Module 4

Deep Foundations

Deep foundations are those in which the depth of foundation is very large in comparison
to its width.

Types of Deep Foundations

Basically there are three forms of deep foundations:

 Pile
 Pier
 Caisson

The basic difference between the above three types of deep foundation is cross sectional
dimension in relation to depth:
 Pile (c/s about 30 cm)
 Pier (c/s about 1 m)
 Caisson (c/s > 1m)
As a result of this difference, pile bends under horizontal load and piers and caissons
undergo rotation as rigid bodies under a horizontal load.

Fig: (a) Pile (b) Flexible Pier (c) Rigid Pier (d) Caisson

Deep foundations generally refer to pile foundations. Piles are relatively long and slender
members used to transfer loads through weak soil or water to deeper soil or rock strata
having a high bearing capacity.

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Load Transfer in Deep Foundations

From the point of view of load transfer, piles are classified as:

 End bearing piles

 Friction piles

When a pile passes through weak material (soil) and its tip is resting on firm stratum at a
reasonable depth below, it is called end bearing pile. This type of pile transmits the load
to the firm soil at that point of support.

When a pile is installed in a deep stratum of limiting supporting ability and pile develops
its carrying capacity by friction on its sides, it is called friction pile (skin friction pile). If
the soil is cohesionless, shearing resistance will be in the form of skin friction.

The unit value of skin friction = kh

where, k = coefficient of earth pressure
 = coefficient of friction = tan
 = angle of wall friction
 = unit weight of soil
h = height of pile

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In some cases, a part of the load is transferred at the point and remaining being supported
by the skin resistance. Such piles are called end bearing- cum- friction piles.

Laterally loaded piles, tension piles & batter piles,

Fig: Uses of piles

Piles used to resist upward forces or anchor down the structures subject to uplift are
known as tension piles. (ex: building with basement below groundwater table, buried
tanks etc...). A pile provided with an enlarged bulb at its base to resist uplift or tensile
force is termed as under-reamed pile.

In case of large lateral loads (ex: retaining walls), piles driven at an angle to the vertical.
These piles are known as batter piles.

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Ultimate bearing capacity of different types of piles in different soil conditions

Pile groups

Bearing capacity

The bearing capacity of a single pile depends upon:

 type, size and length of pile

 type of soil
 method of installation

The ultimate bearing capacity of pile (Qu) is determined as follows:

Qu = Qp + Qs

where,
Qp = point bearing load
Qs = skin friction load

Methods of analysis to estimate ultimate bearing capacity of a single pile:

(i) Static analysis

(ii) Dynamic analysis
(iii) Static in situ (field) test

Static analysis methods are more commonly adopted for determining ultimate bearing
capacity of piles. Dynamic formulae are sometimes used for predicting bearing capacity
of driven piles in cohesionless soils.

Static in situ test most popularly known as pile load test is the only direct method for
determining the allowable load on piles. It is the most reliable method. Pile load tests are
very useful in cohesionless soils. In case of cohesive soils, disturbance due to pile
driving, pore pressure development and inadequate time allowed for consolidation
settlement has to be considered.

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Pile load test is costly and is used to confirm whether the actual pile installed in the field
can take the load predicted by static or dynamic analysis.

(I) Static analysis

(1) Cohesionless soils

(i) Ultimate bearing capacity of driven pile in cohesionless soils

In the case of driven pile in cohesionless, the soil gets compacted up to a distance of
3.5 times the diameter of the pile. As a result of this, there will be an increase in the
value of ø which can be calculated as follows:

Ø2 = ø1 + 40
2

Ø2 = maximum value of Ø at the tip of the pile

Ø1 = value of Ø before the installation of pile

However, it is recommended that the value of ø which existed before pile driving be used
in the analysis. A pile should be driven at least five times the diameter of the pile into the
bearing stratum.

