Internal forces (Endogenic) ➡️Land building

➡️Build up relief [1, 2]

Endogenic vs Exogenic Forces
External forces (Exogenic) ➡️Land wearing
➡️Wearing down relief [1, 2]

Rationale for Surface Variations Degradation ➡️Wearing down of elevations

I. Introduction to Earth's [1]
Dynamics
Fluctuates with seasons ➡️Cold/Warm and Aggradation ➡️Filling up of basins and
Dry/Moist [34] Concept of Gradation depressions [1]
Dynamic Medium Nature of Soil
Result of decay ➡️Basis for the biosphere Equilibrium state ➡️Balance between
[34, 35] opposing endogenic and exogenic actions
[2]
Weathering mantle ➡️Colonization by
bacteria/mosses ➡️Humus accumulation
[35]
Physical stresses and chemical actions ➡️
Stages of Development Process Mechanics Change in Earth's configuration [3]
Maturity ➡️Development of complex
mineral and organic mixture [35, 36]
Major Endogenic Processes ➡️
Geomorphic Processes Diastrophism and Volcanism [3]
In-situ weathered rock or transported
deposits [37]
Major Exogenic Processes ➡️Weathering,
I. Parent Material (Passive) Mass wasting, Erosion, Deposition [3]
Texture and mineral composition links to
Definitions
parent rock [37, 38]
VIII. Soil Formation (Pedogenesis) Mobile mediums ➡️Running water,
groundwater, glaciers, wind, waves [4]
Exposure to sunlight + surface/sub-
surface drainage [38, 39] Geomorphic Agents
Primary function ➡️Acquire, remove,
II. Topography (Passive) transport, and deposit materials [4, 5]
🗺️Result ➡️Thin soils on steep slopes;
thick soils over flat uplands [39] II. Geomorphic Processes and Activates all downslope movements of
Agents matter [4, 6]
Moisture ➡️Eluviation (downward
transport) + Illuviation (deposition below) Directional Force
[40] Indirect impact ➡️Activates wave/tide
currents and winds [6]
Desilication ➡️Removal of silica in wet The Role of Gravity
equatorial rainy areas [40] Shear stresses ➡️Separating forces that
break rocks [7]
III. Climate (Active) Soil-forming Factors
Hardpans ➡️Salt crusts in dry climates via
capillary action [40] Stress Development Molecular stresses ➡️Caused by
temperature changes and crystallization
[7]
Temperature ➡️Higher temp ➡️Deeper soil
profiles [41]

Humification ➡️Decay of plant/animal Radioactivity + Rotational and Tidal

matter ➡️Humus [41, 42] friction + Primordial heat [8]
IV. Biological Activity (Active) Energy Sources Internal Heat Generation
Nitrogen Fixation ➡️👤Rhizobium in Causal chain ➡️Geothermal gradients ➡️
leguminous plants [42] Heat flow ➡️Diastrophism/Volcanism [8]

Determines soil maturation and profile Mountain building ➡️Severe folding ➡️Long
maturity [36] Orogenic Processes and narrow belts [9]

V. Time (Passive)
Young Soils ➡️Recently deposited alluvium Continental building ➡️Uplift or warping
or glacial till [36] Epeirogenic Processes of large parts [9]
Diastrophism Mechanics
Earthquakes (minor local movements) +
Degradational process ➡️Wearing down the
III. Endogenic Processes Plate Tectonics (horizontal movements) [9]
landscape [30, 31]

Kinetic Energy ➡️Work of wind, water, and

Acquisition and Transportation Chapter 5 Tectonic Interplay Result ➡️Pressure, Volume, and
Temperature (PVT) changes ➡️
glaciers [31] Geomorphic Metamorphism [9]

Climatically controlled ➡️Wind (Gas),

Erosion Dynamics
Processes Movement of magma toward Earth's
surface [10]
Water (Liquid), Glaciers (Solid) [31]

