Design Concepts of Substructures

(Module– 1)

The field and laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the necessary information about
the surface and subsurface features of the proposed area including the position of the
ground water table, are termed as soil (subsurface) exploration or site investigation.
The knowledge of subsoil conditions at a site is a prerequisite for safe and economical
design of substructure elements.

Importance (Objectives) of soil exploration

The information from soil investigations will enable a Civil engineer to plan, decide,
design, and execute a construction project. Soil investigations are done to obtain the
information that is useful for one or more of the following purposes:

 To know the geological condition of rock and soil formation

 To establish the groundwater levels and determine the properties of water
 To select the type and depth of foundation for proposed structure
 To determine the bearing capacity of the site
 To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements
 To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining walls and abutments
 To select suitable construction techniques
 To predict and to solve potential foundation problems
 To determine soil properties required for design
 Establish procedures for soil improvement to suit design purpose
 To investigate the safety of existing structures and to suggest the remedial
measures
 To locate suitable transportation routes.

Steps involved in planning and execution of subsoil exploration

 Study of the geology of the site through geological maps. This will give an
indication of the type of the soil, nature and depth of rock

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  Study of layout of proposed structures at the site along with their loading
diagrams
 A visit to the site for visual examination of insitu soils should then be made. Few
pits at the location of important structures should be made and their logging be
prepared
 On the layout plan of the site, location of boreholes and DCPT tests should be
marked to cover the whole site and in particular the location of important
structures. Execution of this programme should then be started. If rock is not
available at shallow depths, at least one boring should go deeper to ascertain the
depth of rock layer. If rock is available at shallow depths, all the borings and
DCPT should be carried up to the rock layer to ascertain its profile. Samples
should be collected carefully for laboratory tests and also examine the site
carefully.
 On the basis of the probable soil stratum, planning of tests like plate load tests,
vane shear tests, static cone penetration test and insitu shear box tests may be
carried out.
 Samples brought from the field are tested in laboratory for identification,
classification, strength and consolidation characteristics.

Methods of exploration
1) Trial pits or test pits
2) Boring
3) Penetration & sounding tests
4) Geophysical methods

1) Trial pits or test pits

 Applicable to all types of soils

 Provide for visual examination in their natural condition
 Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples can be conveniently obtained at different
depths
 Depth of investigation: limited to 3 to 3.5 m.

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 Advantages

 Cost effective
 Provide detailed information of stratigraphy
 Large quantities of disturbed soils are available for testing
 Large blocks of undisturbed samples can be carved out from the pits
 Field tests can be conducted at the bottom of the pits

Disadvantages

 Depth limited to about 6m

 Deep pits uneconomical
 Excavation below groundwater and into rock difficult and costly
 Too many pits may scar site and require backfill soils.

2) Boring

Boring is carried out in the relatively soft and uncemented ground which is normally
found close to ground surface. The techniques used vary widely across the world.

Number and depth of borings for various civil engineering structures

It depends on:
 Type of structure
 Size of the structure
 Weight induced from the superstructure

General guidelines for location of bore holes

Boreholes are generally located at:

 The building corners

 The centre of the site
 Where heavily loaded columns or machinery pads are proposed

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General guidelines for Depth of boreholes
 At least one boring should be taken to a deeper stratum, probably up to the
bedrock
 The investigation shall be carried out to the significant depth (point at which the
vertical stress due to proposed structure is equal to or less than 10% of original
effective stress at the point before the structure is constructed)
 Borings should penetrate at least 3 m into rock.

 In compressible soils such as clays, the borings should penetrate at least between
1 and 3 times the width of the proposed foundation or until the stress increment
due to the heaviest foundation load is less than 10%, whichever is greater.
 In very stiff clays, borings should penetrate 5-7 m to prove that the thickness of
the stratum is adequate.
 Borings must penetrate below any fills or very soft deposits below the proposed
structure.
 The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6 m unless bedrock or very dense
material is encountered.

General guidelines for Spacing of Bore Holes

 For a small building one bore hole or test pit at the centre can give necessary data
 For a building covering not more than 4000 sq.m, one bore hole or test pit at each
corner and one at centre is adequate
 For a large project, the number will depend on its geological features and
variation of strata. Generally a grid of 50 m spacing should be used with a
combination of bore holes and sounding tests.

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 Typical bore log

The bore log is the graphic representation of the details gathered from each borehole.