The following two tests are commonly used to determine the bearing capacity of the
driven pile in cohesionless soil:

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 (a) Standard Penetration Test
 The test is performed up to the expected depth of penetration of pile
 Let N1 represent the average of observed N-values along the length of pile & N2 is
the N value near the pile tip
 The point bearing load Qp is given by:
Qp = Ab σ’v (Nq – 1)
Where, Ab = area of cross-section of pile tip m2
σ’v = effective overburden pressure at the pile tip (kN/m2)
Nq = bearing capacity factor
The side friction resistance is Qs is given by:
Qs = f As = k σ’v tanδ As

Where, f = unit skin friction (kN/m2)

k = earth pressure coefficient
σ’v = average effective overburden pressure over embedded depth of pile (kN/m2)
δ = angle of friction between pile material and soil
As = embedded surface area of pile (m2)

(b) Static Cone Penetration Test

 Make the plot of cone resistance (qc) versus depth
 Determine the average cone resistance (qc1)over the range of depth as shown in
fig.

Fig: Zone considered for computing end resistance of pile from SCPT

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 Ultimate point resistance is given by
Qp = qc1. Ab
 Determine the average cone resistance along the pile shaft. (qc2). The ultimate
resistance of a driven concrete pile is given by.
Qs = qc2 . As
200

for driven steel pile is given by.

Qs = qc2 . As
400

Working load of a pile = Qp + Qs

2.5

(ii) Ultimate bearing capacity of bored and cast in situ pile in cohesionless
soils
In this case, soil will get loosened due to boring. The following equations may
be used to compute point bearing and skin friction resistance:
Qp = Ab σ’v (Nq – 1)
Qs = f As = k Qp = Ab σ’v tanδ As

(iii) Ultimate bearing capacity of driven and cast in situ pile in cohesionless soils

 Driven and cast in situ piles are performed by driving a tube into the ground.
 The bearing capacity of pile in which the tube is left into the ground can be
obtained by the procedure given in (i)
 In the case of tube is withdrawn with the placing of concrete, the procedure
given in (ii) may be adopted.

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(2) Cohesive soils

(i) Ultimate bearing capacity of driven pile in cohesive soils is given by:

Qu = Nc Cb Ab + α Cu As

Where, Nc = bearing capacity factor

Cb = undisturbed shear strength of clay at the pile tip
Ab = area of c/s of pile tip
α = adhesion factor
Cu = average undrained shear strength of clay adjacent to pile shaft
As = embedded surface area of pile
For driven piles, effective stress reduces due to increase in pore pressure and as
such, skin friction capacity will also be smaller. Therefore charts are used to get
reduced adhesion factor (α) for lighter loads.

For heavier loads:

Qu = Nc Cb Ab + FαP Cu As

Where, αP = peak adhesion factor depends on ratio Cu/ σ’v

F = factor depends on slenderness ratio (L/B)

(ii) Ultimate bearing capacity of bored and cast in situ pile in cohesive soils

Qu = Nc Cb Ab + α Cu As
Take α = 0.45 in medium clays
0.3 in highly fissured clays

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(3) C -  soils

Ultimate bearing capacity of driven pile in c -  soils is given by

Qp = Ab (1.2 cNc + γLf (Nq – 1) + 0.4 γBNγ)

where, Ab = area of c/s of pile tip

c = unit cohesion
γ = unit weight of soil
B = diameter of pile
Nc, Nq Nγ = bearing capacity factors
Lf = embedded length of pile

Qs = As( k σ’v tanδ + α Cu)

(II) Dynamic Analysis

Dynamic pile formulae have been derived on the principle that the energy supplied to the
pile is utilized in overcoming the resistance of the ground to the penetration of the pile.

The following two formulae are commonly used:

(a) Engineering News formula:

The allowable pile capacity Qu is given by:

Qu = 166.7WH
S+C

where, Qu = ultimate bearing capacity of pile (kN)

W = weight of hammer (kN)
H = drop of hammer (m)
S = final set or average penetration of pile per blow for the final 150 mm
of driving
C = additional penetration of pile tip that would have occurred if there
were no energy losses
= 25.4 mm for piles driven with drop hammer
= 2.54 mm for piles driven with steam hammer

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(b) Modified Hiley formula

This formula is considered to be superior to the Engineering News formula as it

takes into account various losses during driving in a more realistic manner.