Agents Volcanism Definition

Non-climatic ➡️Waves (coastal interface) Landforms ➡️Formation of intrusive and
and Ground water (lithological) [32] extrusive forms [10]
VII. Erosion and Deposition
Aggradational process ➡️Filling up
depressions [33]
Denude ➡️To strip off or uncover [11]
Consequences of Erosion Deposition Dynamics
Sorting ➡️Coarser materials settle first; Denudation Comprehensive Term
finer ones later [33] Process Chain ➡️Weathering + Mass
wasting + Erosion + Transportation [11, 12]

Energy Source ➡️Atmosphere determined

Bedrock and weathering products move by Sun's heat [7]
down slopes [20] IV. Exogenic Processes
Thermal gradients ➡️Latitudinal, seasonal,
Gravity-driven transfer Characteristics
No participation from geomorphic agents and land-water distribution [10, 11]
like water or wind [23]
Climatic Controls Regional Variations
Vegetation density ➡️Depends on
Removal of support from below ➡️Natural precipitation and temperature [10, 11]
or artificial means [24]
Folds, faults, bedding inclination, and
Overloading ➡️Heavy rainfall or artificial joints [12]
filling [24, 25] Slope Instability Activating Causes
Rock Structure Influence
Hardness vs Softness of minerals ➡️
Factors ➡️Steep gradients, vertical cliffs, Differential rates of operation [13]
and scarcity of vegetation [24]

Creep ➡️Extremely slow on moderately

steep slopes ➡️Tilted fence posts [20, 26] Mechanical disintegration and chemical
decomposition [14, 15]
Slow Movements
Solifluction ➡️Saturated soil moving over Nature of Process In-situ / On-site phenomenon
frozen ground [27] Little or no motion of materials ➡️Distinct
from transportation [15]

Earthflow ➡️Movement of water- Classification of Movements

saturated clay or silt [25, 26] Solution ➡️Minerals dissolve in
VI. Mass Movements water/acids ➡️🗺️Example:
Nitrates/Sulphates [16]
Mudflow ➡️Thick layers of weathered
material + torrential rain [25, 26] Rapid Movements
Carbonation ➡️Reaction of
Carbonate/Bicarbonate with minerals ➡️🗺️
Debris Avalanche ➡️Extremely rapid ➡️ Example: Feldspar [16]
Humid regions with steep slopes [26, 28]
Chemical Weathering Processes Mechanisms
Hydration ➡️Chemical addition of water ➡️
Slump ➡️Slipping of debris with backward Volume increase ➡️Rock fracture [16]
rotation [27, 29]

Oxidation and Reduction ➡️Reaction with

Debris Slide ➡️Rapid rolling without Oxygen ➡️🗺️Example: Iron turning to rust
rotation [29] [16]
Perceptible and Rapid
Rockslide ➡️Sliding along planar failures Unloading ➡️Pressure release ➡️Expansion
like bedding or joints [29] ➡️Exfoliation shells [17, 18]
Rockfall ➡️Free falling blocks from vertical Thermal Expansion ➡️Diurnal temperature
faces [27] changes ➡️Differential expansion of
Landslides minerals [17, 18]
Himalayas ➡️Tectonically active + V. Weathering Physical/Mechanical Weathering Processes Applied Forces
Sedimentary rocks ➡️Frequent debris Freezing and Thawing ➡️Frost wedging ➡️
avalanches [28] High latitudes and altitudes [17]

Nilgiris/Western Ghats ➡️Tectonically 🗺️Regional Comparisons Salt Weathering ➡️Thermal expansion and
stable but steep cliffs ➡️pronounced hydration of salt crystals [17]
mechanical weathering [28, 30]
Burrowing by earthworms, termites, and
rodents ➡️Exposing new surfaces [19]

👤Human Activity ➡️Ploughing and

Biological Weathering Organic Interaction cultivating soils [19]

Plant Roots ➡️Mechanical pressure

breaking materials apart [19]

Result of unloading and thermal expansion

➡️Flaking of curved sheets [18]
Exfoliation
Forms ➡️Exfoliation domes and Tors [18,
20]

Significance and Special Effects

Chemical leaching of materials ➡️Increased
concentration of valuable ores [21, 22]

Economic Enrichment
🗺️Examples: Iron, Manganese, Aluminium,
Copper [21]