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 Flowchart: Steps Involved in soil exploration

Soil Exploration Report

At the end of the soil exploration program, the soil and rock samples, collected from the
field are subjected to visual observation and laboratory tests. Then, a soil exploration
report is prepared for use by the planning and design office. Any soil exploration report
should contain the following information:

 Scope of investigation
 General description of the proposed structure for which the exploration has been
conducted
 Geological conditions of the site
 Drainage facilities at the site
 Details of boring
 Description of subsoil conditions as determined from the soil and rock samples
collected
 Ground water table as observed from the boreholes

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  Details of foundation recommendations and alternatives
 Any anticipated construction problems
 Limitations of the investigation

The following graphic presentations also need to be attached to the soil exploration
report:

 Site location map

 Location of borings with respect to the proposed structure
 Boring logs
 Laboratory test results
 Other special presentations

Methods of borings

(i) Auger boring: preferred for quick assessment of soils present at shallow
depths
(ii) Wash boring: high water table, deeper soil deposit
(iii)Rotary drilling: high quality boring, also for rock drilling
(iv) Percussion drilling: fast drilling, not taking samples, gravel

(i) Auger boring

 Preferred for quick assessment of the soils present at shallow depths (6 to 8m)
 It is limited by depth of water table in sandy soils and the presence of strong
layer
 The soil samples obtained from auger borings are highly disturbed
 Augar boring can be done manually or by machine

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(ii) Wash boring
 This method is suitable where high water table is encountered and for deeper soil
deposit
 Wash boring relies on relatively little drilling action and can form a hole
primarily by jetting. This can be undertaken with light equipment without the
need for a drilling rig.

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(iii)Rotary drilling
It is a very fast method of advancing hole in both soils and rocks. A drill bit, fixed to the
lower end of drill rods, is rotated by a suitable chuck and is always kept in firm contact
with the bottom of the hole. A drilling mud (usually a water solution of bentonite) is
continuously forced down the hollow drill rods. The mud returning upwards brings the
cuttings to the surface. Water is circulated down the drill rods during boring.

(iv) Percussion drilling

In this method, soil and rock formations are broken by repeated blows of heavy chisel or
bit suspended by a cable or drill rod. Water is added to the hole during boring and slurry
or is bailed out at intervals. The method is suitable for advancing a hole in all types of
soils and rocks but the formations get disturbed by the impact.

3) Penetration & sounding tests

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

65 kg Hammer
750 Tripod
mm

Bore Hole
Split Spoon Sampler

Fig. : Standard Penetration test assembly

1. It is a field test to estimate the penetration resistance of soil.

2. It consists of a split spoon sampler 50.8 mm OD, 35 mm ID, min 600 mm long
and 63.5 kg hammer freely dropped from a height of 750 mm.
3. Test is performed on a clean hole 50 mm to 150 mm in diameter.

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 4. Split spoon sampler is placed vertically in the hole, allowed to freely settle under
its own weight or with blows for first 150 mm which is called seating drive.
5. The number of blows required for the next 300 mm penetration into the ground is
the standard penetration number N
6. Apply the desired corrections (such as corrections for overburden pressure,
saturated fine silt and energy)
7. N is correlated with most properties of soil such as friction angle, undrained
cohesion, density etc.

Advantages of Standard Penetration Test

1. Relatively quick & simple to perform
2. Equipment & expertise for test is widely available
3. Provides representative soil sample
4. Provides useful index for relative strength & compressibility of soil
5. Able to penetrate dense & stiff layers
6. Results reflect soil density, fabric, stress strain behavior
7. Numerous case histories available

Disadvantages of Standard Penetration Test

1. Requires the preparation of bore hole.
2. Dynamic effort is related to mostly static performance
3. SPT is abused, standards regarding energy are not uniform
4. If hard stone is encountered, difficult to obtain reliable result.
5. Test procedure is tedious and requires heavy equipment.
6. Not possible to obtain properties continuously with depth.

Corrections for observed SPT values (N) in cohesionless soils

The following two types of corrections are normally applied to the observed SPT values
(N) in cohesionless soils:

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(i) Correction due to dilatancy

In saturated dense sand (N>15), the fast rate of application of shear through the blows of
drop hammer, is likely to introduce negative pore pressures and thus temporary increase
in shear strength will occur. This will lead to an N-value higher than the actual one.
Bazaraa recommended the correction as

N” = 0.6N

(ii) Correction due to overburden pressure

The following chart gives the correction factor. IS code recommend that the correction
due to overburden should be applied first.

where,
CN = correction factor = 0.77 log10 2000.
0

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 Standard Penetration Resistance (N) Vs Depth

Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)

Fig : Static Cone Penetration test assembly

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 1. Cone Penetration Test can either be Static Cone Penetration Test or Dynamic
Cone Penetration Test.
2. Continuous record of penetration resistance with depth is achieved.
3. Consists of a cone 36 mm dia (1000 mm2) and 60o vertex angle.
4. Cone is carried at the lower end of steel rod that passes through steel tube of 36
mm dia.
5. Either the cone, or the tube or both can be forced in to the soil by jacks.
6. Cone is pushed 80 mm in to the ground and resistance is recorded, steel tube is
pushed up to the cone and resistance is recorded. Further, both cone and tube are
penetrated 200 mm and resistance is recorded. Total resistance (qc) gives the CPT
value expressed in kPa.
7. Cone resistance represents bearing resistance at the base and tube resistance gives
the skin frictional resistance. Total resistance can be correlated with strength
properties, density and deformation characteristics of soil.
8. Correction for overburden pressure is applied.
9. Approximately, N = 10qc (kPa)
Advantages of SCPT
1. Continuous resistance with depth is recorded.
2. Static resistance is more appropriate to determine static properties of soil.
3. Can be correlated with most properties of soil.

