X-RAYS

X -rays is an electromagnetic radiation that was discovered accidentally by Rontgen, a German, while
conducting research on cathode rays. X -rays owe their name to the fact that at the time of their discovery,
their nature was unknown. It is now known that X -rays are produced when fast moving electrons are
suddenly stopped by matter.

PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
X-rays are produced in X-ray tubes where fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped on hitting metal
targets. Figure below shows the essential components of an X-ray tube.

CATHODE
 When a current flows through the filament in the cathode, electrons are produced by thermionic
emission.
 The electrons are accelerated towards the target (anode) by the high potential difference of the order
100kV between the cathode and the anode.
 The cathode is concave shaped so as to focus the electron beam onto the target, which is usually of
tungsten embedded onto copper.
TARGET
 That most of the kinetic energy of the electron is converted to heat, with only about 0.5% being
transformed to X-rays radiation.
 The target must therefore be a metal of high melting point, such as tungsten or molybdenum.
 The anode is made of a good conductor of heat, e.g., copper, to ensure efficient dissipation of heat.
 The target is set at an angle (usually 45°) to the electron beam to direct the X-rays out of
the tube through a window on the lead shield.
 In more recent models the target rotates during operation to change the point of impact, thereby
reducing the wear and tear on it.

COOLING FINS AND OIL

 Cooling is further enhanced by the cooling fins on the outside of the tube and circulation of oil through
the channels in the copper block (anode).
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GLASS TUBE
 The tube is made of strong glass highly evacuated so that electrons do not lose some of their energy
through collision with air molecules on their way to the target.
LEAD SHIELD
 The X-rays produced at unsuitable angles are safely absorbed by the lead shield surrounding the tube.
 The high voltage required is supplied from a step-up transformer.

PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS
(i) X-rays are not deflected by magnetic or electric fields. They are therefore not charged.
(ii) They penetrate matter, with the least penetration occurring in materials of high density, e.g., lead.
(iii) X-rays affect photographic emulsions, a property used in X-ray photography.
(iv) In moving through air, they can knock off electrons from the molecules on their path. They therefore
ionize air molecules and so increase the conductivity of gases.
(v) They cause photoelectric emission.
(vi) They cause fluorescence in certain substances, e.g., zinc sulphide.
(vii) They are electromagnetic radiations of shorter wavelength than visible light. They can be plane-
polarized and diffracted, showing that they are waves in nature.
(viii) They travel in straight lines at the speed of light (3.0 x 108 ms-1).
X-RAYS AS PART OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Experimental results on polarization of X-rays and diffraction of X-rays by crystal have confirmed the wave
nature of X-rays. Through diffraction experiment, the wavelength of X-rays has been determined.
Experiments have shown that X-rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength. Its range in the
spectrum overlaps with the ultraviolet at the upper end and gamma rays at the lower end, the only difference
being only in the manner of production of each.
ENERGY OF X-RAYS
If a bombarding electron is stopped in a single collision most or all of its energy is converted to X-ray
energy.
The kinetic energy (KE.) of the bombarding electron is practically equal to eV and is given by;
K.E = e V, where e is the electron charge and V the accelerating potential difference.
When all the kinetic energy of an electron is used to produce the X-ray energy, the frequency of the X-rays
will be maximum (fmax)- Using Planck's theory, the X-ray energy IS given by;
E = hf, where h is Planck's constant and f the frequency of radiation.
Thus, e V = hfmax
Since c = fλ, where c is the velocity of light;
C
fmax = ,where λmin is the minimum wavelength.
λmin

This shows that the most energetic X-rays have the shortest wavelength.
C
K.E=eV = h
λmin
Example 1
Find the frequency and the energy of a type of X-rays whose wavelength is 1O-lOm in a vacuum.
(velocity of light c = 3.0 X 108 ms', Planck's constant h = 6.63 X 10-34 Js).

Hard and Soft X-rays

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Hard X-rays are produced by fast moving electrons as a result of a high accelerating voltage. They have
very short wavelength and thus high penetrating power. They can penetrate the flesh, but are absorbed by
bones.
Soft X-rays are produced by electrons moving at relatively lower velocities than those that produce hard X-
rays.
They have less energy, longer wavelengths, hence less penetrating power compared to hard X-rays.
They are used to show malignant growth in tissues, since they only penetrate soft flesh but are absorbed by
such growths.
INTENSITY (QUANTITY) OF X-RAYS
The intensity of X-rays is defined as the number of X-rays produced per unit time. Intensity is controlled
by the heating current. The greater the heating current, the greater the number of electrons produced, hence
the more the X -rays.
The strength (quality) of the X-rays will however remain the same.
The strength of the X-rays depends on the speed of the electrons, which in turn depends on the
accelerating potential difference between the cathode and the anode.
The quality (strength) of X-rays produced is therefore increased by increasing the accelerating potential
difference between anode and cathode.
USES OF X-RAYS
a) In Medicine (Radiography and Radiotherapy)
X -rays are used in hospitals and medical research centers for diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
Diagnosis of softer tissues such as the lungs, liver, spleen, the heart, kidneys and other
internal organs with the conventional X-ray equipment are not accurate enough, hence special X-ray
equipment is required.
X-rays are also used for the treatment of tumors (growth).
X -rays are also used to detect foreign objects in the body, e.g., safety pin if swallowed accidentally.
b) In Industry
X-rays are used to detect flaws in metal castings and welding. The radiation is also used to sterilise surgical
equipment before packaging.
c) In Crystallography
X-rays are used to study the crystal structure of substances.
d) Security, e.g., in Airports
X-rays are used to inspect luggage for any weapons that may be hidden in them

DANGERS OF X-RAYS
Excessive exposure of living tissue to X -rays is dangerous as the radiations can damage or kill cells.
The exposure to the X-rays should be limited to a short period as necessary as possible in ones’ lifetime.
X-ray machines have a protective lead shield to protect the operators from stray radiation.
The machines are operated in rooms that have concrete walls to absorb any leaking radiation.

