reduced to a value in the range from 0.3 to 0.4
seconds when overcurrent relays with very inverse characteristics are used.
• Used when Fault Current is dependent on fault location.
• Used when Fault Current independent of normal changes in generating capacity.
• Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay:
• It has more inverse characteristics than IDMT and a very inverse overcurrent relay.
• Suitable for the protection of machines against overheating.
• The operating time of a time overcurrent relay with an extremely inverse time-current
characteristic is approximately inversely proportional to the square of the current
• The use of extremely inverse overcurrent relays makes it possible to use a short time
delay despite high switching-in currents.
• Used when Fault current is dependent on fault location
• Used when Fault current is independent of normal changes in generating capacity.
• Application:
• Suitable for protection of distribution feeders with peak currents on switching in
(refrigerators, pumps, water heaters and so on).
• Particular suitable for grading and coordinates with fuses and re-closes
• For the protection of alternators, transformers. Expensive cables, etc.
• Time/PSM characteristics for different relays:

• According to British standard different characteristic mathematically expressed as

follows
0.14
• 1. a. IDMT, 3 sec : tactual= x TSM
𝐼 0.02 −1
0.061
• b. IDMT, 1.3 sec : t= 0.02 x TSM
𝐼 −1
13.5
• 2. Very inverse : t= x TSM
𝐼−1
80
• 3. Extremely Inverse : t= 2 x TSM where I is PSM
𝐼 −1
• A 3.3 KV, 500 kW, 0.8 power factor, 3 phase Induction motor is to be
protected against overload and stator winding faults using an over current
relay. Assume an overcurrent relay is connected to protect this motor
through a 100 / 1 A CT. Assuming that 20% over load is permissible,
suggest a suitable pick up current and appropriate plug setting. Further if
the relay should operate in 1.2 seconds for a fault current of 10 times the
pickup current, determine a suitable time multiplier setting (TMS), if the
relay uses
• IDMT 3 sec characteristics
• Extremely Inverse characteristics
• Very Inverse characteristics.
• Solution:
• IL = 109.34 A
• 20% over load is permissible ie 1.2 x IL = 131.21 A
• CT ratio is 100/1
• Let pick up current be 130 A
• Plug setting is 1.3 (assume)
• Relay pick up current = 1 x 1.3
• Fault current is 10 time the pick up current
• PSM = fault current /pick up current 1.3 x 10/1.3 =10
• IDMT 3sec relay:
0.14
• tact = tactual= x TSM where I is PMS
𝐼 0.02 −1
• TMS =1.2 x ((10)0,02 -1)/0.14 = 0.4039
80
• Extremely Inverse relay: tact = x TSM
𝐼2 −1
• TMS = 1.485
13.5
• Very Inverse Relay: tact = x TSM
𝐼−1
• TMS = 0.8
• Differential Protection Relay
• Definition: The relay whose operation depends on the phase difference of two or
more electrical quantities is known as the differential protection relay.
• It works on the principle of comparison between the phase angle and the
magnitude of the same electrical quantities.
• For example: Consider the comparison of the input and output current of the
transmission line.
• If the magnitude of the input current of the transmission line is more than that of
output current that means the additional current flows through it because of the
fault.
• The difference in the current can operate the differential protection relay.
• The following are the essential condition requires for the working of the
differential protection relay:
• The network in which the relay use should have two or more similar electrical
quantities.
• The quantities have the phase displacement of approximately 180º.
• The differential protection relay is used for the protection of the generator,
transformer, feeder, large motor, bus-bars etc.
• The following are the classification of the differential protection relay:
• Current Differential Relay
• Voltage Differential Relay
• Biased or Percentage Differential Relay
• Voltage Balance Differential Relay
• Current Differential Relay:
• Fig shows an arrangement of an OC relay connected to operate as a differential
relay.
• A pair of identical CTs connected on either end of the section to be protected
(alternator winding in this case)
• The secondaries of CTs are connected in series in such a way that they carry the
induced currents in the same direction
• The operating coil of the OC relay is connected across the CTs secondary
circuit.
• This differential relay comprises the current at the two ends of the alternator
winding.