Disadvantages of SCPT
1. Not very popular in India.
2. If a small rock piece is encountered, resistance shown is erratic & incorrect.
Involves handling heavy equipment.

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Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)

The dynamic cone penetration test is performed in the same way as SPT except that there
is no borehole for DCPT. This test is performed in two ways: (i) without bentonite
slurry (ii) with bentonite slurry

(i) without bentonite slurry

in this test, a 50 mm diameter 600 cone fitted to the driving rod through an adopter is
driven into the soil by blows of 65 kg hammer falling freely from a height of 750 mm.
The blow count for every 100 mm penetration of the cone is continuously recorded. The
cone is driven to the required depth. The number of blows required for 300 mm
penetration is termed as the dynamic cone resistance, Ncd. The test gives a continuous
record of Ncd with depth.

(ii) with bentonite slurry

A DCPT with bentonite slurry is conducted to eliminate the surface frictional resistance
on the drill rods. In this test, a 62.5 mm diameter cone is driven in the ground with the

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arrangement for the drilling mud to flow through the cone. The number of blows required
for 300 mm penetration is denoted by Ncbr.

Advantages of DCPT

 The test is quicker and economical.

 It may be used to cover large area under investigation.
 It provides continuous record of the penetration resistance

Plate load test

Fig.: Plate Load test assembly

1. It is a field test for the determination of bearing capacity and settlement

characteristics of ground in field at the foundation level.
2. The test involves preparing a test pit up to the desired foundation level.
3. A rigid steel plate, round or square in shape, 300 mm to 750 mm in size, 25 mm
thick acts as model footing.
4. Dial gauges, at least 2, of required accuracy (0.002 mm) are placed on plate on
plate at corners to measure the vertical deflection.

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 5. Loading is provided either as gravity loading or as reaction loading. For smaller
loads gravity loading is acceptable where sand bags apply the load.
6. In reaction loading, a reaction truss or beam is anchored to the ground. A
hydraulic jack applies the reaction load.
7. At every applied load, the plate settles gradually. The dial gauge readings are
recorded after the settlement reduces to least count of gauge (0.002 mm) &
average settlement of 2 or more gauges is recorded.
8. Load Vs settlement graph is plotted. Load (P) is plotted on the horizontal scale
and settlement (Δ) is plotted on the vertical scale.
9. The maximum load at which the shear failure occurs gives the ultimate bearing
capacity of soil.
The advantages of Plate Load Test
1. It provides the allowable bearing pressure at the location considering both shear
failure and settlement.
2. Being a field test, there is no requirement of extracting soil samples.
3. The loading techniques and other arrangements for field testing are identical to
the actual conditions in the field.
4. It is a fast method of estimating Allowable Bearing Pressure (ABP) and Load-
settlement (P – Δ) behaviour of ground.

The disadvantages of Plate Load Test

1. The test results reflect the behaviour of soil below the plate (for a distance of
~2Bp), not that of actual footing which is generally very large.
2. It is essentially a short duration test. Hence, it does not reflect the long term
consolidation settlement of clayey soil.
3. Size effect is pronounced in granular soil. Correction for size effect is essential in
such soils.
It is a cumbersome procedure to carry equipment, apply huge load and carry out testing
for several days in the tough field environment.

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(4) Geophysical methods

Seismic refraction method

This method is based on the principle that vibrations caused in the ground by artificial
explosions travel faster in rock than in soil. This is due to the fact that velocity of sound
waves is different in different media. The shock waves are developed into the soil either
by exploding or by striking a plate on the soil by hammer. The shock waves so produced
travel down in the subsoil strata and get refracted after striking a hard rock surface below.
These refracted waves are picked up and their travel times are recorded in the instruments
known as the geophones. The depth of various strata can be evaluated by knowing the
times of travel of the primary waves and refracted waves and then preparing the distance-
time graphs.

Advantages

 Surveys to several hundred meters are possible

 Field tests can be done relatively in short duration

Limitations

 This method cannot be used where a hard layer overlies a soft layer, because
there will be no measurable refraction from a deeper soft layer.

