PHY104: GENERAL PHYSICS IV

WAVES AND SOUND WAVES

 OUTLINE
• Characteristics of wave motion
• Types of waves: transverse and longitudinal
•Behavior of waves at boundaries
•Sound waves
• Energy transported by waves
• Mathematical representation of a traveling wave
 WAVES
Wave
A wave is a disturbance in a
medium that carries energy
without a net movement of
particles. It may take the form of
elastic deformation, a variation
of pressure, electric or magnetic
intensity, electric potential, or
temperature.
 Wave characteristics

•Wavelength, λ
•Amplitude, A
•Frequency, f
• Period, T
• Wave velocity,
 TYPES OF WAVES
Transverse Waves: Waves in which the medium moves at right angles to the direction of the
wave. Examples of transverse waves:
•Water waves (ripples of gravity waves, not sound through water)
•Light waves
•S-wave earthquake waves
•Stringed instruments
•Torsion wave
The high point of a transverse wave is a crest. The low part is a trough.
Longitudinal Wave:
A longitudinal wave has the movement of the particles in the medium in the same
dimension as the direction of movement of the wave.
Examples of longitudinal waves:
•Sound waves
•P-type earthquake waves
•Compression wave
Parts of longitudinal waves:
Compression: where the particles are close together.
Rarefaction: where the particles are spread apart.
 TYPES OF WAVES

Mechanical waves:
A wave which needs a medium in order to propagate itself. Sound waves, waves in a
slinky, and water waves are all examples of this.
Electromagnetic Waves:
These waves are disturbance that does not need any object medium for propagation and
can easily travel through the vacuum. They are produced due to various magnetic and
electric fields. The periodic changes that take place in magnetic and electric fields and
therefore known as electromagnetic waves.
 BEHAVIOR OF WAVES AT BOUNDARIES

Waves behaves differently when they encounters a change in the medium or barrier
along the path of their motion.

The characteristics behavior of waves include

• Reflection
• Refraction
• Interference
• Diffraction
• polarization
 REFLECTION

A pulse traveling on a string that is rigidly attached to a support at one end. When the
pulse reaches the support, a severe change in the medium occurs—the string ends. The
result of this change is that the pulse undergoes reflection—that is, the pulse moves
back along the string in the opposite direction.
 REFRACTION

The bending or change in direction of a wave passing from one medium to another caused
by its change in speed. It bends due to the change in wave speed as it enters a different
material.
 Interference

The phenomenon in which

two or more waves
superpose to form a resultant
wave of greater, lower or the
same amplitude. The
interference of waves results
in the medium taking on a
shape resulting from the net
effect of the two individual
waves.
 Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves
as they pass through an aperture or
around objects.

Diffraction involves a change in direction

of waves as they pass through an opening
or around a barrier in their path.

The amount of diffraction increases with

increasing wavelength.

The way their propagation is affected by

the object or the opening depends on the
dimensions of the obstacle.
 SOUND WAVES
Sound is a form of wave motion which is conveyed through an elastic medium from a
vibrating body to a listener. Sound waves are longitudinal waves traveling through a
medium, such as air.
Sound waves fall into three categories covering different ranges of frequencies. Audible
waves are longitudinal waves that lie within the range of sensitivity of the human ear,
approximately 20 to 20 000 Hz. Infrasonic waves are longitudinal waves with frequencies
below the audible range. Earthquake waves are an example. Ultrasonic waves are longitudinal
waves with frequencies above the audible range for humans and are produced by certain types
of whistles. Animals such as dogs can hear the waves emitted by these whistles.
 The Speed of Sound
The speed of a sound wave in a fluid depends on the fluid’s compressibility and inertia. If the
𝐵
fluid has a bulk modulus B and an equilibrium density r, the speed of sound in it is 𝑣 =
𝜌

Equation * also holds true for a gas.

Another example of this general form is the speed of a longitudinal wave in a solid rod,
𝛾
which is 𝑣 =
𝜌
where Y is the Young’s modulus of the solid and 𝜌 is its density. This expression is valid only
for a thin, solid rod

The speed of sound is much higher in solids than in gases because the molecules in a solid
interact more strongly with each other than do molecules in a gas.
The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the medium. For sound traveling
through air, the relationship between the speed of sound and temperature is

𝑇
𝑣 = (331 𝑚ൗ𝑠)
273𝐾

331 m/s is the speed of sound in air at 0°C and T is the absolute (Kelvin) temperature.
Using this equation, the speed of sound in air at 293 K (a typical room temperature) is
approximately 343 m/s.
 Example

