Chapter 1

1. Fundamentals of Research
1.1 Ways of acquiring knowledge
People largely depend on their experiences to find Solutions to many of their problems they
come across. If you personally see something or experience it, you accept it as true. Personal
experience has strong impact and is a forceful source of knowledge even if, people sometimes
make mistakes or fall for illusions. Some of the mistakes or errors which are related with
personal experiences are presented here under.
The first error, which is most frequent, is over generalization. It occurs when you believe and
assume that it applies to many other situations, too. Under certain Conditions limited
generalization may be appropriate.
The second common error is selective observation. This occurs when you take special notice of
some people or events and generalize from them. People often focus on observing particular
cases or situations, especially with preconceived ideas. We often seek out evidence that confirms
what we already know or believe and ignore the range of cases and contradictory information.
We are sensitive to features that confirm our ideas, features that might otherwise go unnoticed.
The third error is premature closure. It often operates with and reinforces the first two errors.
Premature closure occurs when you feel you have all the answers and do not need to listen, seek
information or raise questions any longer. Unfortunately, many people are little lazy or get a
little sloppy in everyday experience. You take a few pieces of evidence or look at events for a
Short while and that think you have to figured out. You look for evidence to confirm or reject an
idea and stop when a small amount of evidence is present. In Short, you jump to conclusions.
The last error is the halo effect. This comes in many forms, but basically, it says people over
generalize from what we interpret to be highly positive of prestigious. We give things or people
we respect a halo, or strong reputation.
It is a common knowledge that when people are not able to know from their experiences, they
frequently look for authority, which had the experience and the expertise to find answers to their
difficulties. You also know that, we gain knowledge from parents, teachers, and experts and from
books and television and other media. Relying on authorities also has limitations. It is easy to
overestimate the expertise of other people. You may assume that they are right when they are
not. Authorities may speak on fields they know little about, they can be wrong. An expert in one
area may try to use his of her authority in an unrelated area.
people sometimes rely (depends) on tradition for knowledge. Tradition is a special case of
authority- the authority of the past. Tradition means you accept something as being true because
it is the way things have always been. For example, his grandfather said that drinking "katikala",
local beverage, cures malaria. Some people hold to the truth because they believe it to be true.
This is what we call blind stubbornness.

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Observation is another method or approach to knowledge. Individuals who are capable of
collection information from their daily experiences draw important lessons, generalizations, and
conclusions. This method is also the basis for formulating logical questions and propositions,
hypothesis for systematic research.
Some people apply logical methods, deductive and inductive reasoning in order to solve their
problems.
Deductive reasoning - moves from the more general to the more specific. It is also called top
down approach". Deductive reasoning begins with thinking up theory about the topic of interest
and then narrows down into more specific hypothesis to be tested. Deductive reasoning is
narrower in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypothesis while inductive
reasoning is more open-ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning.
Inductive reasoning - Unlike deductive reasoning, moves from specific observations to broader
generalization and theories. It is sometimes called bottom up approach." Inductive reasoning
begins with specific observations and measures to detect patterns and regularities.
All these methods of sources will make little contribution to the advancement of knowledge. At
the end, people search for truth or knowledge through systematic study or what is commonly
known as Scientific Method.

1.2 The meaning of research

Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact
research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current
English lays down the meaning research as" a careful investigation or inquiry especially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge”. Some scholar's define research as a
"'systematized effort to gain new knowledge." Some people consider research as a movement, a
movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery.

1.3 Educational Research

Educational research refers to a systematic attempt to gain a better understanding of the
educational process, generally with a view in improving its efficiency. It is an application of
scientific method to the study of educational problems.
J.W. Best defines educational research as that activity that is directed towards the development
of a science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to
provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals through the most effective
Methods.
The primary purpose of educational research is to expand the existing body of knowledge by
providing solutions to different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching and learning
practices. Educational research also seeks answers to questions bothering on learner motivation,
development, and classroom management.

1.4 Characteristics of Educational Research

While educational research can take numerous forms and approaches, several characteristics
define its process and approach. Some of the approaches are presented as follows.

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1. Educational research is directed towards the solutions of a problem in the field of education. It
may attempt to answer a question or to determine the relation between two of more variables.
2. It emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be helpful in
predicting future occurrence.
3. Educational research usually goes beyond the specific objectives, groups or situations
investigated and infer characteristics of target population from sample observed.
4. Educational research involves getting new data from primary or firsthand source or using
existing data for anew purpose.
5. Educational research accepts only what can be verified by observation. Certain interesting
questions do not tend themselves to research procedures.
6. Educational research more often characterized by carefully designed procedures, and always
applying rigorous analysis.
7. Research Strived to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the
procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached. The researcher attempts to
eliminate personal bias.
8. Research requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the problem
and how others have investigated.
9. Educational research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems. Pushing back the
frontiers of ignorance is its goal and originality is frequently to the quality of good research
project.
10. Educational research is based on insight and imagination. It needs the service of man who
looks beyond the present.
11. Educational research requires interdisciplinary approach. It is related to the study of complex
relation about facts.
12. Educational research is not so exact research as physical Science. In the latter we can control
the events but in educational research it is not possible.
13. Educational research has a great field. Educational psycho logy, Educational philosophy,
methodology, classroom organization and management, Child development and other Subjects
are the fields of research in education.

1.5 Types/Categories of research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study,
analyzed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It's important to note
that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.
Categories based on its Purpose
1. Pure or basic research
It focuses on generating knowledge regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is
used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to
answer a theoretical research question. Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the
formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of
mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers. For example, a philosophical

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dissertation, since the aim is to generate new approaches from existing data without considering
how its findings can be applied or implemented in practice.
1. Applied research
Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem.
Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very
common in engineering, computer science medicine and other related fields. This type of
research is subdivided into two types:
2.1 Technological applied research: looks towards improving efficiency in a particular
productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive
processes.
2.2 Scientific applied research: has a predictive purpose. Through this type of research design,
we can measure certain variables to predict behaviors useful to the goods and services sector,
such as consumption. By examining consumption patterns, strategies can be developed for the
development of new products and marketing campaigns, etc.
Note: Applied research is usually based on knowledge or results obtained through theoretical
research. In fact, it is common for research projects to first establish the theoretical framework
both to define the field of study and to identify possible theories that could be tested or applied to
solve the specific problem posed in the project.

Categories based on the type of data used

1. Qualitative Research
Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret
information, have a linguistic-semiotic basis and are used in techniques such as discourse
analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.
In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be
evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data
can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting
meaning from an event or phenomenon (the 'why') than its cause (the 'how). For example,
examining the effects of sleep deprivation on mood.

2 Quantitative Research
Quantitative research study focuses into phenomena through quantitative data collection and
using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them. This allows
generalized conclusions to be projected over time.
Categories based on the Degree of Manipulation of Variables
1. Experimental Research
It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly
controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or
object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and
according to the guidelines of the scientific method. For example, randomized controlled trial
studies for measuring the effectiveness of new pharmaceutical drugs on human subjects.

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1.2 Non-Experimental Research
It is also known as an observational study, which focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its
natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement
to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used
in descriptive research. For example, a study on the effects of the use of certain chemical
substances in a particular population group can be considered a non-experimental study.

1.3 Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not
entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected,
but are chosen from existing groups or populations. This is to ensure the collected data is
relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated
into the study.

Categories based on the Time in which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal Study
It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims
to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in
medical, psychological and social areas. For example, a cohort study that analyses changes in a
particular indigenous population over
a period of 15 years.
Cross-Sectional Study
Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of
research subjects at a given time.

1.6. Ethical Issues in Research

Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition, it
educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical standard. The
following is a general summary of some ethical principles:
Honesty: Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not
fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer
review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of
thought and action.
Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own
work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.
Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

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Respect for Intellectual Property
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data,
methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.

Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication,
personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid
wasteful and duplicative publication.

Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advice students, promote their welfare and allow them to make
their own decisions.
Respect for Colleagues
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public
education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other
factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong
education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits;
respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy

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 Chapter 2
The Research Problem and Preparation of Research Proposal

2.1. The research problem

The term "research problem" refers to a specific question, issue, or area of inquiry that a
researcher wants to investigate or explore through the process of research. It represents the
central focus or challenge that guides the research endeavor. The research problem is typically
formulated based on gaps or deficiencies in existing knowledge, unresolved questions, practical
concerns, or emerging issues within a particular field or discipline.

2.2. Defining research problem

Defining the research problem is a crucial first step in any research endeavor. It sets the
direction, scope, and focus of the entire study. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to define a
research problem effectively:
a) Choose a Broad Topic: Start by identifying a general area of interest or a topic that you want
to explore. This could be something you're passionate about or an issue you've observed that
needs further investigation.
b) Review Existing Literature: Conduct a thorough review of existing literature to understand
what has already been researched within your chosen topic area. This will help you identify gaps,
unanswered questions, or areas that require further exploration.
c) Identify the Gap: Based on your review of the literature, pinpoint the specific gap or gaps in
knowledge that your research aims to address. This could be a contradiction in findings, an
unexplored aspect of the topic, or a problem that has not yet been solved.
d) Formulate Research Questions: Once you've identified the gap, translate it into one or more
research questions. These questions should be clear, focused, and specific, guiding your
investigation and providing a framework for your study.
e) Consider Significance and Feasibility: Evaluate the significance of your research problem.
Ask yourself why it's important to address this particular issue and consider its potential impact
on the field or society. Additionally, assess the feasibility of conducting research on this
problem, considering factors such as time, resources, and access to data.
f. Refine and Narrow Down: Refine your research problem and narrow its scope as needed.
Sometimes, a problem may initially seem too broad, requiring further refinement to make it
manageable within the constraints of your study.
g) Define Objectives and Hypotheses: Alongside your research questions, define the specific
objectives of your study and any hypotheses you plan to test. These should be closely aligned
with your research problem and provide more detailed guidance what you aim to achieve.
h) Review and Revise: Finally, review and revise your research problem, questions, objectives,
and hypotheses to ensure they are well-defined, coherent, and aligned with your overall research
goals.
By following these steps, you can effectively define your research problem, laying a solid
foundation for your study and ensuring its relevance, significance, and feasibility. Hence, a

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research problem is one that necessitates the discovery of the most effective solution within a
given context, aiming to determine the optimal course of action to achieve a specific objective.
2.3. Source of research problem
Sources of research problems can vary widely depending on the field and context, but some
Common sources include:
a. Theory of one's own interest: Observations, experiences, or encounters in one's professional
or personal life that spark curiosity or highlight an issue worthy of investigation.
b. Practical Problems: Real-world challenges, needs, or issues faced by individuals,
organizations, or communities that require research-based solutions.
C. Theoretical Frameworks: The application or extension of theoretical models, frameworks, or
paradigms to new contexts or phenomena.
d. Social and Cultural Context: Issues arising from societal, cultural, economic, or political
dynamics that prompt questions or inquiries.
e. Technological changes: Emerging technologies or innovations that raise new questions or
create opportunities for research.
f. Discussions with experts and authorities including the supervisor or research advisor
g. Policy Needs: Requirements or gaps in policies, regulations, or practices that necessitate
research to inform decision-making.

2.4 The research proposal

A research proposal is a systematic plan, which brings to focus the preliminary planning that
will be needed to accomplish the purpose of the proposed study. Research proposal is just like a
blueprint, which the architect prepares before the construction of building starts. More
specifically, the research proposal has the following importance:
 It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the project.
 It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow.
 It gives the research supervisor a basis for guiding the researcher while conducting the
study.
 It reduces the probability of costly mistakes.
 Preparation of a full-fledged proposal is not a one-time endeavor. But is the result of
continuous modification and amendment through discussions with experts in the field.
2.5. Components of a research proposal
1. The title
Try to come up with a title that is unique and at the same time easy to remember. It should also
make a lasting impression to the reader and make them want to come back and read your
proposal. The title must also capture the main concepts of the study. As the research process is
lengthy, it is important that you choose a topic that you are so curious about that you remain
motivated for the duration of the research process. Select a topic that you will be able to
complete within the time frame that you have for your research.

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2. Introduction to the research
This section of the proposal must provide a broad overview of the topic. The jargon and key
terms used in the particular topic must also be thoroughly explained in order to avoid confusion.
The interest of the researcher in the particular topic must also be clearly outlined while at the
same time mentioning, albeit briefly at this point, a critical review of the main literature that
covers the topic. The researcher must also provide the aim of the research by clearly and
concisely stating the problem, as well as the research questions to be dealt with. This section
must also indicate what the research study will not be covering.
3. The background
The background to the topic of your intended research must be clear and precise. It must not only
include an in- depth explanation of the key points of your subject but also all the developments
in the field as well as their timelines. The researcher must also explain the compelling interest in
the research issue as well as the personal interest (if any) in the topic. This section must also
indicate the specific area within which the topic falls in your particular field of study or subject.
Also, how will the proposed study contribute to a particular field. In other words, the impact and
the significance in a subject area must be clearly outlined. The target audience must also be
clearly described.
4. The objective of the research
It is important that the objectives are in alignment with the research questions. The objective
must indicate what the aim of research study is. In fact; objectives give you a clear indication of
the stapes that you will take to achieve the aim of research. The objectives must be specific,
measurable, and relevant and time bound.
5. The research questions
The research questions must state clearly what your proposed study is meant to address or
answer. Ensure that you use simple language that is easy to understand, while being cognizant of
the level of your intended audience.
6. Research methodology / research methods.
This section outlines the approach which the researcher will follow in order to address the
research problem and to answer all the research questions from the researcher. The research
design must be clearly defined, e.g., is the research Descriptive, Correlational, Causal- the
Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, Diagnostic or Explanatory.
State clearly
 how the research will be conducted in terms of the theoretical resources that will be used
 the theoretical framework for conducting the research, which is the theoretical approach
drawn from your literature review to support your research study
 proposed research method (s)
 a comparison of the advantages, limitations and suitability of the available approaches
methods for conducting your research
 participants, instruments, procedure, analysis,

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7. Literature review
Collect and present relevant literature on your topic of choice. It is important to include all the
main authors or experts in a particular field. Depending on your field of study or topic, ensure
that you include recent literature well as literature that presents counter arguments to the topic.
The justification for the study needs to base on existing literature.