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  This method cannot be used in an area covered by concrete or asphalt pavement,
since these materials represent a condition of hard surface over a soft stratum.
 A frozen surface layer also may give results similar to the situation of a hard layer
over a soft layer.

 If the area contains some underground features, such as buried conduits,

irregularly dipping strata, discontinuities such as rock faults or earth cuts, irregular water
table, and the existence of thin layers varying materials, the interpretation of the results
becomes very difficult.
 The method requires sophisticated and costly equipment.
 For proper interpretations of the seismic survey results, the services of an expert
are required.

Types of samples
Samples
Representative
Non- Representative
Disturbed Undisturbed

Non-Representative soil samples

Non-Representative soil samples are those in which neither the in-situ soil structure,
moisture content nor the soil particles are preserved.

 They are not representative

 They cannot be used for any tests as the soil particles either gets mixed up or
some particles may be lost.
• e.g., Samples that are obtained through wash boring or percussion drilling.

Representative samples

Representative soil samples are those which can be used for tests. These are of two types:

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Undisturbed

Undisturbed soil samples are those in which the in-situ soil structure and moisture
content are preserved.
 They are representative and also intact
 These are used for consolidation, permeability or shear strengths test
 More complex jobs or where clay exist
 In sand is very difficult to obtain undisturbed sample
 Obtained by using Shelby tube (thin wall), piston sampler, surface (box), vacuum,
freezing, etc.,
Disturbed

Disturbed soil samples are those in which the in-situ soil structure and moisture content
are lost, but the soil particles are intact.
 They are representative
 They can be used for grain size analysis, liquid and plastic limit, specific
gravity, compaction tests, moisture content, organic content determination and
soil classification test performed in the lab
• e.g., obtained through cuttings while auguring, grab, split spoon (SPT), etc.

Samplers

Types of samplers
 Split spoon sampler

 Shelby tube sampler

 Piston sampler

(i) Split Spoon Sampler

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 Has an inside diameter of 35 mm and an outside diameter of 50 mm.
 Has a split barrel which is held together and a cap at the upper end.
 The thicker wall of the standard sampler permits higher driving stresses than the
Shelby tube but does so at the expense of higher levels of soil disturbances.
 Split spoon samples are highly disturbed.
 They are used for visual examination and for classification tests.

(ii) Shelby Tube Sampler

 Thin-walled seamless steel tube of diameter 50 or 75 mm

 The bottom end of the tube is sharpened.
 The tubes can be attached to drilling rods.
 The drilling rod with the sampler attached is lowered to the bottom of the
borehole and the sampler is pushed into the soil.
 The soil sample inside the tube is then pulled out.
 The two ends of the sampler are sealed and sent to the lab.
 The samples can be used for consolidation or shear tests.

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 (iii)Piston Sampler

 When sampling very soft or larger than 76.2mm in diameter to get high quality
undisturbed samples, they tend to fall out of the sampler. Then piston samplers
are used.
 They consist of a thin wall tube with a piston. Initially, the piston closes the end
of the thin wall tube. The sampler is lowered to the bottom of the borehole and
then the thin wall tube is pushed into the soil hydraulically past the piston
 Later the pressure is released through a hole in the piston rod. To a large extent,
the presence of the piston prevents distortion in the sample by not letting the soil
squeeze into the sampling tube very fast and by not admitting excess soil.
 Consequently, samples obtained in this manner are less disturbed than those
obtained by Shelby tubes.

Sample disturbance
Causes of Soil disturbances:

 Friction between the soil and the sampling tube

 The wall thickness of the sampling tube
 The sharpness of the cutting edge
 Care and handling during transportation of the sample tube

Remedies to minimize friction

 The sampling tube should be pushed instead of driven into the ground
 Sampling tube that are in common use have been designed to minimize sampling
disturbances.

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Design Features affecting the sample disturbance

 Area ratio
 Inside Clearance
 Outside Clearance
 Recovery Ratio
 Inside wall friction
 Design of non-return value
 Method of applying force
 Sizes of sampling tubes

Area Ratio (Ar)

Area Ratio (Ar) = Max cross sectional area of the cutting edge
Area of soil sample

(Ar) = D22 – D12 x 100

D12

Where, D1 = inner diameter of the cutting edge

D2 = outer diameter of the cutting edge

 For obtaining good quality undisturbed samples, the area ratio should be less than
or equal to 10%.
 It may be high as 110% for thick wall sampler like split spoon sampler and may
be as low as low as 6 to 9% for thin wall samples like Shelby tube

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Recovery Ratio (Rr)
Rr = L
H

Where, L = length of the sample within the tube and

H = Depth of penetration of the sampling tube

 Rr = 96 to 98 % for getting a satisfactory undisturbed sample

Clearance

Inside Clearance (Ci)

Ci = D3 – D1 x 100
D1
Where, D1 = inner diameter of the cutting edge
D3 = inner diameter of the sample tube

 The inside clearance allows “elastic expansion” of the sample when it enters the
sampling tube.
 It helps in reducing the “frictional drag” on the sample, and also helps to retain
the core.
 For an undisturbed sample, the inside clearance should be between 0.5 and 3%.