An explosion occurs 275 m above an 867-m-thick ice sheet that lies over ocean water. If the
air temperature is -7.00°C, how long does it take the sound to reach a research vessel 1 250
m below the ice? Neglect any changes in the bulk modulus and density with temperature and
depth. (Use 𝐵𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 9.2 × 109 𝑃𝑎 and speed of sound in salt water = 1,533 m/s)
 Solution
𝑇 266𝐾
𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 331 𝑚Τ𝑠 = 331 𝑚Τ𝑠 = 327 𝑚Τ𝑠
273𝐾 273𝐾
𝑑 275 𝑚
𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = = 0.841 𝑠
𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑟 327 𝑚/𝑠

𝐵 9.2 × 109 𝑃𝑎 3 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 = = = 3.2 × 10
𝜌 917 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
 Solution

𝑑 867 𝑚
𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 = = = 0.27 𝑠
𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 3200𝑚/𝑠

𝑑 1250 𝑚
𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = = 0.815 𝑠
𝑣𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1533 𝑚/𝑠

𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 + 𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =0.841 s+0.27 s+ 0.815 s

 Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave
Let us assume that a progressive
wave travels from the origin O along
the positive direction of X axis, from
left to right. The displacement of a
particle at a given instant is
y = A sinωt
where a is the amplitude of the
vibration of the particle and ω = 2πf

The displacement of the particle P at a distance x from O at a given instant is given by,
y = a sin (ωt - φ).
If the two particles are separated by a distance λ, they will differ by a phase of 2π. Therefore,
the phase φ of the particle P at a distance x is
 Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave
𝜑 = 2𝜋𝑥 /𝜆
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 - 2𝜋𝑥 /𝜆 )
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑘 = 2𝜋/ 𝜆
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 - 𝑘𝑥) - (1)

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜔 = 2𝜋 /𝑇
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋𝑡/ 𝑇 - 2𝜋𝑥/ 𝜆 )
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 (t/T - 𝑥/𝜆) - - - -(2)
If the wave travels in opposite direction, the
equation becomes
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 (t/T + 𝑥/𝜆) ,
 Variation of phase with time
The phase changes continuously with time at a constant distance. At a given distance x from
O let φ1 and φ2 be the phase of a particle at time t1 and t2 respectively.
𝑡1 𝑥
𝜑1 = 2𝜋( − )
𝑇 𝜆
𝑡2 𝑥
𝜑2 = 2𝜋( − )
𝑇 𝜆
𝜑2 − 𝜑1 = 2𝜋(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )

2𝜋
∆𝜑= ∆𝑡
𝑇
This is the phase change Δφ of a particle in time interval Δt. If Δt = T, Δφ = 2π. This shows
that after a time period T, the phase of a particle becomes the same
Thus dφ/dt = constant
𝑑
∴ 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥
𝜔−𝑘 =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝜔
= =𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑘
Here v is the phase speed of wave. Which is same as speed of wave
 Variation of phase with distance

At a given time t phase changes periodically with distance x. Let φ1 and φ2 be the phase
of two particles at distance x1 and x2 respectively from the origin at a time t.
𝑡 𝑥1
𝜑1 = 2𝜋( − )
𝑇 𝜆

𝑡 𝑥2
𝜑2 = 2𝜋( − )
𝑇 𝜆

𝜑2 − 𝜑1 = 2𝜋(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
2𝜋
∆𝜑 = ∆𝑥
𝑇
The negative sign indicates that the forward points lag in phase when the wave travels from left
to right.
When Δx = λ, Δφ = 2π, the phase difference between two particles having a path difference λ is
2π
 Example

A simple harmonic wave has the equation y = 0.3sin(314t – 1.57x),

where t, x and y are in seconds, meteres and cm respectively. Find the
frequency and the wavelength of the wave. Another wave has the
equation y’ = 0.10 sin (314t – 1.57x + 1.57). Deduce the phase
difference of the wave.
 Solution
Since y is in cm thus given equation in meters unit is
0.3
𝑦= sin(314𝑡 − 1.57 𝑥
100
Comparing with standard equation y= a sin(ωt –kx)
We get 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 314
314
Frequency: 𝑓 = = 50 𝐻𝑧
2×3.14
2𝜋
Wavelength 𝑘 =
𝜆
2𝜋 2 × 3.14
𝜆= = =4𝑚
𝑘 1.57
Phase difference between two wave is (314t – 1.57x + 1.57) – (314t – 1.57x) = 1.57
radian
Or 1.57 × 180 𝜋 = 90𝑜
 Characteristics of progressive wave

1. Each particle of the medium executes vibration about its mean position. The
disturbance progresses onward from one particle to another.
2. The particles of the medium vibrate with same amplitude about their mean
positions.
3. Each successive particle of the medium performs a motion similar to that of its
predecessor along the propagation of the wave, but later in time.
4. The phase of every particle changes from 0 to 2π.
5. No particle remains permanently at rest. Twice during each vibration, the particles
are momentarily at rest at extreme positions, different particles attain the position at
different time.
6. There is a transfer of energy across the medium in the direction of
propagation of progressive wave.
7. All the particles have the same maximum velocity when they pass through the
mean position.
8. The displacement, velocity and acceleration of the particle separated by mλ
are the same, where m is an integer.
 Properties of Sound Waves
Pitch: Pitch  Frequency (f) Human Ear: Responds to frequencies in the range: 20
Hz  f  20,000 Hz
f > 20,000 Hz 
Ultrasonic
f < 20 Hz 
Infrasonic
Amplitude and loudness