• Under normal operating condition, suppose the alternator winding carries a
normal current of 1000A
• Then the currents in the two secondaries of CTs are equal.
• These currents will merely circulate b/n the two CTs and No current will flow
through the differential relay , therefore the relay will remain inoperative.
• If the ground fault occurs on the alternator winding as shown in the figure.
• The two secondary current will not be equal and & the current flows through the
operating coil of the relay causing the relay to operate.
• The amount of current through the relay will depend upon the way the fault
being fed.
• If some current (500 A in this case) flow out of one side while a larg current
(2000A) enter the other side.
• Then the difference of the CTs secondary currents I e 10 – 2.5 =7.5 A will flow
through the relay.
• If current flow to the fault from both sides, then sum of CT secondary currents is
10+5=15 A will flow through the relay.
• Disadvantages:
• The impedance of the pilot cables generally comes a slight difference b/n the
current at the two ends of the section to be protected.
• If the relay is very sensitive , then the small differential current flowing through
the relay may cause it to operate even under no fault conditions.
• Pilot cable capacitance cause incorrect operation of the relay when large through
current flows.
• Accurate matching of CTs cannot be achieved due to pilot circuit impedance ,the
above disadvantages are over come by a biased beam relay.
• The Biased beam relay is also called percentage differential relay is designed to
respond to the differential current in terms of its fractional relation to the current
flowing through the protected section.
• It is essentially an over current balanced beam relay type with an additional
restraining coil produces a biased force in the opposite direction to the operating
force.
• Under normal & through load conditions, the bias force due to restraining coil is
greater than the operating force.
• Therefore the relay remains inoperative. When an internal force occurs the
operating force exceeds the bias force ,the trip contacts are closed to open the CB.
• The bias force can be adjusted by varying the number of turns on the restraining
coil.
• The differential current in the operating coil is proportional to (I2-I1) & the
equivalent current in the restraining coil is proportional to (I1+I2)/2
• Since the operating coil is connected to the mid point of the restraining coil.
• It is clear that greater the current flow through the restraining coil , the higher the
value of current acquired in the operating winding to trip the relay.
• Thus under a heavy load, a greater differential current through the relay operating
coil is required for operation than under light load conditions.
• This relay is called percentage relay because the operating current required to
trip can be expressed as a percentage of load current.
• The operating characteristics of this type of relay is shown the figure
• It can be seen that except at low currents, the characteristics is a straight line .
• Thus the ratio of the differential operating current to the average restraining
current is fixed percentage. Hence the relay name is percentage differential relay.
• The relay with constant slope characteristics are called constant slope
percentage differential relay.
• Voltage balance difference relay: Figure shows the voltage balance protection ,
in this scheme of protection two similar CTs are connected at either side of the
element to be protected (i.e alternator winding) by means of pilot wires.
• The secondaries of CTs are connected in series with a relay in such a way that
under normal conditions, their induced emf’s are in opposition .
• Under healthy conditions, equal currents (I1= I2) flows in both primary
windings.
• Therefore, the secondary voltages of the two transformers are balanced against
each other, and no current will flow through the relay operating coil.
• When the fault occurs in the protected zone, the current in the two primaries will
differ from one another (i.e I1 ≠ I2) and their secondary voltages will no longer
be in balance.
• This voltage difference will cause a current to flow through the operating coil of
the relay which closes the trip circuit.
• Disadvantages:
• A multi- gap transformer construction is required to achieve accurate balance b/n
CTs pairs.
• The system is suitable for protection of cables of relatively short lengths due to
the capacitance of pilot wires.
• On long cables the charging current may be sufficient to operate the relay even it
is perfect balance of CTs is attained.
• Problem 1:An alternator stator winding protected by a percentage differential
relay is shown in the figure. The relay has 15% slope of characteristics (I1 –I2)
against (I1+ I2)/2 . The resistance ground fault has occurred near the grounded
neutral end of the generator winding while the generator carrying load. The
current flowing at each end of the generator winding are also shown . Assuming
CT ratio to be 500/5, will the relay operate to trip the CB ?.