Outside Clearance (CO)

Co = D2 – D4 x 100
D4
Where D2 = outer diameter of the cutting edge
D4 = outer diameter of the sample tube
 Outside clearance facilitates the withdrawal of the sample from the ground.
 For reducing the driving force, the outside clearance should be as small as
possible.
 Normally, it lies between zero and 2%.
 Co Should not be more than Ci

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Classification of foundations systems

Foundations may be broadly classified under two headings:

I) Shallow foundations: Depth is equal to or less than its width

II) Deep foundations: Depth is equal to or greater than its width

I) Shallow foundations:

1) Spread footings: In this type, the base of the member transmitting load to the soil is
made wider so as to distribute the load over wider area. A spread footing supports either
one wall or one column. A spread footing may of the following types:
(i) Strip footing: It is spread footing for wall
(ii) Pad (isolated) footing: It is the isolated footing for a column

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(i) Strip footing: There are two types of Strip footings:
(a) Simple strip or wall footing: When the wall carries a light loads or when the
safe bearing capacity is very high, a simple strip footing is provided. In this
case, the wall directly rests on the concrete base and no masonry offsets are
provided.

(b) Stepped strip footing: When the wall carries a heavy loads or when the safe
bearing capacity of the soil is not very high, the base width required will be
much greater. In such case, it is essential to provide masonry offset to achieve
larger spread before the load is transferred to concrete base. The height and
width of each offset should be so proportioned that rate of spread does not
exceed permissible value for the masonry.

(ii) Pad footing: A spread footing for a single column is either known as the isolated
footing or pad footing
(a) Simple pad footing: When the column carries a light load or when the safe
bearing capacity is very high, the footing may consist of simple concrete
block projecting out from the column face on all sides. The shape of the
footing is generally kept the same as that for the column. As a thumb rule, the
base dimensions of the concrete base should not be less than twice the
appropriate lateral dimensions of the column in that direction

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 (b) Stepped pad footing: If the column load is more or if the safe bearing
pressure of the soil is less, it is necessary to provide masonry offsets to
achieve larger spread, before the load is transferred to the concrete base.

1) Grillage foundation: When heavy structural loads from columns (like

transmission towers), piers, stanchions are required to be transformed to a soil of
low bearing capacity, grillage foundation is often found to be lighter and more
economical. This avoids deep excavation and provides necessary area at the base
to reduce the intensity of pressure within the safe bearing capacity.
Depending on the material used, grillage foundation can be broadly divided in
two categories
(a) Steel grillage: Steel grillage foundation consists of steel beams (R.S.J’s) also
known as grillage beams which are provided in single or double tiers. In case of
double tier grillage, the top tier is laid at right angles to the bottom one. The
grillage beams of each tier are held in position by 20 mm spacer bars with 25 mm
dia separators. The beams are suitably placed so as to provide facility for placing
the concrete between them (minimum 8cm)

(b) Timber grillage: If the soil encountered is soft and is permanently water-logged,
this type of foundation can be safely used for light buildings by limiting the

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 loading to 50 kN/m2. In this type of construction, the concrete block usually
provided below the wall footing is replaced by timber platform. The timber
platform consists of planks (usually 8-10cm thick) arranged in two layers, one
longitudinal and the other across the wall extending beyond the footing base by
45 to 60 cm on either side. The two layers of planks are separated by rectangular
sections of timber

3) Eccentrically loaded footings: Normally, the footings are so designed and proportioned
that C.G of the superimposed load coincides with the C.G of the base area such that
footing is subjected to concentric loading, resulting in uniform bearing pressure.
However, in some cases, it may not be possible to so. For example if the wall or column
under construction is near some other property, it will not be possible to spread the
footing to both sides of the wall or column.

4) Combined footings: is the one which supports more than one column. The centre of
gravity of the supporting area is in line with the C.G of the two column loads. A
combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in shape. A combined footing is
provided under the following circumstances:
(i) When the columns are very near to each other so that their footings overlap
(ii) When the bearing capacity is less, requiring more area under individual footing
(iii) When the column is near property line so that the footing cannot spread in that
direction

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5) Strap footings: comprises of two or more footings of individual columns connected by
a beam called strap. The strap does not remain in contact with the soil and does not
transfer any pressure to the soil. The strap assumed to be infinitely rigid, serves to
transfers the column loads on to the soil with equal and uniform soil pressure under the
footings. If the distance between adjacent columns is large, strap footings is
recommended.