Loudness is related to Sound wave energy

 Intensity
Intensity of a sound wave is the rate of energy flow
(or Power) through a given area. Sound waves
propagate spherically outward from the source. Since
the original amount of energy is spread out over a
larger amount of surface area, the intensity of sound
decreases by the inverse square law as it moves away
1
from the source. 𝐼 ∝
𝑟2
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
4𝜋𝑟 2

The value of the intensity of sound determines its

loudness or volume, but the relationship is NOT
Relative intensity, which is found by relating the intensity of a given sound to the threshold of
hearing, corresponds more closely to human perceptions of loudness.
Relative intensity is measured in decibels.
The Decibel Scale:
Relative I (in dB) = log (I/Io); Io = threshold of hearing). A 10 dB increase (10 X the intensity)
in sound level is heard as being as about twice as loud.

• Threshold of hearing (Io)– approximate lowest intensity of sound that can be heard by the
average human ear (occurs at about 1000 Hz with an intensity of 1.0 X 10–12 W/m2)
• Threshold of pain – approximate loudest sound that the human ear can tolerate (1.0 W/m2)
 Intensity and sound level

The loudness of a sound depends on intensity of sound wave and sensitivity of the ear. The
intensity is defined as the amount of energy crossing per unit area per unit time perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of the wave.
Intensity is measured in 𝑊𝑚−2 .
The intensity of sound depends on
(i) Amplitude of the source (I α A2),
(ii) Surface area of the source (I α S),
(iii) Density of the medium (I α ρ),
(iv) Frequency of the source (I α f2) and
(v) Distance of the observer from the source (I α 1/r2
 Beats
Beats are produced when two waves of nearly equal frequencies travelling in a
medium along the same direction superimpose upon each other. The amptitude of the
resultant sound at a point rises and falls regularly.
The intensity of the resultant sound at a point rises and falls regularly with time. The
phenomenon of waxing and waning of sound due to interference of two sound waves of
nearly equal frequencies are called beats.
The number of beats produced per second is called beat frequency, which is equal to
the difference in frequencies of two waves.
Let us consider two waves of slightly different frequencies 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 (𝑓1 > 𝑓2 )
having equal amplitude travelling in a medium in the same direction.
At time t = 0, both waves travel in same phase. The equations of the two waves are

𝑦1= 𝑎 sin 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 and 𝑦2= 𝑎 sin 2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡

When the two waves superimpose, the resultant displacement is given by

𝑦= 𝑎 sin 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝑎 sin(2𝜋𝑓2 ) 𝑡
𝑓1 +𝑓2 𝑓1 −𝑓2
2𝜋 𝑡 cos 2𝜋
𝑦= 2𝑎 sin 2 2

𝑓1 −𝑓2 𝑓1 +𝑓2
Substituting 𝐴 = 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓=
2 2
y = A sin2πft

𝑓1 +𝑓2
This represents a simple harmonic wave of frequency 𝑓=
2
 𝑓1 −𝑓2
The resultant amplitude is maximum (i.e) ± 2a, if cos 2𝜋 = ±1
2
𝑓1 − 𝑓2
2𝜋 = 𝑛𝜋
2
(where n = 0, 1, 2 ...) or (𝑓1 − 𝑓2 ) t = n
The first maximum is obtained at t1 = 0 The second maximum is obtained at 𝑡2 =
1
𝑓1 −𝑓2
The third maximum at
2
𝑡3 =
𝑓1 − 𝑓2
The time interval between two successive maxima is
1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝑡3 − 𝑡2 =
𝑓1 − 𝑓2

Hence the number of beats produced per second is equal to the reciprocal of the time
interval between two successive maxima
 𝑓1 −𝑓2
The resultant amplitude is minimum (i.e) equal to zero, if 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 =0
2
𝑓1 −𝑓2 𝜋
2𝜋 = + 𝑛𝜋
2 2
2𝑛 + 1
(𝑓1 −𝑓2 )𝑡 =
2
where n = 0, 1, 2 ...
The first minimum is obtained at n = 0
′ 1
𝑡1 =
2(𝑓1 −𝑓2 )
The second minimum is obtained at n = 1
2
𝑡2′
=
2(𝑓1 − 𝑓2 )
′ 5
The third minimum is obtained at 𝑡3 =
2(𝑓1 −𝑓2 )
1
Time interval between two successive minima is 𝑡′2 - 𝑡′1 = 𝑡′3 - 𝑡′2 =
(𝑓1 −𝑓2 )
Hence, the number of beats produced per second is equal to the reciprocal of time
interval between two successive minima.