8. Limitations and delimitations of the study

The researcher must indicate the limitations of the study which are what the researcher cannot
do or factors that are beyond the researcher's control, as well as delimitations that the researcher
chooses not to address for the purposes of the study. Delimitations are boundaries that the
researcher has set for the study. The reasons both for limitations and delimitations must be
discussed in this section.

9. Significance of the research

The researcher must provide justification for the need to conduct the study. What is the gap that
the study will fill, and what is its contribution to the existing body of knowledge? The originality
and importance of the search which will be level appropriate, must be clearly described, for
instance, the required level of originality for a fourth year research project is different to that of a
doctoral candidate. The impact of the study for the subject field must be indicated. In other
words, how will the research improve the field, who will it impact, how will it make changes in
your industry or field etc.? Lastly, the proposed research must be relatable, interesting and
engaging.
10. Time schedule
The researcher should also prepare a realistic schedule for completing the study with in the time
available. Dividing a study into phases and assigning dates for the completion of each phase help
the researcher to use his time systematically.
11. Budget schedule
The researcher proposals which are submitted to governmental or non- governmental
organizations for assistance should also include a budget schedule. This is a financial break
down that helps to the cost of the study.
12. Bibliography
All the sources that you have used for your proposal must be listed in alphabetical order using a
referencing style that your lecturer has prescribed for your subject field.

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 Chapter 3
Review of Related Literature
3.1 The Purpose of Literature Review
Literature review is an important part of any research. It provides underpinning for the research
by enlightening the researcher about the process. Any research, no matter at what scale, requires
reading about what other people have done in the area of your interest, how they have done it,
and what are the gaps in the research in that area. Any new production of knowledge is
necessarily based on previous and existing knowledge. You need information to support or
refuse your arguments and write about your findings. You need to provide evidence that you are
aware of the current trends and issues in your area of interest and are cognizant of the current
state of knowledge on the subject.
Reviews vary in scope and depth. Different kinds of reviews are stronger in fulfilling one or
another of the following four goals.
Some purposes for including a literature review in your research paper/thesis are: [Link] basic
reason for literature review is to contextualize your research. Every academic research project is
related to a particular area and is a link in a chain of similar research taking place in the area.
This contextualization shows your awareness of the work going on in your field and also
identifies the niche you wish to occupy.
2. It gives you ideas about how to classify and present your data. When you read critically, you
can see how writers explore between facts and how facts and relationships are explained.
Methods used by other writers may not be suitable for your purposes, but they may give you
ideas about how you might categorize your data.
3. Literature review helps you to distinguish what has been done from what needs to be done and
how it should be done. Readings in an area reveal gaps in the literature and this fine tones your
research question and subsequent research methods.
4. Literature review assists you to synthesize your ideas and gain perspectives to look at your
research problem with different lens. Other researchers may have looked at similar issue but
from different angles. This knowledge can fortify you to find your own angles.
The basic reason for literature review is to contextualize your research
• It gives your ideas about how to classify and present your data
• Literature review helps you to distinguish what has been done form what needs to be
done and how it should be done
• Literature review assists you to synthesize your ideas and gain perspectives to look at
your research problem with different lens To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of
knowledge and establish credibility.
• To show the path of prior research and how & current project is linked to it.
• To integrate and summarize what is known in an area.
• To learn from others and stimulate new ideas.
3.2 Sources of literature review
One important question that new researcher always ask is "Where do we find the material for
doing a literature review?"

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Research for your literature review can be categorized as either primary or secondary in nature.
The simplest definition of primary sources is either original information (such as survey data) or
a first person account of an event (such as an interview transcript). Whereas secondary sources
are any published or unpublished works that describe, summaries, analyses, evaluate, interpret or
review primary source materials. Secondary sources can incorporate primary sources to support
their arguments. Ideally, good research should use a combination of both primary and secondary
sources. For example, if a researcher were to investigate the introduction of a law and the
impacts it had on a community, he/she might look at the transcripts of the parliamentary debates
as well as the parliamentary commentary and news reporting surrounding the laws at the time.
Examples of Primary and secondary source are listed below:
Primary sources: Diaries, Audio recordings , Transcripts, Original manuscripts, Government
documents, Court records, Speeches, Statistical data ,Artworks, Film footage, Photographs etc.
Secondary sources: Journal articles, Textbooks, Dictionaries and encyclopedias. Biographies,
Political commentary, Newspaper articles, Theses, Documentaries Critical analyses etc.

3.3 Ways of writing he literature review

The Presentation of the Bibliography

Different publishers adopt different styles of citing information from the source (e.g. books,
journals, reports, etc). The citations are listed as either bibliography or references, which are then
arranged alphabetically by author's names and then, where necessary, by date and letter. Single-
author books and articles appear before co-authored articles and books by the same author with
earliest dated first. Where there is more than one reference for an author in any one year, the
order is alphabetical by title, and lower case letters added to denote more than one publication in
that year.
The citations should follow a standard format. At this particular juncture, we shall limit
ourselves to using the Harvard method, as it is believed to be highly practiced by many authors.
It has also an advantage of excluding footnotes, which are awkward to deal with.
(A) Citing books
The citation of books follows the use of either underlining or italics. The presentation should
be: Author's family name, comma, initials of first name(s), year of publication in brackets, title
of the book in upper and lower case. Underlined or in italics, coma, edition (if applicable to
followed by comma), place of publication, colon, publisher, full stop.
Book and articles often have more than one author. The names of all the authors should be
given in the bibliography in the order presented by the authors themselves, linked by the word
'and’ for the last named.
Ethiopian Authors should be listed in the alphabetical order of first name. For example,
Belachew Kebede should be listed B and not under K. Write Ethiopian name in full in the
bibliography as they are given in the publication you are citing. Avoid using honoric titles Such
as Ato, Dejach, Dr., Wzro, etc in citation or references.

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Example
 Atkinson, RL, Atkinson, RC and Hilgard, ER (1983) Introduction to Psychology, 5thed,
New York; Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
 Blyth, WAL and Derricot, R (1977) The Social Significance of Middle Schools, London:
Batsford.
 TeshomeWagaw (1979) Education in Ethiopia: Prospect and Retrospect, Ann Arbor:
Michigan University press
(b) Citing articles journals
A slightly different format is used when citing contributions to journals: author's family name,
comma, initials of first name(s), comma, year of publication in brackets, title of contribution in
upper and lower case and in quotation marks, comma, volume number in bold (heavy) type, issue
number in brackets, comma, the page numbers of the article prefaced by pp, full stop.
Examples
 Best, D(985) "Primary and secondary qualities: waiting for an educational Go dot",
Oxford Revues of education, 1,(1), pp 73-84.
 SeyoumTeferra (1992) "Brain Drain among Academician in Two Higher Education
Institutions in Ethiopia" The Ethiopia Journal of Education, 8(2), pp 27-46.
C. Citing contributions in books
Where books are made of contributions from a variety of authors the following order and format
should be used. Cite author’s surname, coma, initials of first names(s), comma, year of
publication in brackets, then the title of the contribution in upper and lower case and in quotation
marks, comma, followed by ‘in', the editor's surname followed by comma, the initials then (ed),
the title of the book in upper and lower case underlined or in italics, comma, publisher, comma,
place of publication, comma, page numbers full-stop.
Example
Labov, W. (1968) ’’The reflection of social processes in linguistic structures", in Fishman, JA
(ed) Readings in the sociology of language, Mouton, the Hague, pp 47-63.
(d) Government publications
This should be cited as follows: name of the responsible department, year of publications in
brackets, title of the publication in upper and lower case underlined or in italics, comma,
publisher, comma, place of publication. If there are official series codes these should be cited
after the title.
Example
Department of Education and Science (1985). Education for All: Report of the committee of
inquiry into the education of children from ethnic minority groups, London: Cmnd 9453,
IHMSO,
(e) Theses
Occasionally you may wish to quote from a thesis and should follow this format: author's
surname, comma, initials(s), year of award in brackets, title in upper and lower case underlined
or in italics, comma, degree awarded followed by Thesis, comma and the name of the warding
institution.

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Example
Solomon Abebe(1985). Approaches to Learning at Secondary School: their
Identification and facilitation, PhD Thesis, Addis Ababa University.
(f) Mimeographed materials
Mimeographs refer to duplicated materials, such as papers presented to conferences but not
formally published. The information required is: name of the author(s) and initials, the date, the
title of the paper, the circumstances under which the paper was presented, and the fact that it was
mimeo (duplicated). The title of the paper is in quotation marks and has initial capitals.
Example
Adams, RG (1968) "Aspects of documentation in the social sciences", paper presented to the
1998 Annual Conferences of the British Education Management and Administration Society,
mimeo.
3.4 Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing may be defined as re-stating or re-warding a passage from a text, giving the same
meaning in another form. The main objective of paraphrasing is to present an author's ideas in
your own words. Often paraphrasing fails due to:
i. Misunderstanding of the passage by the reader, or
ii. Partial understanding of the passage and trying to guess at the
meaning rather than fully understanding it.
Therefore, accurate paraphrasing can be achieved through close reading and complete
understanding of what is you reading. To facilitate your paraphrasing, the following five
guidelines are helpful:
 Place the information found in the source in a new order.
 Break the complex ideas into smaller units of meaning.
 Use concrete, direct vocabulary in place of technical jargon found in the original source.
 Vary the sentence patterns.
 Use synonyms for the words in the source.

Direct Quotes
At times you may want to use direct quotes in addition to paraphrases and summaries. To
incorporate direct quotes smoothly, observe the following general principles.
When your quotations are four lines in length or less, surround them with quotation marks and
incorporate them into your text. When your quotations are longer than four lines, set them off
from the rest of the text by indenting five spaces from the left and right margins and triples
spacing above and below them. You do not need to use quotation marks with such block quotes.
Follow the block quote with the punctuation found in the source. Then skip two spaces before
parenthetical citation. Do not include a period after the parentheses.

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 Chapter 4
4.1. The concept of sampling
Sampling is part of the total population. It can be an individual element or a group of elements
selected from the population. Although it is a subset, it is representative of the population and
suitable for research in terms of cost, convenience and time. The sample group can be selected
based on a probability or a non-portability approach. A sample usually consists of various units
of the population. The size of the sample is represented by n.
Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for
the purpose of determining the characteristics of the whole population. In other words, the
process of selecting a sample from a population using special sampling techniques called
sampling. It should be ensured in the sampling process itself that the sample selected is
representative of the population. Using sampling technique saves time, reduces cost and has
more reliable results.

4.2. Defining the population and sample

A researcher draws a sample from a larger pool of cases, or elements. A sampling element is the
unit of analysis or case in a population. It can be a person, a group, an organization written
document or symbolic message, or even Social action (E.g an arrest, a divorce. etc) that is being
measured. The large pool is the population, which has an important role in sampling. Sometimes,
the term universe is used interchangeably with population. Population or universe refers to any
collection of specific group of cases to be studied. It could be human being or of non-human
entities. A population containing a finite number of individuals, members or units is called a
finite population. For instance, the total number of towns in Ethiopia, the people of Ethiopia,
the number of books in the library, etc, presents a finite population. On the other hand,
population with an infinite number of units is called infinite population. This is sometimes
called hypothetical population. for instance, the population of heads and tails obtained by tossing
a coin with unlimited number of times, the number of stars in the sky represents infinite
population.
A complete enumeration of all items in the population is known as a census inquiry: A sample as
a subset of a population to which the researcher has selected with due care intends to generalize
the results of the study to the entire population. If you represent this population by N and the
sample by n it is always true that n<N. it should be well known that n is the representative of N.
it will be assumed that the information gathered from N.

A researcher begins with an idea of the population (E.g., all people in a city) but defines it more
precisely. The term target population refers to the specific pool of cases that you want to study.
The researcher can take a sample from a population by developing a specific list that closely
approximates all the elements in the population. This list is a sampling frame. He or she can
choose from many types of sampling frames: telephone directories, tax records, driver’s license
records, and so on. Listing the elements in a population is often difficult because there may be no
good list of elements in a population. Therefore, a good sampling frame would be important and
necessary.
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Terminology
Here are some important terms Used in Sampling
 A sample is a set of elements taken from a larger population.
 The sample is a subset of the population which is the full set of elements or people or
whatever you are sampling.
 A statistic is a numerical characteristic of a sample, but a parameter is a numerical
characteristic of population.
 Damping error refers to the difference between the value of a sample statistic, such as e
sample mean, and the true value of the population parameter, such as the population
mean. Note: some error is always present in sampling. With random Sampling methods,
the error is random rather than systematic.
 The response rate is the percentage of people in the sample selected for the study who
actually participate in the study.
 A sampling frame is just a list of all the people that are in the population.

4.3 Characteristics of a Good Sampling Design

The basic features of a quality sample design include the following:
 Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
 Sample design must be the one, which results in a small sampling error.
 Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
 Sample design should be the one in which systematic bias can be controlled in a better
way.
 Sample design should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in
general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
4.4 Types of Sampling
There are different kinds of sampling designs depending on the type of study being conducted
and the kinds of conclusions the researcher would like to be able to draw from the study results.
These differences determine how members of the sample should be chosen. Generally speaking
there, are two broad categories of sampling: probability and non-probability sampling.

