Ecosystem: Structure and Function
12.1 Ecosystem Structure and Function
An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature where living organisms interact with each other and their
physical environment. Ecosystems vary in size, from a small pond to the entire biosphere. They can be
broadly categorized as terrestrial (forest, grassland, desert) or aquatic (pond, lake, river, estuary). Man-made
ecosystems include crop fields and aquariums.
The structure of an ecosystem is defined by its components and their distribution:
Species Composition: The identification and enumeration of plant and animal species within an
ecosystem.
Stratification: The vertical distribution of different species occupying different layers or strata. For
example, in a forest, trees form the top layer, shrubs the middle, and herbs/grasses the bottom.
The function of an ecosystem involves several key aspects:
Productivity
Decomposition
Energy Flow
Nutrient Cycling
Example: A Pond Ecosystem
A pond serves as a good example of a self-sustainable aquatic ecosystem.
Abiotic Components: Water, dissolved inorganic and organic substances, soil deposit at the bottom,
solar input, temperature, day-length, and climatic conditions.
Biotic Components:
Autotrophs (Producers): Phytoplankton, algae, floating, submerged, and marginal plants.
Consumers: Zooplankton, free-swimming and bottom-dwelling forms.
Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria, and flagellates.
A pond ecosystem exhibits the fundamental processes of energy conversion, consumption, decomposition,
and nutrient recycling, mirroring the functions of the biosphere. Energy flows unidirectionally towards
higher trophic levels, with dissipation as heat.
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12.2 Productivity
Primary Productivity: The amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period
by plants during photosynthesis. It's expressed in terms of weight (e.g., g/m²) or energy (e.g., kcal/m²).
Productivity: The rate of biomass production, expressed as g/m²/yr or (kcal/m²)/yr.
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): The rate of organic matter production during photosynthesis.
Respiration (R): The amount of GPP utilized by plants for their own metabolic processes.
Net Primary Productivity (NPP): The biomass available for consumption by heterotrophs
(herbivores and decomposers).
GPP − R = NPP
Secondary Productivity: The rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
Factors Affecting Primary Productivity:
Plant species present.
Environmental factors (light, temperature, water).
Availability of nutrients.
Photosynthetic capacity of plants.
The annual net primary productivity of the biosphere is estimated to be around 170 billion tons (dry weight)
of organic matter, with oceans contributing about 55 billion tons.
12.3 Decomposition
Decomposition: The process by which decomposers break down complex organic matter into simple
inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients.
Detritus: Dead plant remains (leaves, bark, flowers) and dead animal remains, including fecal matter,
which serve as raw material for decomposition.
Detritivores: Organisms (e.g., earthworms) that break down detritus into smaller particles.
Steps in Decomposition:
1. Fragmentation: Detritivores break down detritus into smaller pieces.
2. Leaching: Water-soluble inorganic nutrients are washed down into the soil.
3. Catabolism: Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances.
4. Humification: Accumulation of dark-colored, amorphous humus, which is resistant to microbial
action and acts as a nutrient reservoir.
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5. Mineralisation: Further degradation of humus by microbes, releasing inorganic nutrients back into
the soil.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Decomposition:
Chemical Composition of Detritus: Detritus rich in lignin and chitin decomposes slowly, while
detritus rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances (like sugars) decomposes faster.
Climatic Factors:
Temperature: Warm temperatures favor decomposition.
Moisture: Adequate soil moisture is crucial.
Aeration: Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. Anaerobic conditions inhibit
decomposition.
Warm and moist environments promote rapid decomposition, while cold and dry or anaerobic conditions
slow it down, leading to the build-up of organic material.
12.4 Energy Flow
Source of Energy: For most ecosystems, the sun is the primary energy source.
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR): Less than 50% of incident solar radiation is PAR.
Energy Capture: Plants and photosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs) capture only 2-10% of PAR to
produce food. This captured energy sustains all life.
Energy Flow Principles:
Unidirectional Flow: Energy flows from the sun to producers, then to consumers, and is eventually
lost as heat. This aligns with the first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy).
Second Law of Thermodynamics: Ecosystems require a constant energy supply to maintain order
and synthesize molecules, counteracting the tendency towards increasing disorder.
Trophic Levels: The position an organism occupies in a food chain based on its source of nutrition.
Producers (First Trophic Level): Plants and photosynthetic organisms that convert light energy into
chemical energy.
Primary Consumers (Second Trophic Level): Herbivores that feed on producers. Examples: insects,
cows, zooplankton.
Secondary Consumers (Third Trophic Level): Carnivores that feed on primary consumers.
Examples: birds, fishes, wolves.
Tertiary Consumers (Fourth Trophic Level): Carnivores that feed on secondary consumers.
Examples: lions, man.
Food Chains: A sequence of organisms where each organism is eaten by the next organism in the chain.
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Grazing Food Chain (GFC): Starts with producers and moves through herbivores to carnivores.
Example: Grass → Goat → Man
Detritus Food Chain (DFC): Starts with dead organic matter (detritus) and involves decomposers.
Example: Dead leaves → Fungi/Bacteria → Earthworm
In aquatic ecosystems, GFC is the primary pathway for energy flow. In terrestrial ecosystems, DFC often
carries a larger fraction of energy.
Food Web: A complex network of interconnected food chains, reflecting the diverse feeding relationships in
an ecosystem.
Standing Crop: The mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number of individuals at a particular trophic
level at a given time. Biomass is more accurately measured by dry weight.
10% Law: Approximately only 10% of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next trophic
level. The remaining energy is lost as heat during metabolic processes.
12.5 Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramids represent the relationship between different trophic levels in terms of number,
biomass, or energy. The base of the pyramid represents producers, and it narrows towards the apex
representing top consumers.
Types of Ecological Pyramids:
1. Pyramid of Number: Represents the number of individuals at each trophic level.
Upright: In most ecosystems (e.g., grassland), the number of producers is highest, followed by
primary consumers, and then secondary consumers.
Inverted: In some cases (e.g., a single large tree supporting many insects), the pyramid can be
inverted.
2. Pyramid of Biomass: Represents the total dry weight of organisms at each trophic level.
Upright: Generally upright in terrestrial ecosystems, with biomass decreasing at higher trophic
levels.
Inverted: Can be inverted in aquatic ecosystems where phytoplankton (producers) have a small
biomass but high turnover rate, supporting a larger biomass of zooplankton (primary
consumers).
3. Pyramid of Energy: Represents the amount of energy available at each trophic level.
Always Upright: This pyramid is always upright because energy is lost as heat at each transfer
between trophic levels, following the 10% law.
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids:
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Do not account for organisms belonging to multiple trophic levels.
Assume simple food chains, which are rare in nature.
Do not accommodate food webs.
Do not include decomposers, despite their crucial role.
Example Calculation (Energy Flow):
If producers capture 1,000,000 J of solar energy as NPP, then:
Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Will receive approximately 10% of the producers' energy, which is
1, 000, 000 J × 0.10 = 100, 000 J.
Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): Will receive approximately 10% of the primary consumers'
energy, which is 100, 000 J × 0.10 = 10, 000 J.
Tertiary Consumers (Top Carnivores): Will receive approximately 10% of the secondary consumers'
energy, which is 10, 000 J × 0.10 = 1, 000 J.
The remaining energy is lost as heat at each trophic level.
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