• Soln:
• From the given current at ends, let us calculate CT secondary currents at two
ends.
 300+𝑗0 5 5
• 𝑖1 = x =3A & 𝑖2 = (340 + j0) x = 3.4 A
500 500
• The current flowing through relay coil is (i1-i2)
• (i1-i2) = 3 -3.4 = -0.4 A :
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 (3+3.4)
• While = = 3.2 A
2 2
𝑖1 + 𝑖2
• From the characteristics of 15% slop, corresponding to .
2
• The out of balance current required is
𝑖1 + 𝑖2
• (i1 –i2) =slope x
2
• = 0.15 x 3.2 = 0.48 A
• Thus (i1 –i2) must be more than 0.48 A i.e above the line to operate the relay,
but actual point is located below the line in negative torque region. Hence the
relay will not operate.
• The figure shows the percentage differential relay used for the protection of an
alternator winding. The relay has minimum pickup current of 0.25 A and has a %
slope 10%. A resistance ground fault occur near the grounded neutral end of the
generator winding with the current distribution as shown in the figure. Assume a
CT ratio of 400/5, determine if relay will operate

• Solution:From the given current at ends, let us calculate CT secondary currents at

two ends.
• i1 = (380+j0) x 5/400 = 4.75 A & i2 = (340+j0) x5/400 = 4.25 A
• The current flowing through relay coil is (i1-i2)
• (i1-i2) = 4.75-4.25 = 0.5 A :
• While (I1+ I2)/2 = 4.75+4.25/2 = 4.5 A

• So (i1-i2) current flows through operating coil while 4.5 A flows through the
restraining coil.
• With the minimum pick up of 0.25 A & slope 10%, the operating characteristics
is as shown in figure.
• The equation of characteristic is ,
• y= mx+c
• At origin , x=0 but y=0.25
• y= c = 0.25
𝑖1 + 𝑖2
• Hence characteristic equation is (I1 –I2) =m x +0.25: where m is slope
2
𝑖1 + 𝑖2
• (I1 –I2) =0.1 x + 0.25
2
𝑖1 + 𝑖2
• For = 4.5 A
2
• (I1 –I2) =(0.1x 4.5) + 0.25 =0.7A
𝑖1 + 𝑖2
• Thus to operate the relay, (I1 –I2) must be greater than 0.7 A when is 4.5 A
2
• But actually (I1 –I2) =0.5A . It is located below the line in negative torque region
,hence relay will not operate.
• Protection of Bus bar:
• Bus bar in the generating stations and sub stations form imported ling b/n the
incoming and out going circuits.
• If a fault occurs on a bus bar, considerable damage and disruption of supply will
occur unless some form of quick acting automatic protection is provided to isolate
the faulty bus bar.
• The bus bar zone , for the purpose of protection, includes not only bus bar
themselves and also the isolating switches , CBs and associated connections.
• In the circuit fault on an any section of the bus bar, all the circuit equipments
connected to that section must be tripped out to give complete isolation.
• The standard of construction for bus bars has been very high, with the result that
bus faults are extremely rare.
• However the possibility of damage and service interruption from even a rare bus
fault is so great that more attention is now given to this form of protection.
• The two most commonly used schemes for bus bar protection are
• a. differential protection. b. Fault bus protection
Differential protection: it is the basic method for bus bar protection, in which
current entering and leaving the bus are totalized.
• During normal load condition, the some of these currents is equal to zero. When a
fault occurs, the fault current upsets the balance and produces a differential current
to operate a relay.
• Figure shows , the single diagram of current differential scheme for a station bus
bar.
• The bus bar is fed by a generator and supplies load to two lines. The secondaries
of CTs in the generator lead in line 1 and line 2 are all connected in parallel.
• The protective relay is connected across this parallel connection. All the CTs must
be of the same ratio in the scheme regardless of the capacities of the various
circuits.
• Under normal load condition or external fault conditions, the sum of the currents
entering the bus is equal to those leaving it and no current flows through therelay.
• If a fault occurs within the protected zone, the current entering the bus will no
longer be equal to those leaving it.