Qu = _ _ WHƞ_________
S + ½ (C1 + C2 + C3)

where, Qu = ultimate bearing capacity of pile (kN)

W = weight of hammer (kN)
H = drop of hammer (m)
S = final set or penetration per blow in mm
C1 = temporary compression of dolly & packing
C2 = temporary compression of pile
C3 = temporary compression of ground
Ƞ = efficiency of the blow

= W + Pe2 (for W > P .e)

W+P

= W + Pe2 - W - Pe (for W < P .e)

W+P W+P

P = weight of pile, anvil, helme

e = coefficient of restitution of the materials under impact

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Limitations of dynamic formulae

 Dynamic formulae is more suitable for free draining soils like coarse sand. In the
case of fine sand and silt, there is possibility of development of liquefaction
during piling resulting in reduction of bearing capacity of pile.
 Pore pressure increases during pile driving resulting in reduction of ɸ. Dynamic
penetration resistance has no relation to static bearing capacity.
 In cohesive soils, soils get remoulded during pile driving resulting reduction of
shear strength of soil. Though the soil will regain part of the strength later, this
will not be reflected in the formulae.

(III) Static in situ test (Pile load test)

This is the most reliable and accepted method of determining pile load capacity. It may
be performed on a driven pile or cast-in-situ pile, single pile or on group of piles. The
purpose of pile load test is to establish load-settlement relationship under compressive
load.

Pile load test are of two types:

(i) Progressive loading test

(ii) Cyclic loading test

Fig: Pile load test set up

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Progressive loading test

 The test shall be carried out by applying a series of vertical downward loads on a
RCC cap over the pile.
 The load shall preferably be applied by means of a remote controlled hydraulic
jack taking reaction against a loaded platform.
 The test load shall be applied in increments of about 20 % of the assumed safe
load. Settlement shall be recorded with at least three dial gauges of sensitivity
0.02 mm suitably mounted on independent datum bars at least five times the pile
diameter away with a minimum distance of 1.5 m.
 Each stage of loading shall be maintained till the rate of movement of pile top is
not more than 0.1 mm per hour in a sandy soil and 0.02 mm per hour in a clayey
soil or for a maximum of two hours whichever is later.
 Load-settlement curve may be plotted from data obtained and the ultimate bearing
capacity of the pile Qu may be obtained by intersection-tangent method

Fig: Load-settlement curve from pile load test

The allowable load on a single pile shall be the lesser of the following:
(i) Two-third of the final load at which the total settlement attains a value of
12 mm
(ii) 50 % of the final load at which the total settlement equals 10 % of the pile
diameter in case of uniform diameter piles and 7.5 % of bulb diameter in
case of under-reamed piles

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 The allowable load on a group of piles shall be the lesser of the following:

(i) Final load at which the total settlement attains a value of 25 mm unless
specified in a given case on the basis of the nature and type of structure.
(ii) Two-third of the final load at which the total settlement attains a value of
40 mm.

Cyclic loading test

This method is adopted when it is required to separate the pile load into skin friction and
point bearing.

 The load shall be applied in increments of about 20 % of the estimated safe load.
 The loading and unloading should be carried out alternatively at each stage and
the elastic rebound in the pile is measured.
 The point load Qp increases linearly with the elastic compression of the soil at the
base. This principle is used in separating the frictional load from the point load.
 The total settlement St of pile load test comprises of two components namely,
elastic settlement Se and plastic settlement Sp.
St = Se + Sp
 The elastic settlement Se is due to the elastic recovery of the pile material and the
elastic recovery of soil at the base of the pile Ses.

Fig: Load-settlement curve obtained from cyclic pile load test

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Alternate method (Sleeve method)

Fig: Elimination of skin friction through sleeve & load-settlement curves

 Firstly, a pile load test is performed by covering the pile with sleeve such that
friction is not acting on the pile shaft.
 Next, another pile load test is performed without putting sleeve around the pile.
 The difference on the load from the two tests will give the skin friction (shaft
friction).

Negative skin friction of a pile

In the case of driven or bored piles installed in compressible fill or any soil showing
appreciable consolidation under its own weight, resulting downward movement of soil
around the pile induces down drag on the pile. This drag on the pile surface is called
negative skin friction and it reduces the allowable working load on the pile by adding to
the structural loads. A small relative movement between the soil and the pile of the order
of 10 mm may be sufficient for full negative skin friction to occur.