4.4.1 Probability sampling (Random sampling)

There are a variety of ways to apply randomization (which is sometimes referred to as
probability sampling) that can be employed to achieve a sample that can be considered
representative. Some of these will deviate from selecting, directly from a given population,
avoiding the problems of beginning with enormously large lists that may not even exist.
Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection. In this type of sampling, the
units of the population are chosen by means of certain procedures, which ensure that, every
members of the population has one fixed probability of being included in the sample. Probability
sampling is the most preferred type of sampling because of the following peculiar characteristics:
 The units of the population are not selected based on the discretion of the researcher
 Each unit in the population has some known probability of entering the sample
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  Weights appropriate to the probabilities are used in the analysis of the sample
 The process of sampling is automatic in one or more steps of selection of units in the
sample

There are five common methods of selecting probability sample. These include simple random
sampling, systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and multi-
stage sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

The first type of random sampling is called simple random sampling. Simple random sampling
does involve taking a random sample directly from the population. This approach is limited by
the availability of a complete list of the population, one that could be very large and not feasible
or even possible to obtain. It's the most basic type of random sampling.
 It is an equal probability sampling method. This means that "everyone in the sampling
frame has an equal chance of being in the final sample."
 You should understand that using an equal probability sampling method is important
because that is what produces 'representative" samples (i.e., samples that represent the
populations from which they were selected)
It is the most basic and well knows, however.
 Sampling experts recommend random sampling "without replacement" rather than
random sampling "with replacement" because the former is a little more efficient in
producing representative samples (i.e., it requires slightly fewer people and is therefore a
little cheaper).
To draw a simple random sample:
 One way is to put all names from your population into a hat and then select a subset
(e.g., pull out 100 names from the hat).
 These days, researchers often use computer programs to randomly select their samples.
 To use a computer program (called a random number generator) you must make sure that
you give each of the people in your population a number. Then the program will give
you a list of randomly selected numbers within the range you give it. After getting the
random numbers, you identify the people with those randomly selected numbers and try
to get them to participate in your research study.
2. Systematic random Sampling
Systematic random sampling is the second type of random sampling.
 It is an equal probability sampling method.
Systematic sampling involves three steps:
 First, determine the sampling interval, which is symbolized by "k," (it is the population
size divided by the desired sample size).
 Second, randomly select a number between 1 and k, and include that person in your
sample.

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  Third also include each Kth element in your sample. For example if k is 10 and your
randomly selected number between1 and 10 was 5, then you will select persons 5, 15, 25,
35, 45, etc.
3. Stratified random sampling
It consists of taking random samples from various strata in society, such as man and women,
employed and unemployed, etc. This depends on what the researcher is interested in: Does the
color of a Rover affect its steering? Does the age, social and educational background, or hair
color of Germans obviously more potentially relate to their ability to speak English? Some strata
are obviously more relevant than others and thus possible relations are worth investigating. This
is actually the result of defining different subpopulations within a larger population.
 First, stratify your sampling frame (e.g.,, divide it into the males and the females if you
are using gender as your stratification variable).
 Second, take a random sample from each group (i.e., take a random sample of males and
a random sample of females). Put these two sets of people together and you now have
your final sample.

4. Cluster sampling
It takes into account the difficulty of sampling from the large population by randomly selecting
clusters of subjects. for example, it would be possible to select randomly 20 schools nationwide
and then include all the pupils in these schools for a study. In this type of sampling you randomly
select clusters rather than individual type units in the first stage of sampling. A cluster has more
than one unit in it (e.g. a school, a classroom, a team).
The first type of cluster sampling is called one-stage cluster sampling. To select a one-stage
cluster sample, you first select a random sample of clusters, Then you include in your final
sample all of the individual units that are in the selected clusters.
The second type of cluster sampling is called two-stage cluster sampling. In the first stage you
take a random sample of clusters (i.e., just like you did in one- stage cluster sampling). Then in
the second stage, you take a random sample of elements from each of the clusters you selected in
stage one.
Important points about cluster sampling is
 An equal probability sampling method. Only if the clusters are approximately the same
size.
 When clusters are not the same size, you must fix the problem by using the technique
called "probability proportional to size" (PPS) for selecting your clusters in stage one.
This will make your cluster sampling an equal probability samplıng method, and it will,
therefore, produce representative samples.

5. Multi Stage sampling

It is an extension of cluster sampling and is often used in selecting subjects for a survey. This
involves successive random selections; for example researcher might randomly select 10 local
education authorities or school districts, randomly select 3 schools in each, and randomly select
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10 teachers in each school giving a total of 300 teachers. This is a further development of the
cluster sampling. This technique is used for large- scale surveys or inquiries extending to a
considerably large geographical area like an entire country, or nation. In this case, the researcher
has to use two, three, four or more stage sampling. The first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as regional states, then administrative zones, then woredas, and finally
certain families within woredas.

4.4.2 Non-Probability sampling (nonrandom sampling)

In non-probability sampling, the units are selected at the discretion of the researcher. Such
samples derive their control from the judgment of the researcher. Some of the disadvantages of
non-probability sampling include the following

1) No confidence can be placed in the data obtained from such samples, as they do not represent
the larger population. Therefore, the results obtained cannot be generalized for the entire
population.

2) The selective sampling is based on convenience affects the variance within groups as well as
between groups and so sampling error of such samples cannot be determined.

3) Non-Probability samples depend exclusively on uncontrolled factors and researchers' insight,

and there is no statistical method determines the margin of sampling errors

4) Sometimes such samples are based on an obsolete frame, which does not adequately cover
the population.

The other major type of non-probability sampling used in quantitative research is nonrandom
sampling (i.e., when you do not use one of the random sampling techniques). There are four
main types of nonrandom sampling:

1. The first type of nonrandom sampling is called convenience sampling-i.e. it simply involves
using the people who are the most available or the most easily selected to be in your research
study. Convenience, accidental or volunteer sampling involves taking group or individuals that
are available. In general, the availability and willingness to respond are the major factors in
selecting the respondents. Often you will take such a sample to test ideas or even to gain ideas
about a subject of interest.

2. The second type of nonrandom sampling is called quota sampling- i.e., it involves setting
quotas and then using convenience sampling to obtain those quotas.

Quota sampling is the non-probability sampling, which is equivalent to stratified sampling with
added requirement that each stratum is generally represented in the sample in the same
proportion as in the entire population. When stratified random sampling is impractical to use
because of difficulty of setting complete list of the units in the strata of a population, quota
sampling becomes appropriate. Even though quota sampling is not probabilistic, the researchers

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obviously must take every precaution to keep from biasing selection and this makes sure that the
sample is as representative and generalizable as possible. The major biasing factor is that data
collectors may take the path of least resistance when sampling, avoiding houses with unfriendly
dogs or unfriendly people. They may also avoid climbing stairs or hills, and may under select
from certain tribes, sex; or groups. Or they may confine their sampling to their friends or to
habitués of the neighborhood bar. These tactics will lend a false homogeneity to the data and
keep them from being random.

3. The third type of nonrandom sampling is called purposive sampling- i.e., the researcher
specifies the characteristics of the population of interest and then locates individuals who match
those characteristics.

In purposive or judgmental sampling the investigator does not necessarily have a quota to fill
from within various strata, as in quota sampling; but neither does he just pick the-nearest warm
bodies, as in convenience sampling. Rather, the researcher uses his own judgment about which
respondents to choose, and picks only those who best meet the purposes of the study. The
obvious advantage of purposive or deliberate sampling is that the researcher can use his research
skill and prior knowledge to choose respondents.

4. The fourth type of non-random sampling is called snowball sampling- i.e., each research
participant is asked to identify other potential research participants who have a certain
characteristic. You start with one or a few participants, ask them for more, find those, ask then
for some, and continue until you have a sufficient sample size. This technique might be used for
a hard to find population (e.g., where no sampling frame exists).

Snowball Samplings- The term snowball" stems from the analogy of a snowball, begins Small
but becomes bigger and bigger as it rolls downhill. Adapted from such a concept, a Snowball
sampling has gained popularity among scholars conducting observational research and
community studies.

4.5. Sampling Errors and Sampling Bias

The errors created due to sampling and of which the average magnitude can be determined are
called sampling errors, while others are called sampling bias.

4.5.1 Sampling errors

These are errors that are created because of chance only. Although a sample is properly selected,
there will be some difference between the estimates obtained from the Sample (sample statistics)
and the actual value in the population (parameters).The mean of the sample might be different
from the population mean by chance alone. The standard deviation of the sample will also
probably be different from the population standard deviation. We can therefore expect some
difference between the sample statistics (such as the mean and the standard deviation) and the
corresponding population values, known as parameters. This difference is known as the sampling
error. Developing a sampling distribution for the sample means can minimize such a difference.
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In relation to this point, one should note that the mean of the sampling distribution and the mean
of the population arc equal. Besides, the variation due to random fluctuation (or sampling error)
decreases as the sample size increases. However, it is impossible to avoid the sampling error
completely.

4.5.2 Sampling Bias (Systematic Error)

Sampling bias is a non-sampling error, which can be, created from errors in the sampling
procedures, and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. Such error
occurs because of human mistakes and not chance. The possible factors that contribute to the
creation of such bias include inappropriate sampling frame, accessibility bias, defective
measuring device, and non-response bias (or defects in data collection).

1. Inappropriate Sampling: If the sampling unit is misrepresentation of the universe; it will result
in sampling bias. This could happen when a researcher gathers data from a sample that was
drawn from some favored locations. It occurs when there is a failure of all units in the universe
to have probability of being selected for the sample (under coverage).

2. Accessibility Bias: In a considerable number of research studies, researchers tend to select

respondents who are the most accessible to them (easily reached). But it should be noted that
when all members of the population arc not equally accessible, the researcher must provide some
mechanisms of controlling so as to ensure the absence of over-and under-representation of some
respondents.

3. Defective Measuring Device: In some instances, the questions may not be phased that they are
fully understandable by respondents. Consequently, the answers obtained are not accurate.
Furthermore, on any measuring device (or instrument), most individuals are Likely to coding,
etc. For instance, if in the testing of a sample of students for general mental ability, the
researcher unintentionally allows an extra time of 5 minutes for the test, there will probably be a
systematic tendency for the sample statistic to be higher than it should be and, therefore, there
will be a bias in the measurement of mental ability.

4. None-Response Bias: This is an incomplete coverage of sample or inability to get complete

responses from all the individuals initially included in the sample. This arises due to failure in to
respond. Non-response errors are also due to the respondents not possessing correct information
or due to their giving deliberately biased responses. The respondents may intentionally give false
information in response to some sensitive questions. For instance, people may not tell the truth
about drinking habits, incomes, or opinions about minorities, sometimes the respondents may
give wrong answers because of ignorance. For example, a person may not remember the exact
amount he spent on clothes during the last year. If asked in a survey, he may give an inaccurate
answer. All of these examples result in non-sampling errors.

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 4.5.3 Sample Size Determination

The size of the sample is determined by a number of factors such as the availability of resources
(e.g., cost, time, and personnel), the nature of the population (degree of heterogeneity or
homogeneity), the degree of accuracy, we seek of magnitude of difference we wish to test, the
confidence levels we wish to use, the appropriate size of the population from which the sample is
drawn, and the response rate. In any case, the size of the actual sample must be larger enough;

 To allow for reliable analysis of cross-tabulation;

 To provide for desired levels of accuracy in estimates of proportions and
 To test for significance of differences between proportions.

When deciding upon sample size, the researcher must note the following points:

1. The size of population to be sampled

Even if general rules are hard to make without knowledge of the specific population, researchers
recommend that a sample size of around 30 cases seems to be the bare minimum for studies
which require statistical data analysis and which do not involve many subdivısions of data.
Although some studies (like laboratory experiments, qualitative studies, etc) use fewer than 30
cases, experienced researchers advise selection of 100 or more cases.

2. The actual number of cases from which the data are collected

In some instance, the data actually gathered might be substantially fewer because of respondents
who cannot be located, refuse to be interviewed, or return illegible or otherwise unusable
questionnaires. Furthermore, the actual number of cases varies from "question to question"
depending On the percentage of respondents who fail to answer each particular question. For
example, respondents who arc in a hurry to complete the questionnaire may inadvertently omit
some items. Other respondents may deliberately leave blank questions that they feel are an
invasion of privacy (e.g questions about finances, Sex, or religion). A question that requires
much thought before it can be answered properly may also be left unanswered. Other questions
may be ambiguous or have unclear answer categories, causing respondents to refuse to answer.
What is more, some questions are hot applicable to all respondents, thus lowering the sampling
size for that question.

3. The amount of heterogeneity of the variable

Within the population the grater the heterogeneity among members of a population on a variable,
the larger the sample required. However, for populations in which there is no variability or
heterogeneity on a variable, a sample of any size will suffice, regardless of the population size
(that is, in case of complete homogeneity the population size is immaterial in determining sample
size).

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 4. The number of cell the sample may have to be subdivided during data analysis.

Every researcher is required to estimate the number of cells in which the sample may have to be
shared during data analysis and ensure an adequate sample size for each subdivision. The cross-
tabulation analysis of variables requires the following criteria to be met with:

(a) Each category of an independent variable included in a cross-tabulation should contain at

least 50 cases, for percentages calculated on the basis of fewer than 50 cases tend to be
unreliable. The minimum sample size required to ensure at least 50 cases in each category of the
independent variable is obtained by dividing 50 by the proportions (Ps) of total cases you expect
in the smallest category of the variable, i.e., n = 50/Ps.

(b) The expected number of cases in each cell of a table should be at least five. The sample
required to ensure a minimum expected cell size of five is obtained by dividing five by the
product of the proportions falling in the smallest categories of the variable in the cross tabulation
table.

4.6 data gathering tools

Different methods for gathering information regarding specific variables of the study aiming to
employ them in the data analysis phase to achieve the results of the study, gain the answer of the
research questions or test the hypotheses are referred to as data collection.

Data collection as a main stage in research can overshadow the quality of achieving results by
decreasing the possible errors which may occur during a research project. Therefore, alongside a
good design for the study, plenty of quality time should be spent in the collection of data to gain
appropriate results since insufficient and inaccurate data prevents assuring the accuracy of
findings.