• The difference of these currents will flow through the bus will no longer be equal
to those leaving it.
• The difference of those currents will flow through the relay and cause the
opening of the generator, CB and each of the line CBs.
• Fault bus protection or earth leakage protection:
• It is possibility to design a station so that the faults that develop are mostly earth
faults.
• This can be achieved by providing earthed metal barrier surrounding each
conductor throughout its entire length in the bus structure .
• With this arrangement every fault that might occur must involve a connection b/n
a conductor and an earthed metal part.
• Figure shows the schematic arrangement of fault bus protection. The metal
supporting structure or fault bus is earthed trough a CT.
• A relay is connected across the secondaries of this CT.
• Under normal operating conditions, there is no current flow from fault bus to
ground and the relay remains inoperative.
• A fault involving a connection b/n a conductor and earthed supporting structure
will result in current flow to ground through the fault bus, causing the relay to
operate.
• The operation of relay will trip all breakers connecting equipment to the bus.
• Relay back up protection:
• It is the second line of defense in case of failure of the primary protection.
• It is designed to operate with sufficient time delay so that primary relaying will
be given enough time to function if it is able to.
• Relay A provides back up protection for each of the four lines. If a line fault is
not cleared by its relay and entire group of lines.
• It is evident that when back up relaying functions, a large part is disconnected
than when primary relaying functions correctly.
• Transformer protection:
• The transformers are static devices w/o having any rotating part and are totally
enclosed.
• Hence the chances of faults occurring on transformers are much rare as compared
to the faults occurring on generators.
• Similarly possibilities of running on abnormal conditions are also less in
transformers compared to the generators.
• If fault occurs , the transformer must be quickly disconnected from the system.
• The rare faults if not cleared quickly can get developed in to the major faults
which may be very serious for the transformer.
• The use of series fuses is very common in case small distribution transformers
instead of circuit breakers.
• But the power transformers having large ranges always needs some type of
automatic protective relaying equipments to give protection against the possible
faults.
• Possible transformer faults:
• Over heating
• Winding faults
• Open circuits
• Through faults
• Over fluxing
• Over heating: the over heating of the transformer is due to over loads and short
circuits.
• Higher loads are permissible for very short duration of time.
• The over loads which continues for longer time is dangerous as it causes over heating.
• Similarly the failure of the cooling system is another possible cause of over heating.
• The thermal over load relays and temperature relays sounding the alarm are used to
provide protection against over heating.
• Temperature indicators are also provided.
• On the transformer, when temperature exceeds the permissible limits, the alarm
sounds and the fans are started.
• The thermos couples or resistance temperature indicators are also provided
near the windings.
• When the temperature exceeds the limiting safe value, the bridge balance gets
disturbed and alarm is sounded, if the corrective action is not taken within
certain period of time then the CB trips.
• Winding faults: the winding faults are called internal faults, these faults are
• Phase to phase faults
• Earth faults
• Intern faults
• The over heating or mechanical shocks causes to deteriorate the winding
insulation.
• If the winding insulation is weak, there is a possibility of short circuit b/n the
phases or b/n the phase and ground.
• Also the possibility of short circuit b/n the adjacent turns of the same phase
winding.
• When these internal faults occurs, the transformer must be quickly disconnected
from the system.
• If such a fault persists for longer time, there is a possibility of Oil fire.
• The differential protection is very commonly used to provide protection against
such faults.
• But these protection is not economical for the transformers below 5 MVA for
which an over current protection is used.
• For the high capacity transformers in addition to main differential protection,
the over current protection is also provided as a backup protection.
• For earth fault protection, the restricted earth fault protection system, neutral
current relays or leakage to frame protection system is used.
• Open circuits: the open circuit in one of the 3Φ is dangerous as it causes the
undesirable heating of transformer.
• A separate relay protection is not provided for the open circuits as open circuits
are not much harmless compared to other faults.
• In case of such faults the transformer can be manually disconnected from the
system.
• Through faults: these faults are the external faults which occur outside the
protected zone.
• Through faults are not detected by the differential protection.
• If the through faults persists for long period of time, the transformer may get
subjected to the thermal and mechanical stresses which can damage the
transformer.