6) Mat or raft foundation: consists of thick reinforced concrete slab covering the entire
area of the bottom of the structure like floor. The slab is reinforced with steel bars
running at right angles to each other both near to and bottom of the slab. This type of
foundation is adopted where pile foundations cannot be used in soft soils having low
value of bearing capacity. They are also used where the soil mass is erratic so that
differential settlement is controlled.

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II) Deep foundations:
Deep foundations are those in which the depth of foundation is very large in comparison
to its width. The most common forms of deep foundations are

(i) Piles
(ii) Cofferdams
(iii) Caissons or well foundation

Pile foundation: Pile foundation is generally used if the strata of good bearing capacity
is not available near the ground or steep slopes. Piles are used for buildings, bridges and
water front installations (piers, docks etc...).

Functions of piles:
- To transmit a foundation load to solid ground
- To resist vertical, lateral and uplift load

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Depending upon their function or usage, piles may be classified into the following types:

(i) Load Bearing piles

(ii) Friction piles
(iii) Sheet piles
(iv) Anchor piles
(v) Batter piles
(vi) Fender piles
(vii) Compaction piles

i) Load bearing piles: are those which are driven into the ground until a hard stratum is
reached. Such piles act as pillars supporting the superstructure and transmitting the load
down to the level at which it can be safely borne by the ground.

ii) Friction piles: When loose soil extends to a great depth piles are driven up to such a
depth that the frictional resistance developed at the sides of the piles (skin friction) equals
the load coming on the piles. The friction piles are driven in the type of soils whose
strength does not increase with depth or when rate of increase in strength with depth is
very low.

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Depending upon the material used in their manufacture, piles can be broadly classified as:

a) Timber piles,
b) Concrete piles
c) Composite piles
d) Steel piles

a) Timber piles: Transmission of load through timber piles takes place by the frictional
resistance of the ground and the pile surface. Timber piles prove economical for
supporting light structures to be located in compressive soils constantly saturated with
water. Piles are driven with the help of pile –driving machine in which a drop hammer
delivers blows on the pile head. To facilitate driving, the lower end of the pile is pointed
and is provided with a cast iron conical shoe.

Advantages:  They are economical

 They can be driven rapidly
 They do not need heavy machinery and elaborate technical supervision
 Due to their elasticity, timber piles can be used where lateral forces are
subjected
Disadvantages:  They have low bearing capacity
 They are liable to decay
 They cannot be used where long piles are needed

b) Concrete piles: may be classified as:

(i) Pre-cast piles
(ii) Cast-in-situ piles

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(i) Pre-cast piles: are reinforced concrete piles which are cast and cured in casting
yard and then transported to the site for driving. The function of reinforcement in
pre-cast piles is to resist the stresses produced by its handling, driving and
loading which the pile is finally expected to receive.

Advantages
- Proper control in casting
- Not affected by chemical action of ground soil
- Can be subjected to load immediately after driving
- Can be driven under water

Disadvantages
- Difficult for transport
- Handling and driving stresses are high
- Extra steel is requires at top and bottom
- Length of pile is restricted

(ii) Cast-in-situ piles: are those piles which are cast in position inside the ground.
Since the piles are not subjected to handling or driving stresses it is not necessary
to reinforce the pile in ordinary cases. However, if the piles are subjected to
lateral loads.

Advantages

- No handling & driving stresses, hence lighter reinforcement

- Piles can be cast in required length

Disadvantages
- Position of reinforcement may get disturbed during inst
- Difficult to be cast under water

Bored (friction) Piles

Bored piles are those which are formed by forming a bore hole in the ground and then
concreting it either with the help of casing tube or without casing. These piles have
advantage over the driven piles, in those locations and those situations where the
vibrations and noise caused by driving of piles are to be avoided or the strata of adequate
bearing capacity is so deep that they are difficult to reach by driven piles.

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Bored piles are of three types:

a) Pressure piles: They are formed with the help of casing tube, boring auger
and compressed air equipment. These are especially suitable for those
congested sites where heavy vibrations and noise are not permissible and also
where heavy pile driving machinery cannot move in

b) Under reamed piles: These type piles have one or more bulbs formed by
enlarging the bore hole for the pile stem by an under-reaming tool. These
types of piles are suitable for expansive soils or to obtain adequate capacity
for downward, upward or lateral loads or to take foundations below scour
level and for moments.

c) Bored compaction piles: The method of boring the piles and concreting the
pile is same as for the under-reamed pile, except that the reinforced cage is
driven into the freshly laid concrete. Due to this compaction of the freshly
laid concrete as well as surrounding soil takes place.

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Steel Piles: are suitable if the hard strata are available at greater depths. They have very
small soil displacement owing to their small cross sections. Piles are welded during
driving to achieve longer lengths. They are used in the form of H-Piles, Box-piles and
tube piles.