Generally, data collection methods are divided in to two main categories of Primary Data
Collection Methods and Secondary Data Collection Methods.
Data that is not published yet and is the first-hand information which is not changed by any
individual is known as primary data. In other words, researchers use different approaches to
gather and collect primary data for a specific purpose. Thus, the validity, reliability,
objectivity, and authenticity of data are more in primary data in comparison with the secondary
data types. These qualities are important in some types of research methods such as statistical
surveys as the use of the information is specific to a problem and cannot be provided from
published references. Thus, although the research can be conducted based on secondary data, it is
not possible to achieve a reliable result without using primary data as well. As secondary data is
manipulated and changed by others, Using primary sources, helps to gain high-quality data
which can improve results, and you also have the opportunity to add further data when required
during the research procedures. Primary data collection; however, can face difficulties in
defining different terms in collecting data for example, the reasons behind data collection, what
to collect, when to collect data, and the type of data collection method. It is also an expensive

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approach, obtains the majority of research budget, and needs to provide funding resources from
different agencies. You need to ensure the standard of collected data by accurately collecting
them, eliminating unnecessary data and also not using fake and cooked-up ones. To achieve
primary data, different sources can be used such as experiments, surveys, interviews, and
questionnaires.
Secondary data is the data gathered from published sources meaning that the data is already
gathered by someone else for another reason and can be used for other purposes in a research as
well. In all papers, the literature review section is based on secondary data sources. Thus,
secondary data is an essential part of research that can help to get information from past studies
as basis conduction for implementing a research or as the required background information. It
can also help to design a study and provide a baseline to compare primary results. However, it
should be noted that researchers need to re-examine the validity and reliability of these
backgrounds to gain authentic results. There are different sources of secondary data such as
records, books, research articles, and internet articles.

I. TYPES OF DATA
Before selecting a data collection method, the type of data that is required for the study should be
determined. This section aims to provide asummary of possible data types to go through the
different data collection methods and sources of data based on these categories. However, we
need to
understand what data is exactly? The embodied information in terms of figures or facts used to
analyze for different calculations and finally gain a result to address the study question or
hypothesis testing is known as data. Data can be categorized using different ways including
quantitative and qualitative.

A. Qualitative Data
Both nominal and descriptive non-numerical data which cannot be shown as numbers are known
as qualitative data in words or sentences format. This type of data answers to "how and why"
questions in aresearch study and mostly covers data regarding feelings, perceptions, and
emotions using unstructured approaches such as interviews for data collection. Researchers use
different methods such as using audiotapes, sketches, notes, and photographs to gather these
data.
Although qualitative data can be suitable to achieve further information to explore and determine
neweffects and consequences of programs on the research, and finally enhance the quality of
quantitative results, its implementation is dependent on spending a considerable amount of cost
and time and the results may not be generalizable. It means the findings of case studies can be
used just for the same issuesas the general patterns for different studies. Qualitative methods
encompass three main categories
including observations, document reviews, and in-depth interviews in spite of the fact that there
are less common ways to gather qualitative data.

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B. Quantitative Data
Numerical data which is mathematically generated and computed is recognized as quantitative
[Link] are different scales for measuring quantitative data including nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio scales. Scales can be categorized into two general types as “Rating Scales and
attitudeScales” as well. Rating scales assign a numerical value to the points or categories to
evaluate them. On theother hand, more complex methods are attitude scales that determine the
predisposition of people toward any individual, phenomenon, or object. Quantitative method
addresses the
“what” question type in a study. These approaches employ structured data collection methods
and are based on random sampling. In comparison to the qualitative methods, these methods are
regarded to be cheaper, and the findings can be standardized to achieve other results based on
some criteria such as size.
The findings can be easily generalized and summarized as well. A simple comparison between
the result is also possible. Nevertheless, these methods also can face unexpected differences and
some difficulties as
the implementation and investigation capacity are limited in these methods. These approaches
usedifferent methods such as experiments and structured interviews for data collection.

[Link] COLLECTION METHODS

4.7.1 Questionnaires
The questionnaire is one of the common devices for collecting information and a form or
instrument including a set of questions and secure answers that respondents (from a specific
population) fill to give the researcher information needed for the study. The data given from a
questionnaire cannot be achieved
from the secondary resources. These forms are suitable to gather both qualitative and quantitative
data. Although they are not the most common methods used in qualitative research, they are
useful in case of facing a large sample in a study.
A questionnaire is utilized for different purposes, although it is commonly used to gather
statistical data. It can be designed for measuring separate variables such as behaviors,
preferences, and facts. Although the preparation and administration of a questionnaire are not
hard, specific points in these processes should be required. This form is used, normally, when it
is not possible to discuss each participant personally .Thus, it helps to gather data from different
individuals, groups, and companies easily. Questionnaires can be categorized based on different
aspects such as types of questions and administration modes.

A) Types of Questions
Question types can be categorized into closed-ended and open-ended questions. In close-ended
questions, the respondents face a specific range of answers to choose from, but the respondent is
asked to provide formulated answers using open-ended questions. Qualitative questions are
open-ended. In this type, then, the answers should be coded into a response scale. Therefore, in

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comparison to the open-ended questions, close-ended ones are pre-coded to make the work
quickly be implemented.

B) The Mode of Administration

Questionnaires can be implemented in different ways. A face-to-face questionnaire mode can be
used which provides the chance of presenting the questions orally, paper-and-pencil types can be
utilized with the items presented in the paper or computerized questionnaires for data collection.
Questionnaires can be also utilized through telephone, online, or even posting. An online
questionnaire is a cost-efficient option; however, you should consider the possibility of missing
samples due to problems with internet access. In these types, different online survey services can
be used which provide questionnaires for the purpose of study, and then the collected data can be
easily added to the analyzing software. In all these choices, it is important to secure ethical
concerns such as the confidentiality of participants. On the other hand, participants should try to
answer the questions politely and clearly.
C) General Rules for Constructing a Questionnaire
● Use simple and short questions as much as possible;
● Navigate respondents clearly to avoid any difficulty and motivate participants through
answering questions.
● Use understandable, simple, and clear statements for all respondents with different
educational levels;
● Utilize positive sentences;
● Do not use more than one question (double-barreled) in one item;
● Add an open-answer possibility after providing the listed answers and where
possible;
● Avoid making assumptions for the respondents
● Try to increase reliability by appropriate word selection;
● Avoid directing the respondent to any answer using objective questions
including clues,
Advantages of Questionnaires
Questionnaires provide several merits in comparison to other survey methods as listed in the
following:
● collecting a large amount of data from a large sample size;
● Time saver;
● Cost-effective options;
● highly structured;
● The possibility of gaining high accurate data;
● the possibility of being carried out by other people instead of the researcher regardless of
affecting the reliability and validity term, and the possibility of group administrations;
● analyzing the results easily by entering the achieved data to the software quickly in the
majority of cases.

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 Disadvantages of Questionnaires
However, there are also several demerits that are not negligible. There are several difficulties
researchers may face using questionnaires as the following:
● Hard or inadequate to perceive gathered data in some cases such as emotional, feelings, and
behavioral changes;
● Human errors for example if the respondent is forgetful and cannot consider the whole concept
truly;
● Determining the reliability of answers is not possible;
● The possibility of misunderstanding the questions which can over shadow the answers;
● The effects of differences in human beliefs on their answers in some cases since even a
standard subject can be considered good for one group and bad for others
● Facing difficulties when participants need clarifications for particular questions in impersonal
administrations and the possibility of failing to answer those questions.
4.7.2. Interview
In interviews, as a fundamental way of social interaction, questions are asked and data is
collected using provided answers and it is in contrast to the questionnaire with indirectly
collected data methodology. Thus, the chance of getting confidential data from interviewees is
also possible; however, it requires special skills which are not necessary for questionnaires.
Researchers can employ different methods to conduct an interview and perform them in
individual, or group face-to-face interviews, as well as not personally for example using
telephone, computer, etc.
A) Types of Interviews
In addition to the administration mode of interviews which was discussed before, interview types
can be structured, semi-structured, and unstructured.
▪ Structured interviews:
In these kinds of interviews, interviewee’s face the same set of standardized questions which are
pre-prepared before the interview session. The possible responses are limited, and participants
may just face a few open-ended questions. In case of gaining a good understanding of the
research topic, it is possible to provide a questionnaire, or an interview guide based on the
structural interview characteristics. A suitable place to use these kinds is when there is a
comprehensive literature review about the topic of study or to utilize it following a less structural
method.
▪ Semi-structured Interviews
Semi-structured interviews are formal and are conducted based on a guide. The interviewers ask
questions considering the guidance; however, when researchers or interviewers need extra
information, they can continue the conversation based on the questions provided ahead of time.
For example, it is an appropriate choice when you do not have the chance of interviewing with
individuals more than once and you should gather clear, comparable, and reliable qualitative data
in the first meeting. Thus, training of the interviewers and the design of open-end questions are
important points. It can also be used when you aim to develop a subject such as a culture, setting,

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or experience which is not completely understood, and as an initial step for developing another
more-structured method like a survey or an interview.
▪ Unstructured interviews
Unstructured interviews are informal methods of interviewing without using a specific structure.
There is no guide in this type, and they just conduct casual conversations. Interviewers collect
data using brief notes and try to memorize the responses. This process is a part of field
observation and can be a good choice when there is limited literature about the field of study.
In these forms of interviews as they are "on the fly", the chance of tape-recording or writing
detailed notes is slim, thus, the researcher should try to participate in the setting directly as soon
as possible and should approve the notes and achieve the final data quickly after the observation
to avoid losing information. Like semi-structured methods, informal ones can be also a
fundamental step for preparing structured interviews. These methods can enhance the trust of the
interviewees for the next levels as well, as both sides speak openly and freely to each other.
Achieving qualitative data using informal interview methods can help the researcher to
understand other individuals' experiences. These types also allow asking questions to the
interviewees as a follow-up response to the interview questions.
Merits and Demerits of interview
The main advantages and disadvantages of conducting interviews as a method of collecting data
are provided in the following.
The merits can be listed as:
● Gathering rich, in-depth, and detailed data directly
● The opportunity of obtaining knowledge about past and future for particular events and
features
● The flexibility of administration of interviews
● The possibility of an explanation of the questions to the interviewees to clarify the questions
On the other hand, there are some difficulties that may be faced when conducting an interview
method including:
● Hiring and training interviewers
● Complex process
● Scheduling where and when to meet people and the possibility of changing plans at the last
minutes
● The possibility of missing information
● The coding process can be difficult and long
● Being expensive
4.7.3 Focus group discussion (FGD)
This method, simply, is a mixture of interviewing and observation. This method is used to
discover human behavior, attitudes, and respondents facing a particular concept. This in-depth
field method gathers a group of individuals, normally between 6-12 people in each group,
commonly with a shared characteristic such as sex, age, and educational status to discuss a
specific study field. The mediators aim to stimulate and discover the behavior of the participants
and the reasons of each behavior using social dynamic of the group.

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For this purpose, data regarding a particular subject is collected using a semi-structured interview
and utilizing a specific guide in a relaxed and friendly atmosphere which helps the interviewees
to easily trust the facilitators of the program and answer them honestly. As in interviews which
interviewers should be trained to be supportive and good listeners, the training of the mediators
is essential also here to gain special skills such as analyzing the participants’ behavior,
facilitating, controlling, and managing the meeting sessions, listening and observing the events.
Furthermore, to record data and provide detailed
notes an observer often helps the mediator.
This method is used in times of aiming to pretest a concept or an idea, generate an idea, discover
atopic further, discover new areas, clarify the findings of other methods, and achieve a full
understanding of a commonly social concept using small groups by stimulating discussions. It
can also assist researchers to develop the interviews and surveys. When a concept is hard to
observe, it can also be a useful method to obtain a concentrated observation set in a short period
of time. When the results of a concept cannot be discussed statistically, this method helps to gain
meaning for the findings of a survey.
Advantages and Disadvantages of FGD
The merits and demerits of the focus group method are focused on in this section as these types
also possess both. They have several merits as:
● They can help to discover social, health, and cultural concepts for example by
Considering humans' behavior facing different situations;
● Literacy of individuals is not an issue;
● They are suitable to explore complex subjects;
● They are useful for the development of hypotheses.
On the contrary, they are also:
● Can be expensive and time-consuming;
● Face privacy lacks;
● Need trained facilitators;
● Can face the issues due to the domination of limited individuals in the focus groups

4.7.4 Observation
In these techniques, first-hand data is gathered through the observation of events, behaviors,
interactions, processes, etc. directly to obtain and understanding of the concepts. For example,
observation is an appropriate technique to evaluate teaching methods in the classes. It can be
used when focus groups and interviews cannot help to gather data due to the different reasons
including times that participants:
● Are not aware of the concept;
● Are not able to talk about the concept;
● Do not prefer to discuss the concept.
It can be also utilized to explore whether a study is progressing as planned or whether the study
has been successful or not. In the evaluation of studies, these two phases are known as formative
and summative, respectively. It also can be helpful when the concept is unexplored or not well-
known. If it is required to explore a subject in the natural setting and the reported information
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can be different from the findings of the real setting, an observational technique should be used.
This method can collect both qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data is gathered as
a description of events in the setting. The quantitative data can be obtained by using the duration
or frequency of the particular subjects. During this kind of systematic observation, formal and
structured instruments and protocols nominal, ordinal, ratio, and interval scales are utilized.
Thus, it can be used to record the findings template coding sheets with specific guides if the
observer is not the main researcher.
On the other hand, data achieved through this method can be used in conjunction with the
quantitative findings of other methods.
Generally, observation helps the researcher to find out what is going on in the surrounding
environment; however, as a data collection method, it is further than just listening and looking.
This method includes an engagement with the setting, a clear expression of the events, technical
improvisations, high attention, and good recording.