• The over current relays with under voltage blocking, zero sequence protection
and negative sequence protection are used to give the protection against
through faults
• The over current relay not protects the transformer but also covers the station
bus bar and transmission line.
• Over fluxing: the flux density in the transformer core is proportional to the ratio of the
voltage to frequency.
• The power transformer are designed to work with certain value of flux density in the
core.
• In the generator transformer unit, if full excitation is applied before generator reaches its
synchronous speed ,then high v/f ratio the over fluxing of core may results.
• Higher core flux means more core loss and over heating of the core.
• The saturation of magnetic circuit is also the probable cause for the over fluxing
operation.
• The v/f relay called volts/hertz relay is provided to give the protection against over
fluxing operation.
• This relay does not allow exciting current to flow till the generator to a synchronous
speed and runs to produce voltage of proper frequency.
• Apart from these faults, tap changer faults, high voltage surge due to lightning and
switching, incipient faults i.e slow developing faults may also occur in the transformers.
• The buchholz relay is used for oil immersed transformers to give the protection
against incipient faults.
• Protection systems for transformers:
• Buchholz relay: providing protection against all kind of incipient faults such as
insulation failure of windings, fall of oil level due to heavy joints etc.
• Earth fault relays: providing protection against earth fault only.
• Over current relay: providing protection mainly against phase to phase faults
and over loading.
• Differential system: or circulatory current system providing protection against
both earth and phase faults.
• Differential protection: the percentage differential protection or Merz- price
protection based on the circulating current principle can also be used for
transformer.
• This system gives the protection against phase to phase and phase to ground
faults to the power transformer.
• In this protection system, the vector difference of currents (I1 –I2) passes through
the operating coil, while the average current (I1 +I2)/2 passes through the
restraining coil.
• In the normal condition, both ends of the transformer ,the currents are equal, no
current passing through the operating coil.
• There are certain important points which must be taken care of while using such
protection for the power transformers, these are:
• 1. In a power transformer, the voltage ratio of the two windings is different .
• The high voltage winding is low current winding while low voltage winding is
high current winding, thus there always exists difference in current on the
primary and secondary sides of the power transformer.
• Hence if CTs of same ratio are used on two sides then relay may get operated
though there is no fault exists.
• To compensate for this difficulty, the current ratio of CTs on each side are
different.
• Due to the different turns ratio, the current fed in to the pilot wires from each
end are same under normal conditions.
• Ratio of CTs on low voltage side is made k time greater than that of CTs on
high voltage side.
• 2. In case of power transformer, there is an inherent phase difference b/n the
voltage induced in high voltage winding and low voltage winding.
• Due to this there exists a phase difference b/n the line currents on primary and
secondary sides of a power transformer.
• This introduces the phase difference b/n the CT secondary currents on the two
sides of a power transformer.
• Though the turns ratio of CTs are selected to compensate for turns ratio of
transformer, a differential current may result due to the phase difference.
• To compensate for this CTs connection should be as fallows:
• With this arrangements, the phase displacement b/n the currents gets
compensated.
• [Link] neutral of CT star and power transformer star are grounded.
• 4. Many transformers have tap changing arrangement due to which there is a
possibility of flow of differential current.
• For this, the turns ratio of CTs on both sides of the power transformer are
provided with tap for of CTs on both sides of the power transformer are
provided with tap for their adjustment.
• Connections of CT and transformer is as shown in the figure
• Merz- Price protection for Star-Delta Transformer: this protection is for star-
delta power transformer. The primary of the power transformer is star connected
while the secondary is delta connected.
• Hence for compensate for phase difference , the CT secondaries on primary side
must be connected in delta while CT secondaries on delta side must be
connected in star.
• The star point of both power transformer and CT secondaries must be grounded.
• With the proper selection of turns ratio in CTs the coils are under balanced
condition during normal operating conditions.
• The CTs secondaries carry equal currents which are in phase under normal
conditions.
• So no current flows through the relay and relay is inoperative. With internal fault
in power transformer windings. the balance in the C.T.s get disturbed.