EXAMPLES
1. An X-ray tube is operating with an anode potential of 5KV and a current of 10 mA.

i) Explain how the intensity of X-rays from such a tube may be increased
ii) Explain how penetrating power of the X-ray in such a tube may be increased

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 iii) Calculate the number of electrons hitting the anode per second
iv) Determine the velocity with which the electrons strike the target (Take e=1.6x10 -19 C and
Me=9.1x10-31kg)
v) What property of lead makes it suitable for use as shielding material?
SOLN
i) Intensity is increased by increasing the heating current/filament current/heater current
ii) Penetrating power/strength of the X-rays is increased by increasing the accelerating
potential difference between the anode and cathode.
iii) Q = It = 10 x 10-3 x 1 = 10 x 10-3c1
Q 10 x 10−3
= −19
N = e 1 . 6 x 10 1

= 6.25 x 1016 electrons1

iv)

V=
√ 2 ev
me

=
√ 2 x1 . 6 x 10−19 x5000
9 . 1 x 10−31

= 4.19 x107m/s

v) It absorbs X-rays/ X-rays cannot penetrate the lead shield

2. The figure below shows an X-ray tube.

a) Label the part marked Y.

b) How would one measure;
i) The intensity of the x-rays.
ii) The penetrating power of the x-rays.
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 c) Explain why the tube is highly evacuated.
d) An x-ray tube penetrating with anode potential of 10kv and amount of 15mA.
i) Calculate the number of electrons hitting the anode per second.
ii) Determine the speed with which the electrons hit the target. (change of an electron, Q= 1.6 x
10-19C; mass of electron Me= 9.1 x -31kg)

SOLN
a) Cooling fins1
b) i) Increasing the heating current1
ii) Increasing the anode voltage1
c) To avoid collision1 of electrons with air molecules so that they don’t lose some1 energy.
d) i) Q = It = 15 x 10-3 x 1 = 15 x 10-3c1

Q 15 x 10−3
= −19
N = e 1 . 6 x 10 1 = 9.4 x 1016 electrons1

ii) √ √
2 ev
V = me
=
2 x 1. 6 x 10−19 x 10000
9 .1 x 10−31 

= 5.93x107 m/s

3. i) Explain briefly how X-rays are produced in the tube.

ii) Which material is used to make the target?
iii) Why is the anode made of thick copper metal?
iv) Why is it necessary to maintain vacuum inside the tube?
v) What effect will increasing p.d have on the X-rays produced? Explain your answer.

SOLN
i) Produced when fast  moving electrons are suddenly stopped by a target.
ii) Tungsten
iii) To conduct away heat produced 
iv) To prevent electrons from colliding with air  so as to avoid ionisation
v) Produce more X-rays or/ produce harder X-rays / X-rays with higher energy  / or Since
electrons produced will be at higher speed. Or higher kinetic energy.
4. The energy of x-ray is 1.989 x 10-14 joules. Given that the speed of light is 3.0 x l08m/s and plank’s
constant is 6.6 x 1034js find the wavelength of the x-rays.
SOLN
c
E= hf = h λ

hc 6.6 × 10−34 × 3.0 × 108

=
λ E 1.989 × 10−14
= 9.955 x 10 -12m

5. (a) State two properties of X – rays

(b) (i) In an x – ray tube the target is made of tungsten. Explain
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(ii) State the effect on the nature of x – rays when the heater current is increased
(c) In an x – ray tube operating at 100kV, the tube current is 20mA.
(i) Determine the number of electrons hitting the target every second (Charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10-
19
C)
(ii) If only 0.49% of the electrons is converted to x – rays, calculate the quantity of heat produced per
second.
(d) (i) Give two uses of x – rays
(ii) State one danger of x – rays
SOLN
(a)- X – rays are not deflected by electromagnetic fields
- They cause photoelectric emission
- Affect photographic emission a property useful in photography
- Ionize air molecules and increase the conductivity of gases
- They penetrate matter with least penetration occurring in materials of high density e.g. lead
- Cause fluorescence in certain substances
- Travel in straight lines
(b)(i) Tungsten is of high melting point which will help in reducing the speed suddenly and hence
producing x – rays
(ii) Increased production of electrons at the cathode and increase the intensity
(c) (i) E = neV and E = VIt
Hence neV = VIt
VIt It
n= =
eV e
Given I =20 μA
200
= A t=1 s
1000
e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
20 I
∴ n= × S
1000 1 . 6×10−19
2 1019
¿ ×
1000 1. 6
¿ 1 .25×1017 electrons
(ii) E = neV
( 100−0 . 45 )
1.25 x 1017 x 1.6 x 10-19 x 100000 x 100
1.25 x 1.6 x 1000 x 99.5/100
= 1990.2J/s
(d) (i) - In medical field (for radiography and radio therapy )
- Security e.g. in airport
- Crystallography – determine crystal lattices
- Industry – to detect flaws in metal castings and welding
(ii) Too much exposure to living tissue is very dangerous as it kills or damages cells

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