A) Advantages and Disadvantages

The observational method also possesses several pros and cons. In this section, the most
important ones are listed. The advantages are as the following:
● Gathering direct information;
● The participation of evaluators in the natural setting;
● Flexible and natural atmosphere;
● Free from biases;
● Can be generalized as large samples can be covered in the studies;
● High reliable and precise data can be achieved.

These techniques also provide some difficulties as:

● They can be time-consuming and not economical
● The training of observers is effective
● Observers can be selective and distort data
● It can be sometimes unreliable due to the misrepresenting of the qualitative data measurement
● It does not consider processes and the changes during them and cannot be appropriate for fresh
concepts.
4.7.5. Document analysis

Document analysis is a systematic procedure used in qualitative research to review and interpret
the information embedded in written materials. These materials, often referred to as
“documents,” can encompass a wide range of physical and digital sources, such as newspapers,
diaries, letters, policy documents, contracts, reports, transcripts, and many others.

At its core, document analysis involves critically examining these sources to gather insightful
data and understand the context in which they were created. Research can perform sentiment
analysis, text mining, and text categorization, to name a few methods. The goal is not just to
derive facts from the documents, but also to understand the underlying nuances, motivations, and

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perspectives that they represent. For instance, a historical researcher may examine old letters not
just to get a chronological account of events, but also to understand the emotions, beliefs, and
values of people during that era.

Advantages and disadvantages of document analysis

There are several advantages to using document analysis in research:

Authenticity: Since documents are typically created for purposes other than research, they can
offer an unobtrusive and genuine insight into the topic at hand, without the potential biases
introduced by direct observation or interviews.

Availability: Documents, especially those in the public domain, are widely accessible, making it
easier for researchers to source information.

Cost-effectiveness: As these documents already exist, researchers can save time and resources
compared to other data collection methods.

However, document analysis is not without challenges. One must ensure the documents are
authentic and reliable. Furthermore, the researcher must be adept at discerning between objective
facts and subjective interpretations present in the document.

Document analysis is a versatile method in qualitative research that offers a lens into the intricate
layers of meaning, context, and perspective found within textual materials. Through careful and
systematic examination, it unveils the richness and depth of the information housed in
documents, providing a unique dimension to research findings.

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 Chapter 5

Research Design

5.1 Types of quantitative research design

Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe,
predict, or control variables of interest. This type of research helps in testing the causal
relationships between variables, making predictions, and generalizing results to wider
populations. The purpose of quantitative research is to test a predefined theory or hypothesis and
eventually either accept or reject it based on the results. Quantitative data analysis is used when
researchers are interested in understanding data sets over time to identify patterns.

The quantitative approach to research ensures that the data you gather is accurate and reliable
because it is in numerical form. This characteristic also provides a wider scope to analyze the
data. In this section, we will discuss the four quantitative research design types and look into
their advantages and real-world examples.

There are four types of quantitative research designs, and they are:

1. Descriptive Research
2. Correlational Research
3. Quasi-experimental Research Design
4. Experimental Research

These four quantitative research types also vary due to the different procedures each type
undertakes. Each approach helps gather insightful data that can help you in making confident
decisions.

1. Descriptive research design:

Descriptive research is used to understand a phenomenon, a situation, or a population. Unlike

experimental research, descriptive research does not involve the manipulation of certain
variables. Rather, it seeks only to observe and measure the variables in order to investigate
them.

Among the types of quantitative research, this design is used when trying to identify
characteristics, categories, and trends. The most common methods of collecting descriptive
research are case studies, observations, and surveys.

Advantages of descriptive research design:

 The descriptive research design for a quantitative approach allows you to gather a
detailed and nuanced understanding of the research objective.
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  The research method is relatively easy to implement and involves surveys, observation,
etc.
 It enables you to gather representative data that you can use to generalize the findings to a
large population.

Example of descriptive research design:

Using this quantitative research type, you can gather customer satisfaction feedback on the
company’s customer service. You can conduct online surveys to assess various aspects of
customer service, such as the time it took to connect with an agent, the agent’s politeness,
knowledge, the effectiveness of the resolution, etc.

The data can help you identify overall satisfaction levels and the areas that require improvement.

2. Correlational research design:

Correlational research is a non-experimental research method used to identify a relationship

between two variables with no influence from any extraneous variable.

Among the types of quantitative research, this design can help you recognize patterns and trends
in the feedback you gather. For example, an ice cream brand can use this methodology to
identify the relationship between weather (temperature) and ice cream sales.

The correlation between the two variables will reflect the direction and/or strength of their
relationship.

 A positive correlation denotes that both variables change in the same direction.
 A negative correlation denotes that the variables change in opposite directions.
 A zero correlation denotes that there is no relationship between the variables being
studied.

Advantages of correlational research design:

 This quantitative research design type helps you establish relationships within variables
without manipulating them.
 You can predict the outcome and identify patterns and trends based on the observed
relationship.
 In cases when experimental manipulation may be unethical, correlational research offers
an alternative and ethical approach.
 The approach involves collecting data from existing sources, making it a cost-effective
quantitative research design.

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Example of correlational research design:

You can evaluate the impact of advertising on consumers’ purchase decisions. In this research,
you can gather data on the advertising expenditure of a product and its corresponding sales data.

By analyzing the data using correlational analysis, you can determine if there is a relationship
between advertising spending and sales performance.

3. Quasi-experimental research design:

Similar to the experimental research design, quasi-experimental research also aims to identify a
cause-and-effect relationship between two variables, i.e., an independent variable and a
dependent variable.

However, quasi-experiment involves subjects being assigned to groups based on non-random

criteria.

Among the types of quantitative research, this design is often employed when true experiments
cannot be carried out due to practical or ethical reasons. A notable advantage of this design is
that it has higher external validity than most true experiments, as it often involves real-world
interventions as opposed to an artificial laboratory setting.

Advantages of quasi-experimental design:

 It allows you to compare different groups/conditions and explore the cause-and-effect

relationship.
 This research design of a quantitative approach often occurs in real-world settings. This
allows for a high ecological validity which means you can apply the findings and
generalize it to real-life situations.
 The quantitative research type is more practical and feasible.

Example of quasi-experimental research design:

You can evaluate the impact of pricing promotion on the sales volume using this type of
quantitative research.

In this research, you can select two stores that sell your product. You can implement a promotion
in one store while the other store maintains the regular price. By comparing the sales volume
data from both stores during the promotion period, you can assess its impact.

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4. Experimental research design:

Experimental research, also known as true experimentation, aims to measure the effect of one or
more IVs on one or more DVs with the use of the scientific method. This is done by
manipulating the independent variable to study its effects on the dependent variable.

The experimental research design involves conducting a set of procedures to test the hypothesis
of the study. Subjects within experimental research are randomly assigned to groups rather than
being assigned to groups using non-random criteria.

Advantages of experimental research design:

 The researcher has control over the extraneous variable, which allows for a high degree
of internal validity in this research design for quantitative research.
 Experimental research enables replication and verification of research outcomes, leading
to increased confidence in the conclusion drawn.
 It allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable to assess its impact on the
dependent variable.

Example of experimental research design:

A company can use this quantitative research design type to test the impact of its new product
compared to its older variation in the market.

The company can experiment by randomly assigning the older variation to a control group and
the new product variation to the experimental group. Then, they can use surveys to gather
respondents’ feedback and assess the performance of both products and the audiences’
preferences.

5.2 Qualitative Research Design

Qualitative research design is defined as a type of research methodology that focuses on
exploring and understanding complex phenomena and the meanings attributed to them by
individuals or groups. It is commonly used in social sciences, psychology, anthropology, and
other fields where subjective experiences and interpretations are of interest.

Qualitative research is concerned with capturing the richness and depth of human
experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. It aims to go beyond simple statistical analysis
and uncover insights that quantitative research may not be able to capture.

Qualitative research design typically involves gathering data through methods such as
interviews, observations, focus groups, and analysis of documents or artifacts. These
methods allow researchers to collect detailed, descriptive information about participants’
perspectives, experiences, and contexts.
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Key characteristics of qualitative research design include:
 Exploratory nature: Qualitative research often begins with an open-ended approach
to allow for the discovery of new insights and patterns.
 Contextual understanding: It emphasizes understanding phenomena within their
social, cultural, and historical contexts, as these factors shape individuals’
experiences.
 Subjectivity and reflexivity: Qualitative researchers acknowledge the influence of
their own perspectives and biases and often engage in reflexivity to critically examine
their role in shaping the research process and outcomes.
 Small and purposive sampling: Rather than aiming for large representative
samples, qualitative research often involves selecting participants who can provide
rich and diverse information relevant to the research question.
 In-depth data collection: Researchers spend considerable time with participants,
collecting detailed and nuanced data, often through open-ended interviews,
observations, or analysis of texts.
 Iterative data analysis: Qualitative analysis involves coding, categorizing, and
interpreting data to identify patterns, themes, and relationships. This process is often
iterative, with researchers revisiting and refining their analysis as new insights
emerge.

Types of Qualitative research design

A. Ethnographic Research
Ethnographic research involves being immersed in participants’ natural environment over a
period of time, aiming to gain a more in-depth understanding of their experiences. Taking
into account cultural differences, ethnographic research provides contextually rich data about
participants’ behaviors and beliefs, and can reveal unarticulated needs and pain points.

For example, a product manager working on a running app could spend several weeks
working alongside users who are training for a marathon, observing daily mileage, dietary
habits, and interactions with the app. This could provide insights into how marathon runners
may want to utilize the app, informing future product enhancements.

Ethnography involves studying and understanding the culture, beliefs, practices, and social
interactions of a specific group or community. Researchers immerse themselves in the
participants’ natural environment for an extended period, often conducting participant
observation, interviews, and document analysis to gain an in-depth understanding of the
culture.
B. Case Study
Case studies take an acute approach to qualitative research, zeroing in on a specific instance to
explore in greater depth. This could mean isolating an individual, a group, an organization, or an
event, and exploring it intensively as a way to better understand the broader whole. By
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comprehensively collecting data and insights on this narrow instance, it generates findings and
illustrative examples that can be directly applied to other practical scenarios.

Case study research involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group,

organization, or specific context. Researchers collect multiple sources of data such as
interviews, observations, and documents to provide a comprehensive understanding of the
case and to draw insights that may have broader implications.

C. Narrative Research
Narrative research centers on the collection of stories shared by individuals. It aims to
understand how people construct and make sense of their experiences through storytel ling.
It’s similar to phenomenological research approaches, in that it emphasizes the subjective
experience of individuals, but differs in where it places the emphasis. Narrative research
focuses on the stories people use to make sense of their experiences, whereas
phenomenological research is focused on better understanding the experiences themselves.

Narrative research focuses on understanding and analyzing the stories and personal
narratives shared by individuals. Researchers examine the structure, content, and context of
these narratives to gain insights into how individuals construct meaning and make sense of
their experiences.

D. Phenomenology
Phenomenological research explores the lived experiences of individuals. It gets its name
through its interest in how people perceive and make sense of various phenomena in their lives,
whether these phenomena are everyday occurrences or specific events. It provides deep insight
into the subjective experiences of individuals, which can help build empathy, leading to the
creation of better user personas or more user-centered products.

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 Chapter 6

Data Presentation analysis and Interpretation

6.1 Quantitative data analysis and interpretation

6.1.1. Descriptive statistics
Types of descriptive statistics
To quantitatively summarize the characteristics of raw, ungrouped data, we use the following
types of descriptive statistics:
• Measures of Central Tendency,
• Measures of Dispersion and
• Measures of Frequency Distribution.
Following the application of any of these approaches, the raw data then becomes ‘grouped’ data
that’s logically organized and easy to understand. To visually represent the data, we then use
graphs, charts, tables etc.

Let’s look at the different types of measurement and the statistical methods that belong to each:

Measures of Central Tendency are used to describe data by determining a single representative
of central value. For example, the mean,median or mode.

Measures of Dispersion are used to determine how spread out a data distribution is with respect
to the central value, e.g. the mean, median or mode. For example, while central tendency gives
the person the average or central value, it doesn’t describe how the data is distributed within the
set.

Measures of Frequency Distribution are used to describe the occurrence of data within the data
set (count).

The methods of each measure are summarized in the table below:

Measures of Central Tendency Measures of Dispersion Measures of Frequency Distribution

Mean Range Count
Median Standard deviation
Mode Quartile deviation
Variance
Absolute deviation
Mean: The most popular and well-known measure of central tendency. The mean is equal to the
sum of all the values in the data set divided by the number of values in the data set.
Median: The median is the middle score for a set of data that has been arranged in order of
magnitude. If you have an even number of data, e.g. 10 data points, take the two middle scores
and average the result.
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Mode: The mode is the most frequently occurring observation in the data set.
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest value.
Standard deviation: Standard deviation measures the dispersion of a data set relative to its
mean and is calculated as the square root of the variance.
Quartile deviation: Quartile deviation measures the deviation in the middle of the data.
Variance: Variance measures the variability from the average of mean.
Absolute deviation: The absolute deviation of a dataset is the average distance between each
data point and the mean.
6.1.2 Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics uses statistical techniques to extrapolate information from a smaller sample
to make predictions and draw conclusions about a larger population. It uses probability theory
and statistical models to estimate population parameters and test population hypotheses based on
sample data. The main goal of inferential statistics is to provide information about the whole
population using sample data to make the conclusions drawn as accurate and reliable as possible.

There are two primary uses for inferential statistics:

 Providing population estimations.
 Testing theories to make conclusions about populations.
Researchers can generalize a population by utilizing inferential statistics and a representative
sample. It requires logical reasoning to reach conclusions. The following is a procedure of the
method for arriving at the results:
 The population that is to be investigated should be chosen as a sample. In this case, the
nature and characteristics of the population must be reflected in the sample.
 Inferential statistical techniques are used to analyze the sample’s behavior. These include
the models used for regression analysis and hypothesis testing.
 The first-step sample is used to draw conclusions. Assumptions or predictions about the
entire population are used to draw inferences.