• The operating coils of differential relay carry currents proportional to the
difference of current between the two sides of a power transformer.
• This causes the relay operation which trips the main circuit breakers on both the
sides of the power transformer.
• The basic requirements of the differential relay are,
1. The differential relay must not operate on load or external faults.
2. It must operate on sever internal faults.
• The relay satisfying these requirements is used in Merz-Price protection.
• It is important to note that this scheme gives protection against short circuit
faults between the turns i.e. interturn faults also.
• This is because when there is an interturn fault, the turns ratio of power
transformer gets affected.
• Due to this the currents on both sides of the power transformer become
unbalanced.
• This causes an enough differential current which flows through the relay and the
relay operates.
Merz-Price Protection for Star-Star Transformer:
• The Fig. shows the Merz-Price protection system for the star-star power
transformer.
• Both primary and secondary of the power transformer are connected in star and
hence C.T. secondaries.
• The operating coils are connected between the tapping on the restraining coil and
the ground.
• The operation of the scheme remains same for any type of power transformer as
discussed for star-star power transformer.
• Example : A 3 Φ power transformer having a line voltage ratio of 400 V to
33 kV is connected in star-delta. the C.T.s on 400 V side have current ratio
as 1000/5. What must be the C.T. ratio on 33 kV side.
Assume current on 400 V side of transformer to be 1000 A.
Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig. .
• On the primary side, which is 400 V side of transformer the current is 1000 A.
Hence C.T.s primary will carry current of 1000 [Link] C.T. ratio is 1000/5 on
the primary side hence the current in C.T.
Secondaries which is phase current of delta connected C.T.s is,
Iph = 1000 x (5/1000) = 5 A
This is shown in the Fig.
IL = √3 Iph = 5√3 A
• This is balance the C.T. secondaries are connected in delta.
• The same current flows through the star connected C.T. secondaries.
• Hence each secondaries of C.T. on the secondary side of transformer carries a
current of 5√3 A.
•
• For the power transformer the apparent power on both sides must be same.
Primary apparent power = Secondary apparent power
√3 VL1 IL1 = √3 VL2 IL2
√3 x 400 x 1000 = √3 x 33000 x IL2
IL2 = (400 x 1000)/33000 = 12.12 A
• Thus each primary of C.T.s connected in star carries a current of 12.12 [Link]
each secondary of C.T,s connected in star carries a current of 5√3 A.
• Hence the C.T. ratio on 33 kV side is,
C.T. ratio = Primary current/Secondary current = 12.12/5√3 = 1.4 : 1 is
the required C.T. ratio on 33 kV side.
• A 10 MVA, 132 / 33 kV, 50 HZ transformer is connected in delta on the l.v.
side and in star with star point earthed, on the h.v. side. It is protected using
differential protection scheme. Draw the protection circuit diagram. If the
CTs on the h.v. side has a ratio of 75 / 1 A, determine the CT ratio on the l.v.
side.
• What would be the current through the relay coil for a through fault due to
which a current of five times the rated current occurs, if the voltage tapping
is set to 128kv on h.v side, at the time of occurrence of fault?
• Solution:
• CT1 Ratio: 75/1 (given)
• Rated sec phase current =1A (CT1 connected in delta)
• Rated sec line current = 1√3 A (pilot wire current)
• CT2: Rated sec line current = 1 √3 A (CT2 connected in star)
• With 75 A on primary side, current on sec side of tr: 75 x 132 x103/33 =300 A
• Therefore CT2 ratio should be 300/1 √3 = 173.205
• Let CT2 ratio be 175/1 A
• With a through fault (current 5 times the rated current)
• Primary rated current = 10 x 106/ √3 x 132 x103 = 43.738 A
• 5 x 43.738 = 218.693 A
• CT1 sec current 1/75 x 218 . 693 = 2.9159 A
• Pilot wire current (line current) (connected in delta)= 2.9159 x √3 = 5.0505 A
• Tap set to 128 kV on HV side
• Therefore current on sec side of transformer with primary current of 218.693 A is
• 218.693 x 128 x 103/ 33 x 103 = 848.263A (I2)
• CT2 sec current = 1/175 x 848.263 = 4.847 A (1/175 CT2 Ratio)
• Sec line current = 4.847 A (connected in star)
• Current through the relay coil = (5.0505 – 4.84) = (0.2035)
• Problem 3: Describe with the help of a neat circuit diagram the connection of
differential protection of a 3-phase 3.3/6.6 kV star/delta-connected
transformer protected by a differential system. The CTs on the LT side have a
ratio of 300/5. Calculate the turns ratio of CTs on the HT side.