Advantages

- Can be subjected to load immediately after driving

- Suitable for deeper depths

Disadvantages
- Requires heavy machinery for driving
- Need skilled operators
- Transportation to site is difficult
- Subject to vibration during pile driving

Substructure (foundation) is that part of structure which helps in transferring the load of
superstructure and its own load onto the supporting soil. Footings, rafts, piles, piers,
abutments, retaining walls, sheet piles, bulk heads, and jetties are examples of
substructure.

Foundation system consists of two components:

 Structural foundation (manmade)
 Natural foundation (subsoil)

Structural foundations such as footings or piles are involved in the process of load
transmission. Natural foundation refers to soil which receives and bears load.

The design of foundation system has two phases:

 Geotechnical design
 Structural design

The aim of geotechnical design is to arrive at the plan dimensions of the foundation,
satisfying two independent requirements i.e. bearing capacity and settlement. Thus the
geotechnical design of foundation means “proportioning of foundation”.

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Structural design is carried out to cater to the structural action (for example flexure in the
case of footing). The structural design of foundation can be taken up only after
geotechnical design is completed.

General Requirements of Foundations

(i) The foundation must be properly located considering any future influence which
could adversely affect its performance:
 In general, foundation should rest on good bearing soil strata.
 Foundation should be located well below the zone of volume change
(minimum 50 cm below the zone). In expansive soils, swelling &
shrinkage of the mass will occur due to rise or lowering of ground water
table following seasonal weather changes.
 The foundation for structure in a river must be protected from scouring
action of flowing stream. The foundation should be placed below the
deepest scour level.
 The foundation must be placed below the zone of frost heave in cold
region.
 Slope of ground and adjacent structure must the considered.

(ii) The soil supporting the foundation must be safe against shear failure, sliding and
overturning
(iii) The settlement of foundation should be within the tolerable limits:

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 If the structure as a whole settles uniformly into the ground there will not be
any detrimental effect on the structure but services (water pipe lines,
electricity cables, telephone lines etc...) may get damaged if the settlement is
considerable. Such uniform settlement occurs if the subsoil is homogeneous
and the load distribution is uniform.

 However, the differential settlement should be dealt with utmost care as it can
cause serious damage to the structure. Due to differential settlement, beams
and columns may get distorted, walls may suffer tension cracks, services may
get damaged and structure may become unserviceable.

 Angular distortion is the ratio of differential settlement between two columns

to the spacing between them. A structure may fail if the tilt exceeds
permissible limits. When the columns are monolithic with foundation slabs,
tilt of the foundation takes place.

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Important criteria in deciding depth and Location and depth of footing/ foundation

The following factors influence the depth of foundation:

 Bearing capacity: the foundation should rest on firm strata

 Settlement: the uniform and differential settlement should be within the tolerable
limits
 Depth of volume change due to moisture fluctuation: In the case of expansive
soils, seasonal variation in water content varies from 1.5 to 3.5 m. The foundation
must be placed below the zone of volume of change (swelling & shrinkage).
 Depth of frost: In dealing with soils susceptible to frost action, foundation must be
placed below the zone of frost heave.
 Scour depth: The depth of foundation for a bridge pier or any similar structure
must be sufficiently below the deepest scour level.
 Organic matter, peat and other abandoned garbage dumps
 Underground defects such as faults, cavities mines and underground services

Where footings are adjacent to a sloping ground or the bases of footings are at different
levels or at a level different from those of footings from adjacent structures, IS code
makes the following recommendation:

Footings at different levels: (a) Granular soil (b) Clayey soil

 for footings in granular soils, the line joining the lower adjacent edges of lower
footings should not have slope steeper than 2H: 1V.

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  for footings in clayey soils, the line joining the lower adjacent edges of upper
footings and the upper adjacent edge of the lower footing should not be steeper
than 2H:1V
 when the ground surface slopes downward adjacent to a footing, the sloping
surface should not encroach upon a frustum of bearing material under the footing
having sides which makes an angle of 600 with the horizontal for rock and 300 for
soil. The horizontal distance from the lower edge of the footing to the sloping
surface shall be at least 60 cm for rock and 90 cm for soil

To avoid the damage to an existing structure, the adjacent edge of a new footing must
be at least at a distance “S” from the edge of the existing footing (where, S = width of
larger footing). The line from the edge of the new footing to the edge of the existing
footing should make an angle of 450 or less with the horizontal.