Types of Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics are divided into two categories:

1. Hypothesis testing.
2. Regression analysis.
Researchers frequently employ these methods to generalize results to larger populations based on
small samples. Let’s look at some of the methods available in inferential statistics.

1. Hypothesis testing

Testing hypotheses and drawing generalizations about the population from the sample data are
examples of inferential statistics. Creating a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis, then
performing a statistical test of significance are required.
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A hypothesis test can have left-, right-, or two-tailed distributions. The test statistic’s value, the
critical value, and the confidence intervals are used to conclude. Below are a few significant
hypothesis tests that are employed in inferential statistics.

 Z Test

When data has a normal distribution and a sample size of at least 30, the z test is applied to the
data. When the population variance is known, it determines if the sample and population means
are equal. The following setup can be used to test the right-tailed hypothesis:

Null Hypothesis: H0: μ=μ0

Alternate hypothesis: H1: μ>μ0
Test Statistic: Z Test = (x̄ – μ) / (σ / √n)
where,
x̄ = sample mean
μ = population mean
σ = standard deviation of the population
n = sample size
Decision Criteria: If the z statistic > z critical value, reject the null hypothesis.
 T Test

When the sample size is less than 30, and the data has a student t distribution, a t test is utilized.
The sample and population mean are compared when the population variance is unknown. The
inferential statistics hypothesis test is as follows:
Null Hypothesis: H0: μ=μ0
Alternate Hypothesis: H1: μ>μ0
Test Statistic: t = x̄−μ / s√n
The representations x̄, μ, and n are the same as stated for the z-test. The letter “s” represents the
standard deviation of the sample.
Decision Criteria: If the t statistic > t critical value, reject the null hypothesis.
 F Test

When comparing the variances of two samples or populations, an f test is used to see if there is a
difference. The right-tailed f test can be configured as follows:

Null Hypothesis: H0 :σ21 =σ22

Alternate Hypothesis: H1 :σ21> σ22
Test Statistic: f = σ21 / σ22, where σ21 is the variance of the first population, and σ22 is the
variance of the second population.
Decision Criteria: Deciding Criteria: Reject the null hypothesis if f test statistic > critical value.
A confidence interval aids an estimation of a population’s parameters. For instance, a 95%
confidence interval means that 95 out of 100 tests with fresh samples performed under identical
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conditions will result in the estimate falling within the specified range. A confidence interval can
also be used to determine the crucial value in hypothesis testing.

In addition to these tests, inferential statistics also use the ANOVA, Wilcoxon signed-rank,
Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis, and H tests.

2. Regression analysis

Regression analysis is done to calculate how one variable will change in relation to another.
Numerous regression models can be used, including simple linear, multiple linear, nominal,
logistic, and ordinal regression.

In inferential statistics, linear regression is the most often employed type of regression. The
dependent variable’s response to a unit change in the independent variable is examined through
linear regression. These are a few crucial equations for regression analysis using inferential
statistics:
Regression Coefficients:
The straight line equation is given as y = α + βx, where α and β are regression coefficients.
β=∑n1(xi − x̄)(yi −y) / ∑n1(xi−x)2
β=rxy σy / σx
α=y−βx
Here, x is the mean, and σx is the standard deviation of the first data set. Similarly, y is the mean,
and σy is the standard deviation of the second data set.
Example of inferential statistics

Consider for this example that you based your research on the test results for a particular class as
described in the descriptive statistics section. You now want to do an inferential statistics study
for that same test.

Assume it is a statewide exam that is standardized. You may demonstrate how this alters how we
perform the study and the results that you report by using the same test, but this time with the
intention of drawing inferences about a community.

Choose the class you wish to describe in descriptive statistics, and then enter all the test results
for that class. Good and easy. You must first define the population for inferential statistics before
selecting a random sample from it.

To ensure a representative sample, you must develop a random sampling strategy. This
procedure may take time. Let’s use fifth-graders attending public schools in the U.S. state of
California as your population definition.

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For this example, assume that you gave the entire population a list of names, then selected 100
students randomly from that list and obtained their test results. Be aware that these students will
not be from a single class but rather a variety of classes from various schools throughout the
state.

6.1.3 Software for Data Analysis

Choosing the right quantitative data analysis software can significantly impact the efficiency and
accuracy of your research or analysis. Here, we explore the top 10 quantitative data analysis
software options available today.

1. SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)

SPSS is a venerable software package widely used in the social sciences for statistical analysis.
Its intuitive interface and comprehensive range of statistical techniques make it a favorite among
researchers and analysts for hypothesis testing, regression analysis, and data visualization tasks.
Features:
 Advanced statistical analysis capabilities.
 Data management and manipulation tools.
 Customizable graphs and charts.
 Syntax-based programming for automation.
Pros:
 Extensive statistical procedures.
 Flexible data handling.
 Integration with other statistical software package
Cons:
 High cost for the full version.
 Steep learning curve for beginners.
2. Google Analytics
Primarily used for web analytics, Google Analytics provides invaluable insights into website
traffic, user behavior, and conversion metrics. By tracking key performance indicators such as
page views, bounce rates, and traffic sources, Google Analytics helps businesses optimize their
online presence and maximize their digital marketing efforts.
Features:
 Real-time tracking of website visitors.
 Conversion tracking and goal setting.
 Customizable reports and dashboards.
 Integration with Google Ads and other Google products.
Pros:
 Free version available.
 Easy to set up and use.
 Comprehensive insights into website performance.
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Cons:
 Limited customization options in the free version.
3. Python
While not a dedicated data analysis software, Python is a versatile programming language widely
used for data analysis, machine learning, and scientific computing. With libraries such as
NumPy, pandas, and matplotlib, Python provides a comprehensive ecosystem for data
manipulation, visualization, and statistical analysis, making it a favorite among data scientists
and analysts.

Features:
 The rich ecosystem of data analysis libraries.
 Flexible and scalable for large datasets.
 Integration with other tools and platforms.
 Open-source with a supportive community.
Pros:
 Free and open-source.
 High performance and scalability.
 Great for automation and customization.
Cons:
 Requires programming knowledge.
4. SAS (Statistical Analysis System)
SAS is a comprehensive software suite renowned for its advanced analytics, business
intelligence, and data management capabilities. With a wide range of statistical techniques,
predictive modeling tools, and data visualization options, SAS is trusted by organizations across
industries for complex data analysis tasks and decision support.
Features:
 Wide range of statistical procedures.
 Data integration and cleansing tools.
 Advanced analytics and machine learning capabilities.
 Scalable for enterprise-level data analysis.
Pros:
 Powerful statistical modeling capabilities.
 Excellent support for large datasets.
 Trusted by industries for decades.
Cons:
 Expensive licensing fees.
 Steep learning curve.
5. Excel
Despite its simplicity compared to specialized data analysis software, Excel remains popular for
basic quantitative analysis and data visualization. With features like pivot tables, functions, and

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charting tools, Excel provides a familiar and accessible platform for users to perform tasks such
as data cleaning, summarization, and exploratory analysis.

Features:
 Formulas and functions for calculations.
 Pivot tables and charts for data visualization.
 Data sorting and filtering capabilities.
 Integration with other Microsoft Office applications.
Pros:
 Widely available and familiar interface.
 Affordable for basic analysis tasks.
 Versatile for various data formats.
Cons:
 Limited statistical functions compared to specialized software.
 Not suitable for handling large datasets.
6. 2. IBM SPSS Statistics
Building on the foundation of SPSS, IBM SPSS Statistics offers enhanced features and
capabilities for advanced statistical analysis and predictive modeling. With modules for data
preparation, regression analysis, and survival analysis, IBM SPSS Statistics is well-suited for
researchers and analysts tackling complex data analysis challenges.
Features:
 Advanced statistical procedures.
 Data preparation and transformation tools.
 Automated model building and deployment.
 Integration with other IBM products.
Pros:
 Extensive statistical capabilities.
 User-friendly interface for beginners.
 Enterprise-grade security and scalability.
Cons:
 High cost for the full version.
 Limited support for open-source integration.

6.2.1 Content analysis

It is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within
some given qualitative data (i.e. text). Using content analysis, researchers can quantify and
analyze the presence, meanings, and relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts. As
an example, researchers can evaluate language used within a news article to search for bias or
partiality. Researchers can then make inferences about the messages within the texts, the
writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of surrounding the text.
Three different definitions of content analysis are provided below.

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  Definition 1: “Any technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively
identifying special characteristics of messages.” (from Holsti, 1968)
 Definition 2: “An interpretive and naturalistic approach. It is both observational and
narrative in nature and relies less on the experimental elements normally associated with
scientific research (reliability, validity, and generalizability) (from Ethnography,
Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry, 1994-2012).
 Definition 3: “A research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative
description of the manifest content of communication.” (from Berelson, 1952)
Uses of Content Analysis
 Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group or
institution
 Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications
 Determine the psychological or emotional state of persons or groups
 Reveal international differences in communication content
 Reveal patterns in communication content
 Pre-test and improve an intervention or survey prior to launch
 Analyze focus group interviews and open-ended questions to complement quantitative
data

Types of Content Analysis

There are two general types of content analysis: conceptual analysis and relational analysis.
Conceptual analysis determines the existence and frequency of concepts in a text. Relational
analysis develops the conceptual analysis further by examining the relationships among concepts
in a text. Each type of analysis may lead to different results, conclusions, interpretations and
meanings.

A. Conceptual Analysis
Typically people think of conceptual analysis when they think of content analysis. In conceptual
analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and the analysis involves quantifying and counting
its presence. The main goal is to examine the occurrence of selected terms in the data. Terms
may be explicit or implicit. Explicit terms are easy to identify. Coding of implicit terms is more
complicated: you need to decide the level of implication and base judgments on subjectivity (an
issue for reliability and validity). Therefore, coding of implicit terms involves using a dictionary
or contextual translation rules or both.

To begin a conceptual content analysis, first identify the research question and choose a sample
or samples for analysis. Next, the text must be coded into manageable content categories. This is
basically a process of selective reduction. By reducing the text to categories, the researcher can
focus on and code for specific words or patterns that inform the research question.

General steps for conducting a conceptual content analysis:

1. Decide the level of analysis: word, word sense, phrase, sentence, themes
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2. Decide how many concepts to code for: develop a pre-defined or interactive set of categories
or concepts. Decide either: A. to allow flexibility to add categories through the coding process,
or B. to stick with the pre-defined set of categories.

 Option A allows for the introduction and analysis of new and important material that
could have significant implications to one’s research question.
 Option B allows the researcher to stay focused and examine the data for specific
concepts.
3. Decide whether to code for existence or frequency of a concept. The decision changes the
coding process.

 When coding for the existence of a concept, the researcher would count a concept only
once if it appeared at least once in the data and no matter how many times it appeared.
 When coding for the frequency of a concept, the researcher would count the number of
times a concept appears in a text.
4. Decide on how you will distinguish among concepts:

 Should text be coded exactly as they appear or coded as the same when they appear in
different forms? For example, “dangerous” vs. “dangerousness”. The point here is to
create coding rules so that these word segments are transparently categorized in a logical
fashion. The rules could make all of these word segments fall into the same category, or
perhaps the rules can be formulated so that the researcher can distinguish these word
segments into separate codes.
 What level of implication is to be allowed? Words that imply the concept or words that
explicitly state the concept? For example, “dangerous” vs. “the person is scary” vs. “that
person could cause harm to me”. These word segments may not merit separate categories,
due the implicit meaning of “dangerous”.
5. Develop rules for coding your texts. After decisions of steps 1-4 are complete, a researcher
can begin developing rules for translation of text into codes. This will keep the coding process
organized and consistent. The researcher can code for exactly what he/she wants to code.
Validity of the coding process is ensured when the researcher is consistent and coherent in their
codes, meaning that they follow their translation rules. In content analysis, obeying by the
translation rules is equivalent to validity.

6. Decide what to do with irrelevant information: should this be ignored (e.g. common English
words like “the” and “and”), or used to reexamine the coding scheme in the case that it would
add to the outcome of coding?

7. Code the text: This can be done by hand or by using software. By using software, researchers
can input categories and have coding done automatically, quickly and efficiently, by the software
program. When coding is done by hand, a researcher can recognize errors far more easily (e.g.
typos, misspelling). If using computer coding, text could be cleaned of errors to include all

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available data. This decision of hand vs. computer coding is most relevant for implicit
information where category preparation is essential for accurate coding.

8. Analyze your results: Draw conclusions and generalizations where possible. Determine what
to do with irrelevant, unwanted, or unused text: reexamine, ignore, or reassess the coding
scheme. Interpret results carefully as conceptual content analysis can only quantify the
information. Typically, general trends and patterns can be identified.

B. Relational Analysis
Relational analysis begins like conceptual analysis, where a concept is chosen for examination.
However, the analysis involves exploring the relationships between concepts. Individual
concepts are viewed as having no inherent meaning and rather the meaning is a product of the
relationships among concepts.

To begin a relational content analysis, first identify a research question and choose a sample or
samples for analysis. The research question must be focused so the concept types are not open to
interpretation and can be summarized. Next, select text for analysis. Select text for analysis
carefully by balancing having enough information for a thorough analysis so results are not
limited with having information that is too extensive so that the coding process becomes too
arduous and heavy to supply meaningful and worthwhile results.

There are three subcategories of relational analysis to choose from prior to going on to the
general steps.