• Ans: 60/5/ √3 = 103.92/5

• Problems encountered in differential protection:
• 1. Unmatched characteristics of C.T.s : There exist differences in the C.T.
characteristics due to ratio error at high values of short circuit currents.
• This causes an appreciable difference in the secondary currents which can
operate the relay. So the relay operates for through/ external faults.
• This difficulty is overcome by using percentage differential relay. In this relay,
the difference in current due to the ratio error exists and flows through the relay
coil.
• But at the same time, the average current ( I1 + I2/2) flows through the
restraining coil, which produces enough restraining torque. Hence relay
becomes inoperative for the through faults.
• 2. Ratio change due to tap change: To alter the voltage and current ratios
between the high-voltage and low-voltage sides of a power transformer, tap-
changing equipment is used.
• This is an important feature of a power transformer. This equipment effectively
alters the turns ratio.
• This causes unbalance on both sides. To compensate for this effect, the
tapping can be provided on C.T.s also which are to be varied similar to the
main power transformer. But this method is not practicable.
• The percentage differential relays ensure the stability with respect to the
amount of unbalance occurring at the extremities of the tap change range.
• 3. Difference in lengths of pilot wires: Due to the difference in lengths of the
pilot wires on both sides, an unbalanced condition may result.
• The difficulty is overcome by connecting the adjustable resistors in pilot wires
on both sides. These are called balancing resistors.
• With the help of these resistors equipotential points on the pilot wires can be
adjusted.
• In percentage differential relays, the taps are provided on the operating coil and
restraining coil to achieve balance.
• 4. Magnetizing current inrush : When the transformer is energized, the
condition initially is of zero induced e.m.f. and it is similar to the switching off
an inductive circuit.
• Due to this the transient inrush of magnetizing current flows in to the
transformer. This current is called magnetizing current inrush.
• This current may be as great as 10 times the full load current of the transformer.
This decays very slowly and is bound to operate differential protection of the
transformer falsely.
• In the latest method, the harmonic content of the magnetizing current flowing in
the operating current is filtered out and passed through a restraining coil. This is
called harmonic current restraint.
• Harmonic Restraint and Harmonic Blocking:
• The high initial inrush of magnetizing currents consist of high component
even and odd harmonics.
• Thus more the harmonic contents in the inrush current, more is the
restraining torque and the relay does not operate.
• So use of percentage differential protection rather than simple differential
protection is preferred.
• The separate blocking relay in series with the differential relay is used.
• The operation of this relay is based on harmonic component of inrush current.
• This relay consists of 100 Hz blocking filter in operating coil while 50 Hz
filter in restraining coil.
• At the time of inrush current, second harmonic component is maximum and
thus blocking relay is blocked with its contacts remain open.
• In short circuit case, the harmonic component is negligible and 50 Hz
component is dominant.
• Hence the blocking relay operates to close its contact. This principle is called
harmonic blocking.
• Buchholz relay of Transformer:
• The Buchholz relay is a gas operated relay used for the protection of oil immersed
transformers against all the types of internals faults.
• It is named after its inventor, Buchholz.
• The slow developing faults called incipient faults in the transformer tank below oil
level operate Buchholz relay which gives an alarm.
• If the faults are severe it disconnects the transformer from the supply.
• It uses the principle that due to the faults, oil in the tank decomposes, generating
the gases.
• The 70% component of such gases is hydrogen which is light and hence rises
upwards towards conservator through the pipe.
• Buchholz relay is connected in the pipe, as shown in the Fig. .
• Due to the gas collected in the upper portion of the Buchholz relay, the relay
operates and gives an alarm.
