LANDFORMS AND LANDSCAPES
Form 1 Geography – Detailed Syllabus Notes
1. Introduction
Landform: a natural feature on the surface of the earth, such as a mountain, hill, valley, plateau or plain.
Landscape: the general, overall appearance of an area of land, made up of many landforms together with vegetation
and water bodies.
Landforms are produced by two groups of forces acting on the earth’s crust: internal (endogenic) forces, which act
from within the earth and build up the land, and external (exogenic) forces, which act on the earth’s surface and
wear the land down. The study of landforms is called geomorphology.
2. Internal (Endogenic) Forces
These are forces that originate from inside the earth. They are also called constructive or diastrophic forces because
they build up (construct) new landforms such as mountains and plateaus. The main internal forces are earth
movements (folding and faulting), volcanicity and earthquakes.
(a) Folding
Folding: the bending of rock layers (strata) as a result of compressional forces acting from opposite directions
within the earth’s crust
● An upfold is called an anticline; a downfold is called a syncline.
● Folding occurs mainly in young, soft, sedimentary rocks that can bend without breaking.
● Simple folding produces fold mountains, e.g. the Alps (Europe), the Andes (South America) and the
Himalayas (Asia).
● Continued compression can produce more complex folds – e.g. overfolds, recumbent folds and nappes.
(b) Faulting
Faulting: the breaking (fracturing) of rocks along a line of weakness, followed by displacement (movement) of the
rock blocks on either side of the crack
● The crack along which movement occurs is called a fault line.
● A raised block of land between two faults is called a horst; it forms block mountains, e.g. the Ruwenzori
Mountains.
● A down-dropped block of land between two faults is called a graben; a large graben forms a rift valley, e.g.
the Great Rift Valley of East Africa.
● Faulting occurs mainly in old, hard rocks that cannot bend and so break under pressure.
(c) Volcanicity (Vulcanicity)
Volcanicity: the movement of molten rock (magma), gases and ash from inside the earth onto or towards the earth’s
surface
● Magma that reaches the surface is called lava; it cools and solidifies to build up a volcanic mountain (cone).
● The opening through which magma erupts is the vent, and the bowl-shaped depression at the top is the
crater.
● Examples of volcanic mountains: Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), Mount Kenya, Mount Longonot.
● Where magma cools before reaching the surface, it forms intrusive features such as batholiths, dykes and
sills.
(d) Earthquakes
Earthquake: a sudden shaking or trembling of the earth’s crust caused by the release of energy, usually along fault
lines
● The point inside the earth where an earthquake originates is the focus; the point directly above it on the
surface is the epicentre.
● Earthquakes are measured using a seismograph and recorded on the Richter scale.
● Severe earthquakes can trigger landslides, tsunamis and damage to buildings and roads.
3. External (Exogenic) Forces
These act on the earth’s surface and gradually wear down (destroy) landforms built by internal forces. They are
therefore called destructive forces. The main external processes are weathering, erosion, transportation and
deposition.
(a) Weathering
Weathering: the breaking down and decay of rocks in their original position, without the broken material being
moved away
Types of weathering
● Mechanical (physical) weathering – rocks break down physically, e.g. through exfoliation (peeling due to
heating and cooling), frost action (freeze-thaw) and salt crystal growth.
● Chemical weathering – rocks decompose through chemical reactions, e.g. carbonation, oxidation,
hydrolysis and solution.
● Biological weathering – rocks are broken down by the action of plants (root wedging) and animals
(burrowing).
(b) Erosion
Erosion: the wearing away and removal of rock particles and soil from the earth’s surface by agents such as rivers,
wind, ice and sea waves
● River (fluvial) erosion – forms V-shaped valleys, waterfalls, gorges and meanders.
● Wind (aeolian) erosion – common in deserts; forms features such as mushroom rocks, ventifacts and
hollows.
● Ice (glacial) erosion – forms U-shaped valleys, cirques and horns in cold, mountainous regions.