1. Affect extraction: an emotional evaluation of concepts explicit in a text. A challenge to

this method is that emotions can vary across time, populations, and space. However, it
could be effective at capturing the emotional and psychological state of the speaker or
writer of the text.
2. Proximity analysis: an evaluation of the co-occurrence of explicit concepts in the text.
Text is defined as a string of words called a “window” that is scanned for the co-
occurrence of concepts. The result is the creation of a “concept matrix”, or a group of
interrelated co-occurring concepts that would suggest an overall meaning.
3. Cognitive mapping: a visualization technique for either affect extraction or proximity
analysis. Cognitive mapping attempts to create a model of the overall meaning of the text
such as a graphic map that represents the relationships between concepts.
General steps for conducting a relational content analysis:
Determine the type of analysis: Once the sample has been selected, the researcher
needs to determine what types of relationships to examine and the level of
analysis: word, word sense, phrase, sentence, themes.
Reduce the text to categories and code for words or patterns. A researcher can
code for existence of meanings or words.
Explore the relationship between concepts: once the words are coded, the text can
be analyzed for the following:
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  Strength of relationship: degree to which two or more concepts are related.
 Sign of relationship: are concepts positively or negatively related to each other?
 Direction of relationship: the types of relationship that categories exhibit. For example,
“X implies Y” or “X occurs before Y” or “if X then Y” or if X is the primary motivator
of Y.
4. Code the relationships: a difference between conceptual and relational analysis is that the
statements or relationships between concepts are coded.
5. Perform statistical analyses: explore differences or look for relationships among the identified
variables during coding.
6. Map out representations: such as decision mapping and mental models.

C. Reliability and Validity

Reliability: Because of the human nature of researchers, coding errors can never be eliminated
but only minimized. Generally, 80% is an acceptable margin for reliability. Three criteria
comprise the reliability of a content analysis:
1. Stability: the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way
over a period of time.
2. Reproducibility: tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in the
same way.
3. Accuracy: extent to which the classification of text corresponds to a standard or norm
statistically.
Validity: Three criteria comprise the validity of a content analysis:
1. Closeness of categories: this can be achieved by utilizing multiple classifiers to arrive at
an agreed upon definition of each specific category. Using multiple classifiers, a concept
category that may be an explicit variable can be broadened to include synonyms or
implicit variables.
2. Conclusions: What level of implication is allowable? Do conclusions correctly follow the
data? Are results explainable by other phenomena? This becomes especially problematic
when using computer software for analysis and distinguishing between synonyms. For
example, the word “mine,” variously denotes a personal pronoun, an explosive device,
and a deep hole in the ground from which ore is extracted. Software can obtain an
accurate count of that word’s occurrence and frequency, but not be able to produce an
accurate accounting of the meaning inherent in each particular usage. This problem could
throw off one’s results and make any conclusion invalid.
3. Generalizability of the results to a theory: dependent on the clear definitions of concept
categories, how they are determined and how reliable they are at measuring the idea one
is seeking to measure. Generalizability parallels reliability as much of it depends on the
three criteria for reliability.
Advantages of Content Analysis
 Directly examines communication using text
 Allows for both qualitative and quantitative analysis
 Provides valuable historical and cultural insights over time
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  Allows a closeness to data
 Coded form of the text can be statistically analyzed
 Unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
 Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use
 When done well, is considered a relatively “exact” research method
 Content analysis is a readily-understood and an inexpensive research method
 A more powerful tool when combined with other research methods such as interviews,
observation, and use of archival records. It is very useful for analyzing historical material,
especially for documenting trends over time.
Disadvantages of Content Analysis
 Can be extremely time consuming
 Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to attain a
higher level of interpretation
 Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw meaningful
inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study
 Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts
 Tends too often to simply consist of word counts
 Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of things after the
text is produced
 Can be difficult to automate or computerize
6.2.2 Narrative analysis in qualitative research

Researchers use narrative analysis to understand how research participants construct stor y and
narrative from their own personal experience. That means there is a dual layer of
interpretation in narrative analysis. First the research participants interpret their own lives
through narrative. Then the researcher interprets the construction of that narrative.

Narratives can be derived from journals, letters, conversations, autobiographies, transcripts of

in-depth interviews, focus groups, or other types of narrative qualitative research and then
used in narrative research.
Examples of personal narratives
Personal narratives come in a variety of forms and can all be used in narrative research.
 Topical stories
o A restricted story about one specific moment in time with a plot, characters,
and setting, but doesn’t encompass the entirety of a person’s life. Example: a
research participant’s answer to a single interview question
 Personal narrative
o Personal narratives come from a long interview or a series of long narrative
interviews that give an extended account of someone’s life. Example: a

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 researcher conducting an in-depth interview, or a series of in-depth interviews
with an individual over an extended period of time.
 Entire life story
o Constructed from a collection of interviews, observations, and documents about
a person’s life. Example: a historian putting together the biography of
someone’s life from past artifacts.
6.2.3 Discourse analysis
The way that people speak, write, and otherwise communicate with others has a profound effect
on the meaning being conveyed. We expect a recipe in a cookbook to have a particular format. A
job interview has a certain structure that is different from a friendly conversation. People speak
to their boss in a way that is different from how they speak to their parents.
Discourse analysis focuses on these types of texts, be they in written or spoken language, or
other modes of meaning-making. Discourse analysis is a crucial methodological
approach in qualitative research that examines both the content of communication and the way in
which it is conducted, including the social context and cultural context surrounding the use of
language. Those who conduct discourse analysis on a given text analyze both their linguistic
content and language use.
Researchers conduct discourse analysis to critically examine the nature of language.
Discourse analysis aims to examine language in its social context. It examines how social
realities are constructed and understood through language, going beyond just the words spoken
or written. It aims to reveal the cultural, political, and sociological dimensions within a
communication, whether it's an informal chat, a novel, a business meeting, or asocial media post.
In discourse analysis, language is not just a neutral means of conveying information. Instead, it
plays an active role in shaping our understanding of the world and social relations. By studying
the nuances of language, such as its structure, style, and context, we can reveal more about
societal structures, power dynamics, and ideologies.
6.2.4 Thematic analysis

It is the study of patterns to uncover meaning. In other words, it’s about analyzing the patterns
and themes within your data set to identify the underlying meaning. Importantly, this process is
driven by your research aims and questions, so it’s not necessary to identify every possible theme
in the data, but rather to focus on the key aspects that relate to your research questions.

Although the research questions are a driving force in thematic analysis (and pretty much all
analysis methods), it’s important to remember that these questions are not necessarily fixed. As
thematic analysis tends to be a bit of an exploratory process, research questions can evolve as
you progress with your coding and theme identification.

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 Chapter 7

Writing Report

7.1 The research report

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a
systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the
research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that
clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-
written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas
of the research process.

Why do you need a research report?

Here are some of the reasons how a research report will help you:
 With research reports, it is easy to figure out the finding of your entire research.
 It is a systematic way of investigating any gaps which need to be dealt with.
 A report can highlight the important findings, suggestions and any errors in your research.
 It represents your entire research and serves as an objective or a summary and a source of
report.
 It provides first-hand original information regarding your research.
 A research report helps to contribute to the existing knowledge by standing as an effective
way of communicating the conclusions and findings.
 While providing information about the research, it also hints towards the other fields
where systematic research is needed.
 It helps you understand the market and its needs and trends.
 It is a systematic representation of your research hence it makes it easy to search through
the topics that you need to refer to.
 It saves time as you don’t have to go through every minute detail to get the essence of the
report.
 It is easily portable and can be sent through emails to your stakeholders.

7.2 Parts of research report

1. Title
Your title should be brief, topic-specific, and informative, clearly indicating the purpose and scope
of your study. Include key words in your title so that search engines can easily access your work.
For example: Measurement of water around Station Pier.
2. Abstract

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An abstract is a concise summary that helps readers to quickly assess the content and direction of
your paper. It should be brief, written in a single paragraph and cover: the scope and purpose of
your report; an overview of methodology; a summary of the main findings or results; principal
conclusions or significance of the findings; and recommendations made.

The information in the abstract must be presented in the same order as it is in your report. The
abstract is usually written last when you have developed your arguments and synthesised the
results.
3. Introduction
The introduction creates the context for your research. It should provide sufficient background to
allow the reader to understand and evaluate your study without needing to refer to previous
publications. After reading the introduction your reader should understand exactly what your
research is about, what you plan to do, why you are undertaking this research and which methods
you have used. Introductions generally include:

 The rationale for the present study. Why are you interested in this topic? Why is this topic
worth investigating?
 Key terms and definitions.
 An outline of the research questions and hypotheses; the assumptions or propositions that your
research will test.
4. Literature Review
Not all research reports have a separate literature review section. In shorter research reports, the
review is usually part of the Introduction.

A literature review is a critical survey of recent relevant research in a particular field. The review
should be a selection of carefully organized, focused and relevant literature that develops a
narrative ‘story’ about your topic. Your review should answer key questions about the literature:

 What is the current state of knowledge on the topic?

 What differences in approaches / methodologies are there?
 Where are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
 What further research is needed?

The review may identify a gap in the literature which provides a rationale for your study and
supports your research questions and methodology. The review is not just a summary of all you
have read. Rather, it must develop an argument or a point of view that supports your chosen
methodology and research questions.
5. Methodology (Materials and Methods)
The purpose of this section is to detail how you conducted your research so that others can
understand and replicate your approach.

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You need to briefly describe the subjects (if appropriate), any equipment or materials used and the
approach taken. If the research method or method of data analysis is commonly used within your
field of study, then simply reference the procedure. If, however, your methods are new or
controversial then you need to describe them in more detail and provide a rationale for your
approach. The methodology is written in the past tense and should be as concise as possible.
6. Results
This section is a concise, factual summary of your findings, listed under headings appropriate to
your research questions. It’s common to use tables and graphics. Raw data or details about the
method of statistical analysis used should be included in the Appendices.

Present your results in a consistent manner. For example, if you present the first group of results as
percentages, it will be confusing for the reader and difficult to make comparisons of data if later
results are presented as fractions or as decimal values.

In general, you won’t discuss your results here. Any analysis of your results usually occurs in the
Discussion section.

Notes on visual data representation:

 Graphs and tables may be used to reveal trends in your data, but they must be explained
and referred to in adjacent accompanying text.
 Figures and tables do not simply repeat information given in the text: they summarise,
amplify or complement it.
 Graphs are always referred to as ‘Figures’, and both axes must be clearly labelled.
 Tables must be numbered, and they must be able to stand-alone or make sense without your
reader needing to read all of the accompanying text.

7. Discussion
The Discussion responds to the hypothesis or research question. This section is where you interpret
your results, account for your findings and explain their significance within the context of other
research. Consider the adequacy of your sampling techniques, the scope and long-term
implications of your study, any problems with data collection or analysis and any assumptions on
which your study was based. This is also the place to discuss any disappointing results and address
limitations.

Checklist for the discussion

 To what extent was each hypothesis supported?
 To what extent are your findings validated or supported by other research?
 Were there unexpected variables that affected your results?
 On reflection, was your research method appropriate?
 Can you account for any differences between your results and other studies?
8. Conclusion

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Conclusions in research reports are generally fairly short and should follow on naturally from
points raised in the Discussion. In this section you should discuss the significance of your findings.
To what extent and in what ways are your findings useful or conclusive? Is further research
required? If so, based on your research experience, what suggestions could you make about
improvements to the scope or methodology of future studies?

Also, consider the practical implications of your results and any recommendations you could make.
For example, if your research is on reading strategies in the primary school classroom, what are the
implications of your results for the classroom teacher? What recommendations could you make for
teachers?

9. Reference List / Bibliography

A Reference List contains all the resources you have cited in your work, while a Bibliography is a
wider list containing all the resources you have consulted (but not necessarily cited) in the
preparation of your work. It is important to check which of these is required, and the preferred
format, style of references and presentation requirements of your own department.
10. Appendices
Appendices (singular ‘Appendix’) provide supporting material to your project. Examples of such
materials include:
 Relevant letters to participants and organizations (e.g. regarding the ethics or conduct of the
project).
 Background reports.
 Raw data.
 Detailed calculations.
Different types of data are presented in separate appendices. Each appendix must be titled, labeled
with a number or letter, and referred to in the body of the report. Appendices are placed at the end
of a report, and the contents are generally not included in the word count.

7.3 Using research resources

Research resources are a fundamental part of any academic paper.
Without them, you wouldn’t be able to place your work in the right context, not to mention cover
potential gaps in the existing knowledge and support the validity of your arguments.
Here’s a quick rundown of various research resources you can use:
 Books
 Articles published in academic journals
 Newspapers (if relevant)
 Films (if relevant)
 Audio materials (if relevant)
 Websites (if relevant + highly credible sources only)
The most widely used sources are books and academic articles because they’re a treasure trove
of knowledge when it comes to discovering everything there is to know about your field.
Furthermore, research resources can be split into three categories:
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  Primary sources (for example, a book that you’re directly discussing in the essay)
 Secondary sources (articles and books written by academics or professionals in the field
that discuss your primary source)
 Tertiary sources (summaries of primary and secondary sources on a specific subject that
are often read by beginners, e.g., Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction by Jonathan
Culler)
Each research resource that you cite in your work needs to be referenced in the bibliography, as
well as in the footnotes or in-text citations (depending on your citation style).
Be careful about which citation style you choose – some universities or lecturers may require
you to use a specific one.
These are the three most common ones:
 APA: In-text-citation: (Culler, 1997, p. 10)
 MLA: In-text-citation: (Culler, p. 10)
 MHRA: Footnote: 1Jonathan D. Culler, Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction.
(Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 10.

7.4 Evaluation of a research report

In this part, we will look into how to evaluate the research papers, the issues that might occur and
a couple of other components too.
A. Introductory chapter: Building the Rationale
When we start reading anything, the first thing we pay most attention to is the introduction
chapter. The same goes for a research report, where the introductory chapter helps understand the
researcher, his social and psychological views, his education and his reason behind the
undertaking of this particular research.

The key is to pay attention to the language of the report. And by that we mean the WAY it is
written. As we know, research is conducted when a researcher decides to test a hypothesis. He is
expecting a true or false result. But it may be the case that the researcher is influencing the
research with their preferences or decisions. This causes a bias in the research and is generally
detectable through the report’s language.