Negative skin friction may also develop in loose sand deposits. Piles in clay deposits
subjected to general subsidence resulting from lowering of groundwater table or their
causes may also be subjected to this downward drag. Reconsolidation of the remoulded
clay layer around any driven pile may also result in negative skin friction.

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The magnitude of negative skin friction, Fn for a single pile in a filled up soil deposit
may be estimated as given below:

In cohesive soils,
Fn =  Cu As

In cohesionless soils,
Fn = ½ K.  . Lc. tan. As
where,

 = adhesion factor
Cu = unit undrained cohesion
As = surface area of pile in compressible stratum = p Lc
K = coefficient of earth pressure
 = density of soil
Lc = length of pile in compressible layer
 = angle of wall friction
As = perimeter of pile

Factor safety = ultimate bearing capacity__________

working load + negative skin friction

Remedy
Negative skin friction can be reduced in precast piles by painting the pile surface with
bitumen

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Negative skin friction in a pile group

The magnitude of negative skin friction in a pile group may be taken as the higher value
of the following equations:

Fng = Fn. n

Fng = Cu Lc Pg +  Lc Ag

Fng = negative skin friction of pile group

Fn = negative skin friction of single pile
n = number of piles in group
 = unit weight of soil within the pile group up to a depth, Lc
Ag = area of the pile group within the perimeter, Pg
Lc = length of pile on which negative skin friction acts.

Settlement

(i) Settlement of pile group in sand

 The common practice of estimating the settlement of pile group in sand is to

extrapolate from standard penetration test or static cone penetration test data.
 Settlement ratio Sg/Si with Bg is plotted.
where, Sg = settlement of pile group
Si = settlement of individual pile
Bg = width of pile group

 The settlement ratio can have can have a value of up to 16 which means that the
settlement of a pile group in sand may up to 16 times that of individual pile
depending on the width of pile group.

 Skempton’s formula for settlement ratio for pile groups driven in sand

Sg = 4 (Bg + 2.7 )2
Si Bg + 3.6

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  Mayerhof’s formula for settlement ratio for square pile groups driven in sand

Sg = S (5 –S/(3/B)
Si B (1+1/m)

where, S = spacing between piles

Bg = width of pile group
m = number of rows in the pile group
B = pile diameter

(ii) Settlement of pile group in clay

 The widely used approach to calculate the settlement of a pile group in clay is the
equivalent raft approach.
 For friction piles two cases are considered:
(i) The load is assumed to spread from fictitious rigid footing located at the
top of the layer, providing friction resistance at a 2:1 slope. For a
homogeneous stratum this is at the ground surface.
(ii) The load is placed on a fictitious rigid footing located at Lf/3 from the
bottom of piles. The spread out load is also taken at either 2:1 or 300.
 For point bearing piles in dense sand-gravel deposits, the fictitious footing is
placed on the deposit in which the piles penetrate. The spread out load is also
taken at either 2:1 or 300.

 The soil at or below the imaginary raft must carry the load without excessive
settlement.

Uplift capacity

Uplift capacity is nothing but the resistance to uplift forces and it is determined by
calculating the friction between the pile and the surrounding soil. This may be increased
in the case of bored pile by under-reaming and by bulb end of a driven or cast-in-situ pile.

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(i) uplift capacity of circular and straight piles is calculated by:

Qut = As (Cd + K v tan)

where,
Qut = ultimate pullout resistance
As = surface area of pile
 = adhesion factor
Cd = average undisturbed shear strength adjacent to pile shaft
K = coefficient of lateral earth pressure
v = average of effective vertical stress along the length of pile
 = angle of wall friction

(ii) uplift capacity of bulb pile

(a) in cohesive soils

Based on mobilization of shear strength along the cylindrical surface above base
diameter

Qut = mf CuA’s + Ws + Wp

Based on bearing capacity failure

Qut = 9Cu /4 (Db2 – D2) + Wp

where,
mf = mobilization factor
Cu = unit undrained cohesion
A’s = surface area of vertical cylinder above base =  DbL
Db = diameter of enlarged base
L = embedded length of pile
Ws = weight of soil
Wp = weight of pile

(b) in c- soils

Based on mobilization of shear strength along the cylindrical surface above base
diameter

 for shallow depth (L<H)

Qut = Cu DbL + /2Sb DbL2Kutan + Wp

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  for larger depth (L>H)

Qut = Cu DbH + Sb Db(2L-H) HKutan + Wp

where,
S = Shape factor
m = coefficient depending on 
Ku = earth pressure
b = effective unit weight

Based on bearing capacity failure

Qut = /4 (Db2 – D2) (Cu Nc + b L Nq + Wp

Nc, Nq = bearing capacity factors

(iii) uplift resistance of a pile group is taken as the lesser of the following two values:

(i) sum of uplift resistance of piles in the group

(ii) sum of shear resistance mobilized on the surface perimeter of the group
plus total weight of soil and piles enclosed in the perimeter

Efficiency pile group

The efficiency of a pile group (Eg) = _____actual group capacity_____

sum of individual pile capacities

The group efficiency depends on the following:

 spacing between the piles

 type of soil
 manner of pile installation (i.e. driven, bored or cast-in-situ)

(i) The converse-labarre equation has been widely used to compute pile group
efficiency:

Eg = 1 - Ɵ m(n-1) + n(m-1)
90 mn

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where, m = number of rows
n = number of columns
 = tan-1 (B/ S)
B = diameter of piles
S = c/c spacing between piles

(ii) Field proposed a simple thumb rule of computing group efficiency by

simply reducing the pile capacity by 1/16 for each adjacent pile.
(iii) Vesic equation

Eg = skin resistance on group perimeter = __p____

Sum of skin resistance of individual piles Bmn

Proportioning and design concepts of piles

The term proportioning includes the selection of the type of pile, shape, size and length,
number of piles required to carry the design load, spacing between the piles and
arrangement of piles in the group.

Generally, the following three cases are considered in practice:

a) group of vertical piles subjected to central vertical load

The various steps involved in proportioning of pile foundation can be outlined as

follows:

(i) selection of type of pile: A soil profile representing the details of boring provide
the information required to decide appropriate type of pile (driven or cast-in-situ).
The selection of pile also depends on practical consideration. For example driven
piles may not be suitable if it affect neighboring structures. Driven piles are also not
suitable for soils with poor drainage conditions as it would lead to development of
pore pressures or lifting of adjacent piles. The cast-in-situ piles take less load as
compared to driven piles.

(ii) length of pile: In the case of end bearing piles, required length of pile depend on
the soil profile. The length of friction pile in sand can be estimated by load test.
The length of friction pile in soft clay can be estimated by making an estimate of
factor of safety of the pile against complete failure.

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(iii) size of pile: Factors affecting the selection of size of pile are:
 permissible compressive stress of pile
 downward drag force
 driving capacity of equipment

(iv) estimation of pile capacity: The ultimate bearing capacity of a single pile can be
computed theoretical calculations or by load test.

(v) spacing between piles in a group: The distance between piles depends on type of
pile and soil (it varies from 3B to 6B)

(vi) geometry of pile layout: Usually piles are arranged in either square or triangular
pattern.

(vii) stability of pile group: if the foundation is supported by friction piles in soft clay
or plastic silt, the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile group should be estimated
and the design load must not exceed one third of the ultimate value.

(viii) estimation of settlement: settlement of pile group may have no relation to

settlement of a single pile under the load. Settlement less than 50 mm is not
harmful. Settlement computation should be carried out.

(xi) design of pile: firstly, the load taken by each pile is obtained as follows:

Vp = V/n

where Vp = load taken by each pile

V = total load acting on piles
N = number of piles

effective length of pile: A pile is usually designed as a column. When a finished

pile projects above ground level and is not secured against buckling by adequate
bracing, its effective length is governed by the end conditions imposed in it by the
structure it supports and by the nature of ground into which it is embedded.
In good ground, the lower point of contraflexure can be taken to be at a depth
below ground level of about one-tenth of the exposed length. If the top stratum is

21
 soft clay or silt, the lower point of contraflexure is taken at about half the depth of
penetration into the stratum. In case the ratio of effective length of pile to the least
lateral dimension exceeds 12, the pile should be designed as long column. If the
pile is fixed in position and direction at the top end, upper point of contraflexure
may taken at one fourth of the exposed length below the top of pile.