● Sea (marine) erosion – forms cliffs, caves, arches, stacks and blowholes along coastlines.
(c) Transportation
Transportation: the movement of eroded material (called load) from one place to another by agents such as rivers,
wind, ice and sea waves
● Methods include traction (rolling), saltation (bouncing), suspension (carried within the flow) and solution
(dissolved material).
(d) Deposition
Deposition: the laying down / dropping of transported material when the transporting agent loses energy or speed
● River deposition forms flood plains, deltas and levees.
● Wind deposition forms sand dunes.
● Ice deposition forms moraines.
● Sea deposition forms beaches, sand bars and spits.
Example: How a waterfall forms
A river flowing over a band of hard rock lying on top of softer rock erodes the soft rock faster, undercutting the hard
rock layer. This creates a steep drop (waterfall) which retreats upstream over time, leaving a deep gorge behind it.
4. Major Landforms of the World
(a) Mountains
Mountain: a landform that rises very high and steeply above the surrounding land, usually with a summit/peak
● Fold mountains – formed by folding of rock layers, e.g. the Alps, Andes, Himalayas.
● Block/fault mountains – formed by faulting (horsts), e.g. the Ruwenzori Mountains.
● Volcanic mountains – built up from layers of lava and ash, e.g. Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya.
● Residual mountains – remnants left standing after surrounding land has been eroded away, e.g. the Ngong
Hills area highlands.
(b) Plateaus
Plateau: an extensive area of relatively flat land raised above the surrounding land, often with at least one steep side
● Tectonic plateaus – formed by earth movements (uplift), e.g. the Athi-Kapiti Plateau.
● Volcanic plateaus – formed by successive lava flows that spread out and solidify, e.g. the Laikipia Plateau.
● Dissected plateaus – formed when rivers cut deep valleys into an original flat plateau surface.
(c) Plains
Plain: a large stretch of flat or gently rolling low-lying land
● Structural plains – formed by earth movements, lying at low levels.
● Erosional plains – formed when agents of erosion wear down land to a flat surface over a long time
(peneplains).
● Depositional plains – formed by deposition of material by rivers (flood plains, deltas), wind or ice.
(d) Valleys
Valley: a long, low stretch of land lying between hills or mountains, often carrying a river
● V-shaped valleys – narrow, steep-sided valleys formed by river erosion, common in highland (youthful)
stages of a river.
● U-shaped valleys – wide, flat-floored valleys with steep sides, formed by glacial erosion.
● Rift valleys – formed by faulting, when land sinks between two parallel faults.
(e) Rift Valley
● Bounded on either side by steep slopes called escarpments.
● The Great Rift Valley runs from the Red Sea through East Africa to Mozambique.
● Associated features include rift valley lakes (e.g. Lake Naivasha, Lake Malawi) and volcanic mountains
along its edges.
(f) Hills
Hill: a raised part of the land, smaller than a mountain, with gentler and more rounded slopes
5. Significance of Landforms and Landscapes
● Mountains – sources of rivers, attract rainfall (relief rainfall), sites for tourism, mining and forestry.
● Plateaus – provide land for ranching, mining and hydro-electric power development where rivers form
waterfalls at their edges.
● Plains – fertile, flat land favourable for farming, settlement, transport and industry.
● Valleys – provide fertile soils, water supply, and sites for dam construction and irrigation.
● Rift valleys – rich in minerals, geothermal energy, fertile volcanic soils, and habitats supporting tourism
(wildlife and scenery).
6. Revision Questions
● 1. Distinguish between a landform and a landscape.
● 2. Explain how internal forces differ from external forces in shaping the earth’s surface.
● 3. With the aid of a diagram, describe how fold mountains are formed.
● 4. Explain the difference between a horst and a graben.
● 5. Describe how a rift valley is formed.
● 6. State three types of weathering, giving one example of each.
● 7. Explain how a waterfall is formed.
● 8. Outline the significance of plains to human activities.