Biases can be easy to figure out through paying attention to the efforts that researchers have put
in gathering information from the resources and how diverse they are. Diversity will make sure
that the researcher is not just referring to the sources that support his views, but they shed light
on the topic from all the possible angles.

Another thing to check in this chapter is the justification of the study and its relevance. A
researcher has to study a wide range of information to make assumptions and test the theory. It is
crucial to know how the researcher has related the topic to that vast area of information. How he
has brought down the complexities of the topic to the form that is helping his research topic.

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At last comes the test of quality. Once you have verified the non-biases of the researcher,
credibility of the resources and relevancy of the information, this will automatically paint a
picture of the research’s quality for you. If the chapter satisfies the key requirements – relevance,
importance, timeliness, researchable and researcher’s competency; then the introductory chapter
has served its purpose well.

B. Review of Literature
This section, depending on the researcher’s choice, can be included in the introductory chapter to
build the rationale or can have a separate chapter just to elaborate it further.

The first major areas that the researcher should elaborate on in this chapter are the findings.
When it comes to that, there are three sub-areas to specifically look into:

 Gaps – gaps in the research occurs when a broad area of the research is mapped out and
see what pre-existing researches are conducted, this will create gaps in the study. In this
gap area, variables are likely to influence the study in a wrong way and some of them may
even be unstudied.
 Overlaps – overlap occurs when several studies are conducted in the same way, resulting
in the frequent use of the variables that are not much different from each other. The
literature review will help us identify these variables.
 Contradictions – it is possible that when one study is conducted in different
circumstances, the results are different as well. In this case, a researcher must conclude
whether the research is conclusive or not.

The second area that this chapter brings to light is the methodology of the research. According to
these guidelines, the research should be able to provide the measures of – sampling technique
and size, research design, variables used, scaling techniques, research instruments used, data
collection and quantitative or qualitative measures used for data analysis.

Another indication of well structure literature is its scope. What is the scope of the review
regarding time and how the literature was constructed and retrieved? Whether the significant
data is missing or not. This will define the quality of the literature involved.

C. Objectives and Hypothesis

In this section, the objectives are nothing but the questions that the researcher has raised
concerning the problem for which he is searching a solution for. As these objectives are the heart
of the research, they are likely to cover the following attributes:

 The objectives should have a clarity of expression and direction to where the research is
going to go and why it is being conducted in the first place.
 The objectives should be measurable when it comes to qualitative data. It should be easy
to code and highlight the information so that it is easy to access.

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  The objectives are the lines inside of which the research is conducted. Hence they should
be comprehensive enough to cover all the aspects of the research and nothing should be
outside the defined limits.
 The objectives should be judicious with regards to stating the objectives. “Recommending
future results” which is mentioned commonly in the objectives is not very much feasible.

The hypothesis is the reason behind the entire result, and they can be proved either true or false.
Researchers construct their hypothesis based on the previous conclusions, studies, existing
literature, etc. to evaluate the hypothesis, it is important to evaluate the following 4 factors:

 Whether the hypothesis was null or directional, and in either of the case, the researcher has
proved their point correctly.
 The hypothesis can be tested or not.
 The hypothesis is stated clearly and are implicating some relationship between the
variables.
 When there are multiple variables, whether the relationship of independent variables to
that of dependent variables is stated or not.

D. Choice of Research Design

After the objectives and hypothesis is laid down correctly, the more important part is which
research method or design to use. There are a lot of research designs that researchers use,
depending on the requirements of the study. It is equally important to implement the perfect
research design that will cover all the aspects of the research and answer all the questions that
were put forth for the hypothesis.

The efficient way to check the accuracy and suitableness of the design is to test it against the
objective. If the hypothesis is evaluated concerning relationships, implementing a survey method
to check that relationships will be valid. Whereas if the hypothesis is about the effects of
treatment over a population, then experimental design will be helpful. There are factors like,
treatment, sample size, nature of the study, that influences the researcher to choose the right
research design for the study.

E. Choice of Variables
Variables are the fundamental unit of the research. Everything you do with researching, testing
experimenting, is being done on the variables. These three types of variables – independent,
dependent and intervening variables. Further, depending on the nature of the study, they have
sub-types.

The first variable to check is the dependent variable. It is the one that is getting changed based on
how the researcher controls the experiment. The second variable is independent variables. It will
be the one influencing the dependent variable. This variable should be chosen carefully and with
a lot of considerations. The third is the intervening variable. These are the variables that are

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generally missed in the study but intervene in the research externally. While conducting the
research, it is important to keep track of any such variables that affect the results too. It is the
researcher’s responsibility to choose the measurable variables, and if not then state their
measures too.

F. Research Instrumentation
Now that we have variables, we need research instruments to measure them. Various research
instruments are used such as questionnaires, interviews, tests, etc. to evaluate the research report
it is important to choose an instrument to measure the variables.

Researchers can select a wrong measure instrument and end up gaining incorrect or fewer data.
To avoid this, here are some points to keep in mind while evaluating research instruments:

 The chosen instrument can easily measure the variables or not.

 Whether the chosen instrument is being reused from the existing study or the researcher
created the instrument on his own.
 Whether the chosen instrument is the best fit for the study and is feasible.
 They can also be measured based on the language and the method of recording responses.
 Sample

When we say research, we automatically picture studying a sample. It can be people, natural
elements or any entity. And when we cannot study the entire population, we select a sample
group that best represents the entire population. There are two components to evaluate samples
in a study:

 Sample size
 Sampling techniques and types of samples.

Choosing a sample size that suits your research is important and more difficult than it seems. For
example, when the research needs to do a detailed interview, the sample size should be small but
effective. Whereas while conducting a survey, the sample size can be large which will give more
accurate results. In any of those cases, if your sample size is more, it is a waste of research
resources and if the sample size is less, it can compromise the results. Various tools in the market
calculate the sample size depending on the population amount.

The second part of the section is sampling techniques. A researcher may use random sampling to
make the groups equally treatable, but if the study prohibits randomization, he may have to
conduct a study to assign participants in their suitable groups and then treat them as per the
study. In any case, the researcher needs to state the reasons and considerations behind the
technique which he chose to create samples.

G. Data Collection and Analysis

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As we go deep inside the research components, we get to the building block of the entire
research – Data. No matter what research design you use or how you sample your subjects, it all
comes down to the quality of your data. It is generally defined by the way your samples responds
to your questions and how much unique they are.

When the research instrument is sent to the responders, you no longer have control over how
they will respond. And mostly it is mechanic. Meaning, the data cannot be relied upon. In such
cases, your research can be diluted with the data that is not supposed to be there in the first place.
So it is important to check the data for its credibility.

Data analysis can be qualitative or quantitative. Both being the largely used methods of data
analysis, the quantitative method is preferred as it gives statistical results. The size of the sample
can be maximum and the questions don’t take much longer to understand and respond to. In
qualitative data analysis, the responses are rather descriptive and vast. The research has to take
into consideration various things like the language, nature of the respondent, their background,
etc. and then conclude things from them and use them in the research.

H. Findings and Implications

After evaluating the previous steps, it is now time for the final results. The value of the research
lies in this bit of the report. The findings are descriptive. The researcher makes use of tables and
graphs wherever necessary. The evaluator should note if tables and graphs are used in the
appropriate places or not.

Implications are equally important. Just stating the results aren’t necessary. What those results
say about the study and how they conclude the research will serve the purpose of the entire
research. In this section, the evaluator gets to examine the analytical skill of the researcher and
see how the study has proceeded.

I. Summary and Conclusions

This is a short glimpse of the research and the evaluator gets an idea about how the research is
being conducted, what methodologies are used, documentation of the hypothesis and objectives
and the final findings.
J. References
Referencing requires skill and knowledge, and most of the students mistake it. A keen evaluator
goes directly into the references. As said earlier, the resources that are used in the research play
important role in validating the study itself. The evaluator looks for the sources of the
information and how legitimate they are. The order that the references are listed also matters a
lot.
K. Annexures
The last crucial bit is the annexures. It involves the materials used for the research purpose such
as instruments, sampling frame, etc. annexures are also ordered properly. They help the evaluator
understand the material used in the research. They need to be fully documented as well.

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 L. General Indicators
These are the things we need to pay attention to regarding the language, typing error,
presentation and layout, etc. the language should be correct with the proper use of syntax and no
grammatical errors whatsoever. Formatting of the report should be consistent throughout
including the printing, font, margins, line spacing and the final binding of the pages.

M. Conclusion
Those were the parts of a proper well-framed research report. Each of the sections has its own set
of guidelines and the researcher has to adhere to them and present a perfect report. Conducting
research is a long and slow but detailed process and summarizing it in a book under these frames
is a tough yet creative task.

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 Chapter 8
Action Research
8.1 Concept of action research
Educational research provides a vast landscape of knowledge on topics related to teaching and
learning, curriculum and assessment, students’ cognitive and affective needs, cultural and socio-
economic factors of schools, and many other factors considered viable to improving schools.
Educational stakeholders rely on research to make informed decisions that ultimately affect the
quality of schooling for their students. Accordingly, the purpose of educational research is to
engage in disciplined inquiry to generate knowledge on topics significant to the students,
teachers, administrators, schools, and other educational stakeholders. Just as the topics of
educational research vary, so do the approaches to conducting educational research in the
classroom. Your approach to research will be shaped by your context, your professional identity,
and paradigm (set of beliefs and assumptions that guide your inquiry). These will all be key
factors in how you generate knowledge related to your work as an educator.

Action research is an approach to educational research that is commonly used by educational

practitioners and professionals to examine, and ultimately improve, their pedagogy and practice.
In this way, action research represents an extension of the reflection and critical self-reflection
that an educator employs on a daily basis in their classroom. When students are actively engaged
in learning, the classroom can be dynamic and uncertain, demanding the constant attention of the
educator. Considering these demands, educators are often only able to engage in reflection that is
fleeting, and for the purpose of accommodation, modification, or formative assessment. Action
research offers one path to more deliberate, substantial, and critical reflection that can be
documented and analyzed to improve an educator’s practice.

8.2 Purpose of Action Research

As one of many approaches to educational research, it is important to distinguish the potential

purposes of action research in the classroom. This book focuses on action research as a method
to enable and support educators in pursuing effective pedagogical practices by transforming the
quality of teaching decisions and actions, to subsequently enhance student engagement and
learning. Being mindful of this purpose, the following aspects of action research are important to
consider as you contemplate and engage with action research methodology in your classroom:

 Action research is a process for improving educational practice. Its methods involve action,
evaluation, and reflection. It is a process to gather evidence to implement change in practices.
 Action research is participative and collaborative. It is undertaken by individuals with a
common purpose.
 Action research is situation and context-based.
 Action research develops reflection practices based on the interpretations made by participants.
 Knowledge is created through action and application.
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 Action research can be based in problem-solving, if the solution to the problem results in the
improvement of practice.
 Action research is iterative; plans are created, implemented, revised, then implemented,
lending itself to an ongoing process of reflection and revision.
 In action research, findings emerge as action develops and takes place; however, they are not
conclusive or absolute, but ongoing (Koshy, 2010, pgs. 1-2).

8.3. Characteristics of action research

Characteristics of Action Research

Many scholars have attempted to characterize action research in terms of a school based
research. McDonough proposes four characteristics of action research as follows-
1. It is participant-driven and reflection.
2. It is collaborative.
3. It leads to change and the improvement of practice not just knowledge in itself.
4. It is context-specific.
Action research is implemented in a classroom by a particular teacher or group of teachers who
work together to pursue a change or improvement in their teaching and learning issues. Briefly
speaking, Creswell proposes six key characteristics of action research as-
1. A practical focus.
2. The education-researcher own practices.
3. Collaboration.
4. A dynamic process.
5. A plan of research.
6. Sharing research.
Creswell asserts that understanding the above characteristics will help teachers better design their
own study to read, evaluate and use an action research study published in literature.
Characteristics of Action Research Many scholars have attempted to characterize action research
in terms of a school based research. McDonough proposes four characteristics of action research
as follows-
1. It is participant-driven and reflection.
2. It is collaborative.
3. It leads to change and the improvement of practice not just knowledge in itself.
4. It is context-specific.
Action research is implemented in a classroom by a particular teacher or group of teachers who
work together to pursue a change or improvement in their teaching and learning issues. Briefly
speaking, Creswell proposes six key characteristics of action research as-
1. A practical focus.
2. The education-researcher own practices.
3. Collaboration.
4. A dynamic process.
5. A plan of research.

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6. Sharing research.
Creswell asserts that understanding the above characteristics will help teachers better design their
own study to read, evaluate and use an action research study published in literature.

8.4 Steps in action research

The possible steps in conducting action research should include the following:
1. Title- choose a title that needs immediate response
2. Contents
3. Introduction - identify the challenge Write a few sentences on how you decided upon the area
of research. Include how you became aware of the challenge. Why it was a challenge and what
needed changing. What relevance the research has for you.
4. Literature Review (optional)- In starting and selecting your topic for the action research
project you need to explore secondary sources that will help define and shape your research.
This may consist of:
 Relevant reports and documents already existing in your school or around
 Reports from Regional education bureau, Ministry of Education, NGOs etc
 Research articles from published Ethiopian and international journals
 Relevant books
 Internet sources
5. Research methods – data collection, analysis and findings
6. Proposed action
7. Implementation of action/intervention
8. Evaluation of the action/intervention what changed as a result of the action taken? How has
your practice changed as a result of and how have the students benefited from the interventions
made?
9. Next step (Action research cycle) - Identify further changes, if necessary and identify the
challenge in order to repeat the cycle again.
10. References
11. Appendices Include relevant material e.g. questionnaires, interview notes, worksheets etc.
You should also include your completed Action research proposal, your action plans and group
forms.

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