Stresses during driving: precast concrete piles should also be checked for stresses
developed in the pile during driving. Driving stress is given by:

Driving stress = Driving resistance 2 - 1

A ŋ

where, A = cross sectional area of pile

ŋ = efficiency of blow

Driving resistance may be obtained by Engineering News formula or Hiley’s

formula.

Driving stress should not exceed the permissible stress of concrete in

compression.

Stresses during handling: precast concrete piles should be checked for the
bending moments developed during lifting and erection of piles.

(x) design of pile cap: pile caps are structural elements that tie a group of piles
together and transmit the forces from columns or walls to the piles. General
guidelines for the design of pile caps are:
 piles should be arranged so that the group coincides with the line of action
of load
 minimum thickness of pile caps at edges should be more than 300mm and a
clear overhang of pile cap beyond the outermost pile should be more than
100mm

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  pile cap should be deep enough for overlap of the column and pile
reinforcement and transfer of load from column to the cap in punching shear.
 computation of moments and shear is based on the assumption that the
reaction from any pile is concentrated at the centre of pile.

b) group of vertical piles subjected to eccentric vertical load

Steps (i) to (vii) as explained above

(viii) settlement analysis of the pile group may be carried on the concept of imaginary
footing subjected to eccentric vertical load. The procedure for computation of
settlement has already been discussed in Module 3

Laterally loaded piles

Vertical piles are generally used in foundations to withstand vertical loads but they are
also capable to withstand small lateral loads. When applied horizontal load per pile
exceeds the value suitable for the said vertical piles, inclined piles called batter piles or
raker piles are in combination with vertical piles. (the degree of batter or angle made by
pile with the vertical is less than 300). The lateral loads may be caused on pile foundation
due to wind and seismic forces on buildings, earth pressure in retaining walls and
abutments and water pressure in water front structures.

In order to understand the capability of individual vertical piles to withstand lateral loads
two types of analysis i.e Plastic theory and Elastic theory are used.

Plastic theory is used for short rigid piles. This theory assumes that the limiting or
maximum soil resistance acts against the pile when it is subjected to ultimate load. The
pile deflects to such an extent that full soil resistance along the pile length develops.

Elastic theory is used for long piles. As shown in figure, vertical pile is subjected to
lateral load P and a moment M at the ground level. It assumes that the soil to be replaced
by series of closely spaced independent elastic springs (Winkler’s assumption).

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In a true elastic medium, the soil reaction p and deflection y at a point on the beam are
affected by the reactions and deflections at all other points along the beam. However,
with Winkler’s assumption, the soil reaction p at any point along the beam will depend
only on the defection of the beam y at that point i,e. p α y.

A graph between p & y gives a non linear curve as shown in figure. The slope of this
curve at any point on the curve indicate the value of lateral soil modulus Es at that point.
The slope is found to vary throughout the curve.

Reese and Matlock’s method of design of Long Piles for Lateral Loads

This method assumes that the lateral soil moduls, Es increases linearly with the depth of
the pile (z). The variation of Es with z is represented by the equation:

Es = kh zn

Where, kh = coefficient of lateral pressure

n = 0 for pre-consolidated clays
n = 1 for sands and normally consolidated clayey

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 Questions

1) What is meant by negative skin friction? Explain. What are the procedure to

calculate the negative friction force for cohesive soil and cohesionless soils?

2) Write a note on laterally loaded piles, tension piles and batter piles.

3) Explain how pile capacity is determined using static analysis in C -  soil

4) How settlement of group of piles is found in cohesionless soil and cohesive soils.

5) Write a note on pile group efficiency

6) How is ultimate bearing capacity of a driven pile in cohesionless soils

determined?

7) Explain uplift capacity of a pile group

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