Footings for old and new structures

Selection of foundations (Factors to be considered to decide the shallow and deep

foundations)
The selection of foundation requires the following information:

 Type of structure along with loadings: functional & operational requirements

of superstructure, column/wall configuration and magnitude & direction of
loads and moments
 Degree of rigidity/flexibility of the superstructure
 Tolerance of the structure (i.e. permissible values of settlement and tilt)
 Soil conditions and soil properties underlying area
 Position of water table

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 Guide for selection of foundation type

Soil stratum Type of structure Foundation Type

Medium to dense sand, 3 – 4 storey buildings, Isolated,

Stiff clay/silt, water tanks (<1000 kL), Continuous,
1 6 - 8m depth small towers (<12 m), combined footings
retaining walls

Loose to medium sand Multistorey buildings, Raft foundation

to great depth Tall towers & chimneys
2
Overhead tanks (> 1000 kL)

Soft clay to great depth

(10 – 12 m) underlain Friction piles
3 Same as above
by firm strata

Poor surface followed Bridges, heavy column loads, Well foundation

4 by firm strata erosion due to flowing water

Computation of Loads

A structure may be subjected to a combination of some or all the following loads and
forces:
(a) Dead load: It includes the self-weight of the structure (including permanent
fittings like air-conditioning system, firefighting equipment etc...)
(b) Live load: It includes all vertical loads that are not a permanent part of the
structure but are expected to superimpose on the structure during part of its useful
life (human occupancy, furniture, mechanical equipment etc...)
(c) Wind load: It acts on all the exposed structure. The relationship between the
wind pressure and velocity can be calculated as follows:
P = k v2
Where, p = pressure
k = coefficient (depends on wind speed, type & portion of structure, temp of
air etc...)
v = velocity

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 (d) Seismic force: For computing seismic force, two methods are used namely,
Seismic coefficient method and Response spectrum method.
 Seismic coefficient method: This method is used for the design of
foundations of building, bridges and similar structures.

The design value of horizontal seismic coefficient h is obtained by:

h =  I 0
where,  = coefficient depending upon soil-foundation system
I = coefficient depending upon importance of structure
0 = basic seismic coefficient
The vertical seismic coefficient v is taken as half of the horizontal
seismic coefficient.
v = h /2
 Response spectrum method: For the analysis of earthen dams and
dynamic designs this method is used.
In this method, the response acceleration coefficient is first obtained for
the natural period and damping of the structure and the design value of
horizontal seismic coefficient is computed by:
h = . I F0 (Sa/g)
where, F0 = seismic zoning factor for average acceleration spectra
Sa/g = average acceleration coefficient

Design concepts / Steps involved in the design of foundations

 Determine the loads as explained above

 Sketch the soil profile showing soil stratification at the site along with the position
of maximum water level. Note down the physical and engineering properties of
each layer on the soil profile itself
 On the basis of the type of structure, amount of loads coming on the foundation
and soil profile, decide the type and minimum depth of foundation.
 Select appropriate dimensions of the foundation. Determine safe bearing capacity
of the foundation, taking into consideration the engineering properties of soil,

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 depth and plan dimensions of foundations. Determine intensity of maximum base
pressure and it should be less than the safe bearing capacity.
 Determine the settlement, tilt and horizontal displacement of the foundation under
the actual forces and moments and compare with the respective permissible
values.
 Check the stability of the foundation against horizontal and uplift forces
 Carryout the structural design of the foundation keeping in view the critical
sections for the bending moment and shear
 Check the need of foundation drains, water-proofing or damp-proofing
 Prepare complete working drawings for execution of work in the field.

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 Questions

1) What is meant by subsoil exploration? What are the steps involved in planning

and execution of subsoil exploration?

2) List and explain any five objectives of subsoil exploration

3) Describe the general procedure used for making boring and obtaining samples for

classification and testing of soils.

4) What is standard Penetration Test? What are the steps involved in standard

penetration test for subsoil exploration? What corrections are required to the

observed SPT values (N values ) in cohesionless soils?

5) Write short note on Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT)

6) Explain plate load test

7) What are the general requirements of a foundation? Explain in detail

8) What are the factors to be considered to decide the shallow and deep foundations?
Explain briefly

9) What are the important criteria in deciding the depth of footing?

10) List the steps involved in the design of shallow foundations

11) How different types of loads are considered on foundation?

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 Terminology

Total over burden pressure (σ): It is the intensity of the total pressure due to the weight
of both soil and pore water on any horizontal plane at and below foundation level before
construction operation are commenced.

Effective over burden pressure (σ’): It is the intensity of the inter-granular pressure due
at and below foundation level before construction operation are commenced.

σ’ = σ - γwh

Ultimate bearing capacity (qf): It is the minimum gross pressure intensity at which the
soil fails in shear.

Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnf): It is the minimum net pressure intensity causing
shear failure of soil.
qnf = qf - γD

Net safe bearing capacity (qs):

qns = qnf
F

Safe bearing capacity (qs): It is the maximum pressure which the soil can carry safely
without risk of shear failure
qs = qns + γD

Allowable bearing capacity (qa): It is the net loading intensity at which neither soil fails
in shear nor there is excessive settlement.

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