• The construction feature of Buchholz relay:

• Under normal conditions, the Buchholz relay is full of oil. It consists of a cast housing
containing a hinged hollow float.
• A mercury switch is attached to a float. The float being rotated in the upper part of the
housing.
• Another hinged flap valve is located in the lower part which is directly in the path of the
oil between tank and the conservator.
• Another mercury switch is attached to a flap valve. The float closes the alarm circuit
while the lower flap valve closes the trip circuit in case of internal faults.
• Working:
• There are many types of internal faults such as insulation fault, core heating,
bad switch contacts, faulty joints etc. which can occur.
• When the fault occurs the decomposition of oil in the main tank starts due to
which the gases are generated.
• Major component of such gases is hydrogen. The hydrogen tries to rise up
towards conservator but in its path it gets accumulated in the upper part of the
Buchholz relay. Through passage of the gas is prevented by the flap valve.
• When gas gets accumulated in the upper part of housing. The oil level inside
the housing falls.
• Due to which the hollow float tilts and close the contacts of the mercury
switch attached to it.
• This completes the alarm circuit to sound an alarm. Due to this operator
knows that there is some incipient fault in the transformer.
• The transformer is disconnected and the gas sample is tested. The testing results
give the indication, what type of fault is started developing in the transformer.
• The alarm circuit does not immediately disconnects the transformer but gives only
indication to the operator.
• This is because some times bubbles in the oil circulating system may operate the alarm
circuit through actually there is no fault.
• However if a serious fault such as internal short circuit between phases, earth fault
inside the tank etc. occurs then the considerable amount of gas gets generated.
• Thus due to fast reduce level of oil, The pressure in the tank increases. Due to this the
oil rushes towards the conservator. While doing so it passes through the relay where
flap valve is present.
• The flap valve gets deflected due to the rushing oil.
• Due to this the mercury switch contacts get closed. This energizes the trip circuit which
opens the circuit breaker. Thus transformer is totally disconnected from the supply.
• The connecting pipe between the tank and the conservator should be as straight as
possible and should slope upwards conservator at a small angle from the horizontal.
This angle should be between 10 to 110
• For the economic considerations, Buchholz relays are not provided for the transformer
having rating below 500 KVA.
• Advantages:
• Normally a protective relay does not indicate the appearance of the fault,it
operates when fault occurs.
• But Buchholz relay gives an indication of the fault at very early stage.
• Thus the transformer can be taken out of service before any type of serious
damage occurs.
• It is the simplest protection in case of transformers.
• Limitations:
• 1. It can only be used for oil-immersed transformers with conservator tanks.
• 2. Only faults below the oil level are detected.
• 3. The setting of the mercury switches can not be kept too sensitive, otherwise the
relay can operate due to bubbles, vibration, earthquakes, mechanical shocks, etc.
• 4. The relay is slow to operate, having a minimum operating time of 0.1 seconds
and an average time of 0.2 seconds.
• Applications:
• 1. Local overheating
• 2. Entrance of air bubbles in oil
• 3. Core bolt insulation failure
• 4. Short-circuited laminations
• 5. Loss of oil and a reduction in the oil level due to leakage
• 6. Bad and loose electrical contacts
• 7. Short circuit between phases
• 8. Winding short circuit
• 9. Bushing puncture
• 10. Winding earth fault.
• Frame leakage protection:
• This protection is nothing but the method of providing earth fault protection to the
transformer. This protection can be provided to the metal clad switchgear.

• The metal-clad switchgear is lightly insulated from the earth.

• The frame of the switch, i.e., enclosure, is grounded. This is done through a primary of
a current transformer in between.
• The concrete foundation of switchgear and the other equipments are lightly insulated
from the ground. The resistance of this equipment to earth is about 12 ohms.
• When there is an earth fault, then fault current leaks from the frame and passes through
the earth connection provided. Thus, the primary of C.T. senses the current through
which the current passes through the sensitive earth fault relay. This operates the relay.
• Such protection is provided only for small transformers.
• For the large transformers, the differential protection is sufficient to sense and
operate in the event of an earth fault.
• Differential protection: