LIFE PROCESSES

CHAPTER 5

LIFE PROCESSES​
​
→ Life Processes: All the processes like respiration, digestion,transportation and
excretion which together keep the living organisms live and perform the job of
body maintenance and repair are called life processes.​
​
Nutrition: it is the transfer of energy source from outside the body of the organism,i.e.
food. ​
​
Modes of Nutrition

●​ AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
●​ HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

Nutrition in Plants​
(i) Plants are autotrophs.​

(ii) Make their own food.

Nutrition in Animals​
​
(i) Animals are heterotrophs.​
(ii) Depends on plants or other organisms​
​

Autotrophic Nutrition​
​
→ It is a kind of nutrition in which inorganic materials like CO2, water etc. are
utilised to prepare organic food by the process of photosynthesis.​
E.g: Green plants.​
​
→ The organisms which carry out autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs
(green plants, some bacteria).​
​
→ Autotrophs use simple inorganic material and convert it into complex high
energy molecules (Carbohydrates)​
​
→ Autotrophic nutrition is the process by which autotrophs take in CO2 and H2O
and convert them into carbohydrates in the presence of chlorophyll & sunlight
is called Photosynthesis.

●​ The carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form
of starch. ( PLANTS)
●​ Similarly, in our body, some of the energy derived from the food we eat is
stored in our body in the form of glycogen.(ANIMALS)

​
​
• Equation for Photosynthesis:​
​
​
• Raw materials for photosynthesis​
​
→ Sunlight: It is inorganic material.​
→ Chlorophyll: is present in chloroplast. Sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll.​
→ CO2:Inorganic, enters through stomata and oxygen (O2) is released as a
by-product through stomata on leaves.​
→ Water: Water + dissolved minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus etc. are taken up
by the roots from the soil.​
​
• Site of Photosynthesis
●​ Some cells (mesophyll cells) contain green pigments which are cell
organelles called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll.
●​ Chloroplast is absent in upper epidermis and lower epidermis except
stomatal guard cells as guard cells need energy for opening and closing
of stomata.
●​ Palisade tissue - more number of chloroplasts - maximum
photosynthesis.
●​ Spongy tissues - less number of chloroplasts - more airspace- allows
maximum diffusion and gas exchange.
●​ The stomata are largely distributed in the lower epidermis when compared
to upper epidermis to reduce the water loss.
Main Events of Photosynthesis​
​
→ Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.​
→Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting (breaking) of
water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.​
→ Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates.​
​

Stomata​
​
Stomata are the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves.

Functions of stomata​
→ Exchange of gases O2/CO2.​
​
→ Loses large amounts of water (water vapour) during transpiration.

-​ → The opening and closing of stomata is regulated by turgor pressure of

guard cells, when water flows into the guard cells they become turgid (swell
and the pores open. If the guard cell shrinks the pores will close.
 -​ In stems gas exchange takes place through lenticels (small openings in stem)
-​ In root gas exchange takes place through roothairs.

→Desert plants take up carbon dioxide during night as the stomata remain close
to prevent water loss. They prepare an intermediate ( MALIC ACID) and store and
undergo photosynthesis during the day when sunlight is available.

→Abscisic acid, known as the stress hormone, accumulates in leaves during

drought, causing guard cells to become flaccid and close the stomatal pore to
prevent water loss.

NOTE

How nitrogen is absorbed by plants from soil.

-​ Atmospheric nitrogen cannot be absorbed directly by plants

1.​ Nitrogen fixing bacteria (rhizobium - found in leguminous roots,
azotobacter- found freely in soil) fix atmospheric nitrogen in the form
of nitrates and nitrites (absorbable inorganic forms)
2.​ Decomposers break down dead organisms and waste releasing
nitrogen back into the soil in the ammonia which will be absorbed as
ammonium.
3.​ Urea fertilizers which contain nitrogen also cannot be directly
absorbed and will be converted into absorbable forms like ammonium
and nitrates.
Heterotrophic Nutrition​
​
→ Kind of nutrition in which organisms do not possess the ability to synthesize
their own food. They depend on autotrophs for their food supply directly or
indirectly.​
Example: Animals, fungi.

→ Holozoic Nutrition: Animals take in solid food and breakdown inside the body.​
Example: Amoeba, animals.​
​
→ Saprophytic Nutrition: Organisms feed on dead, decaying matter.​
Example: Fungi.​
​
→ Parasitic Nutrition: Parasites live inside or outside other organism (host) and
derive nutrition from it.​
Example: Cuscuta (plant parasites), Ticks, lice, worms (animal parasites )etc.​
​
• How organisms obtain their food

Unicellular/Single celled organisms: Food is taken up through the entire

surface.​
Example: Amoeba, Paramaecium

Process of intake of food by Amoeba

●​ Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-like extensions
(PSEUDOPODIA) of the cell surface which fuse over the food particle
forming a food-vacuole.
 ●​ Inside the food-vacuole, complex substances are broken down into
simpler ones which then diffuse into the cytoplasm.
●​ The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell
and thrown out

→ Paramaecium: Cilia (Present all over the body) → Take in food → At a specific
spot

Steps in Nutrition​
Different organisms utilize different nutritional processes as it depends upon the
source of carbon from where the food is taken.

​
Nutrition in Human Beings​
​
→ The alimentary canal is basically a long tube extending from the mouth to the
anus.
●​ Various regions are specialised to perform different functions.
●​ Length 7.5 meter​

Human Digestive System​

​

(i) Mouth: Intake of whole food.​

(ii) Teeth: Chewing/grinding of food.​
(iii) Tongue: Rolling of food + Tasting of food + Swallowing/Pushing down of the
food.​
​
(iv) Salivary Glands: Secrete saliva + Mucus (It is a sticky, gelatinous material that
lines your lungs, throat, mouth, nose, and sinuses.) + Starch is converted into
simple sugars by saliva (Salivary amylase)

v) Oesophagus: Taking food from mouth to stomach by Peristaltic movements

(Contraction and expansion of muscles of the oesophagus).​
(vi) Stomach: Gastric glands present in stomach secrete gastric juice.

(vii) Small Intestine:

(a) The small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins and fats.
(b) It has Villi (finger-like projection, increases the surface area for absorption)
which helps in the absorption of food into blood.​
(c) It receives the secretions of the liver and pancreas.
→ The food entering the small intestine is acidic.
→ It is made alkaline by the action of bile juice so as to facilitate the action of
pancreatic enzymes.
→ The bile salts emulsify fat by acting on large fat globules to break them into
smaller globules. This increases the efficiency of pancreatic enzymes.

→ The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like trypsin for
digesting proteins and lipase for breaking down emulsified fats.
(viii) Large Intestine:​
(a) Absorb excess of water.​
(b) The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus.

Respiration in Human Beings​

​
→ Respiration involves:​
(i) Gaseous exchange (Breathing) : Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere and
release of CO2.​
(ii) Cellular respiration: Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy inside
the cell.​
​
• Breakdown of Glucose by Various Pathways
The whole process of breakdown of glucose is shown below:
→ The first step is the break-down of glucose (a six-carbon molecule) into a
three-carbon molecule called pyruvate which takes place in the cytoplasm.​
​
→ The pyruvate may be converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide which takes
place in yeast during fermentation. Since this process takes place in the absence of
air (oxygen), it is called anaerobic respiration. Eg: Lacto bacillus, yeast, internal
parasites like tape worm, round worm etc.

The Glucose is broken down (complete oxidation) into three-carbon pyruvate

molecules in the presence of oxygen to give three molecules of carbon dioxide,
Energy (38ATP molecules) and water. This process takes place in
[Link] this process takes place in the presence of air (oxygen), it is
called aerobic respiration.​
​
→ The pyruvate is converted into lactic acid when there is a lack of oxygen in our
muscle cells, which is also a three-carbon molecule. This build-up of lactic acid in
our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps.
​
→ The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to
synthesise a molecule called ATP which is used to fuel all other activities in the cell.
​
→ The rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in
terrestrial organisms because the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low
compared to the amount of oxygen in the air.

[Link]
​
• Types of Respiration​

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Takes place in the presence of

oxygen. Takes place in the absence of oxygen.

Occurs in cytoplasm (Glycolysis) &

Mitochondria. Occurs in cytoplasm.

Incomplete oxidation of food.

Complete oxidation of food. End products are alcohol or lactic
End products are CO2 and H2O. acid.

38 ATP Molecules produced by the

oxidation of one glucose molecule 2 ATP Molecules.
More energy is released. Less energy is released.
 Human Respiratory System

Passage of air through the respiratory system:

 ​
→ Nostril: Air is taken into the body.​
→ Nasal Passage: It is a channel for airflow through the nose.​
→ Nasal Cavity: It is lined with hairs and mucus membrane. It warms, moisturizes,
and filters air before it reaches the lungs.
→Pharynx: It contains rings of cartilage which ensure that the air-passage does
not collapse.​
→ Larynx: It houses the vocal cords and manipulates pitch and volume, which is
essential for phonation. It is also known as voice box.
→ Trachea: Pharynx splits into trachea and oesophagus. It connects the larynx (or
voice box) to the bronchi of the lungs. Tracheal walls contain C - shaped rings of
cartilage so that the air passage does not collapse.​
→ Bronchi: They are the main passageway into the lungs. They are the extensions
of the windpipe that shuttle air to and from the lungs. The oxygen goes to the
lungs and carbon dioxide leaves the lungs through them.​
→ Bronchioles: Bronchi get smaller when they reaches closer to lungs tissues and
are called Bronchioles. They are the passageways by which air passes through the
nose or mouth to the alveoli of the lungs
→ Alveoli: They are smaller tubes which finally terminate in balloon-like structures
which are called alveoli. They allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to move between
the lungs and bloodstream.
→ Lungs: It is a highly elastic hollow spongy bag-like structure. It is covered by a
pleural membrane.
→ Blood capillaries: They are the sites of the transfer of oxygen and other
nutrients from the bloodstream to other tissues in the body. They also collect
carbon dioxide and waste materials and return it to the veins.
Mechanism of Breathing​

Inhalation Exhalation

During inhalation the thoracic cavity

(chest cavity) expands. Thoracic cavity contracts.

Ribs lift up. Ribs move downwards.

Diaphragm becomes flat in shape. Diaphragm becomes dome shaped.

 Volume of lungs increases and air Volume of lungs decreases and air
enters the lungs. exits from the lungs.

Exchange of gases between alveoli, blood and tissues​

(i) Air (rich in O2) reaches blood which combines with haemoglobin in RBC and O2 is
released in alveoli tissues (through blood vessels).​
(ii) CO2 is released in blood and dissolved into it and carried by blood vessels. The
carbon dioxide is released in the alveolar sac which is sent out through nostrils.​
→ Terrestrial organisms: Use atmospheric oxygen for respiration.

→ Aquatic organisms: Use dissolved oxygen for respiration.

​
​

Respiration in plants​
Respiration in plants is simpler than respiration in animals. Gaseous exchange
occurs through :​
(a) Stomata in leaves​
(b) Lenticels in stems​
(c) General surface of the root

Transportation
Human beings like other multicellular organisms need a regular supply of foods,
oxygen etc. This function is performed by a circulatory system or transport
system.

Transportation in Human Beings:

The circulatory system is responsible for transport of various substances in

human beings. It is composed of the heart, arteries, veins and blood capillaries.
Blood plays the role of the carrier of substances.

1. Heart: Heart is a muscular organ, which is composed of cardiac muscles.

 ●​ It is so small that it can fit inside an adult’s wrist. The heart is a
pumping organ which pumps the blood.
●​ The human heart is composed of four chambers, via right atrium,
right ventricle, left ventricle and left atrium.
●​ Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.
●​ Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.

2. Arteries:

●​ These are thick-walled blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood

from the heart to different organs.
●​ Pulmonary arteries are exceptions because they carry deoxygenated
blood from the heart to lungs, where oxygenation of blood takes
place.

3. Veins:

●​ These are thin-walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood

from different organs to the heart, pulmonary veins are exceptions
because they carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart.
●​ Valves are present in veins to prevent back flow of blood.

ARTERIES VEINS
 1. Have thick, elastic, muscular walls. 1. Have thin, non-elastic walls.

2. Lumen is narrow. 2. Lumen is wide.

3. Carry blood from the heart to all body 3. Carry blood from all body parts to the
parts. heart.

4. Carry oxygenated blood (except 4. Carry deoxygenated blood (except

pulmonary artery). pulmonary vein).

5. Blood pressure is high. 5. Blood pressure is low.

4. Capillaries: These are the blood vessels which have single-celled walls.

Blood: Blood is a connective tissue which plays the role of the carrier for
various substances in the body.
Blood is composed of 1. Plasma 2. Blood cells 3. Platelets.

●​ Blood plasma: Blood plasma, the matrix of the blood is a pale coloured
liquid which is mostly composed of water.

●​ Bloods cells:
(a) Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs): Red coloured because of the pigment
haemoglobin. It readily combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide, which helps in
the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

b) White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs): These are of pale white colour. They play an
important role in immunity.

Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation which prevents excess loss of
blood, in case of an injury.
Lymph:
 ●​ Lymph is similar to blood but RBCs are absent.
●​ It is formed from the fluid which leaks from blood capillaries and goes to
the intercellular space in the tissues. This fluid is collected through lymph
vessels and finally returns to the blood capillaries.
●​ They also play an important role in the immune system.
●​ Lymph flows from the tissues to the heart assisting in transportation and
destroying germs.

BLOOD LYMPH

1. Red in color. 1. Colorless.

2. RBCs are present. 2. RBCs are absent.

3. Nutritive substances are more. 3. Nutritive

substances are less.

4. Contains more oxygen. 4. Contains less

oxygen.

5. Contains more protein. 5. Contains less

protein.

6. Metabolic wastes and Carbon 6. Both are more than

dioxide are in normal amounts. blood.

Double circulation:
●​ In the human heart, blood passes through the heart twice in one cardiac cycle.
This type of circulation is called double circulation.
●​ One complete heartbeat in which all the chambers of the heart contract and relax
once is called cardiac cycle.
●​ The heart beats about 72 times per minute in a normal adult.
●​ In one cardiac cycle, the heart pumps out 70 mL blood and thus, about 4900 mL
blood in a minute.
●​ Double circulation ensures complete segregation of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood which is necessary for optimum energy production in
warm-blooded animals, a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body &
temperature regulation.
●​ Animals, like amphibians and many reptiles, have three-chambered hearts and
tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood streams.
●​ Fishes, on the other hand, have only two chambers to their hearts, and the blood
is pumped to the gills, is oxygenated there, and passes directly to the rest of the
body.

Transportation in plants:

●​ Plants have low energy needs because they have a large proportion of dead
cells
 ●​ They have a slow transport system
●​ Plants have specialized vascular tissues for transportation of substances.
●​ There are two types of vascular tissues in plants. Xylem and Phloem.

Xylem:

Xylem is responsible for transportation of water and minerals. It is composed of

tracheids, xylem vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibre. Tracheids and
xylem vessels are the conducting elements. The xylem makes a continuous tube
in plants which runs from roots to stem and right up to the veins of leaves.

Phloem:
Phloem is responsible for transportation of food. Phloem is composed of sieve
tubes, sieve cells, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and fibers. Sieve tubes
are the conducting elements in phloem.
●​ Carries product of photosynthesis from leaves to other parts of the plant.

Transpiration is the process of loss of water as vapour from aerial parts of the
plant.

Functions

●​ Absorption and upward movement of water and minerals by creating

pull.
●​ Helps in temperature regulation in plants.

Ascent of sap: The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to
different plant parts is called ascent of sap.

Root pressure: The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin. Water from soil enters
the root hairs because of osmosis. Root pressure is responsible for movement of
water up to the base of the stem. It is the main force helping in the transport of
water during night time .

Transpiration pull: Loss of water vapour through stomata and lenticels, in plants,
is called transpiration. Transpiration through stomata creates a vacuum which
creates a suction, called transpiration pull. The transpiration pull sucks the water
column from the xylem tubes and thus, water is able to rise to great heights in even
the tallest plants.

Transport of food: Transport of food in plants happens because of utilization of

energy. Thus, unlike the transport through xylem, it is a form of active transport.
Moreover, the flow of substances through phloem takes place in both directions,
i.e., it is a two-way traffic in phloem.

Translocation is the movement of sucrose and amino acid in phloem from the
region of production ie source to the region of storage ie sink​

Excretory system of human beings includes:

●​ A pair of kidneys.
●​ A urinary bladder.
●​ A pair of the ureter.
●​ A urethra.
​ ​

Kidney:

●​ Kidney is a bean-shaped organ which lies near the vertebral column in

the abdominal cavity.
●​ The kidney is composed of many filtering units, called nephrons.
●​ Nephron is called the functional unit of the kidney.

Nephron
●​ It is composed of a tangled mess of tubes and a filtering part, called
glomerulus.
●​ The glomerulus is a network of blood capillaries to which the renal
artery is attached.
●​ The artery which takes blood to the glomerulus is called afferent
arteriole and the one receiving blood from the glomerulus is called
efferent arteriole.
●​ The glomerulus is enclosed in a capsule-like portion, called bowman’s
capsule. The bowman’s capsule extends into a fine tube which is highly
coiled.
●​ Tubes from various nephrons converge into collecting duct, which
finally goes to the ureter.
Urine formation in the kidney: The urine formation involves three steps:

●​ Glomerular filtration: Nitrogenous wastes, glucose, water, amino acid

filter from the blood into the bowman's capsule of the nephron.
●​ Tubular reabsorption: Now, useful substances from the filtrate are
reabsorbed back by capillaries surrounding the nephron.
●​ Secretion: Extra water, salts are secreted into the tubule which opens up
into the collecting duct and then into the ureter.

Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder
where it is stored until it is released through the urethra.​
The purpose of making urine is to filter out waste products from the blood i.e., urea
which is produced in the liver.

●​ The amount of water re-absorbed depends on:

1.​ How much excess water there is in the body
2.​ How much dissolved waste there is to be excreted.
 ●​ Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded
bladder leads to the urge to pass it out through the urethra.

Haemodialysis: The process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney. It is meant

for kidney failure patients.

Excretion in Plants​

●​ Other wastes may be stored in leaves, bark etc. which fall off from the
plant.
●​ Plants excrete some waste into the soil around them.
●​ Gums, resin → In old xylem
●​ Some metabolic wastes in the form of crystals of calcium oxalates in
the leaves of Colocasia and stem of Zamikand.

●​ In vacuoles.
CONTROL AND COORDINATION
 CONTROL AND COORDINATION

●​ Functioning of our body is controlled and coordinated by Nervous system and Endocrine
system

​ Nervous System
●​ In animals including humans, the nervous system along with muscular tissue is the
control centre of the body.
●​ It consists of highly specialized cells called neurons, nerves and neural organs that link,
coordinate and control the activities of different organs in the body.

​ Neuron or nerve cell

●​ They are structural and functional unit of the nervous
system.
●​ A neuron is the longest cell of human body
●​ These are specialized for conducting information through electrical impulses from one
part of the body to another.
●​ Neurons don't have the capacity to regenerate.

​ Structure of Neuron
●​ Cell body or cyton: It is the broad rounded part of the neuron. It has a central
nucleus, abundant cytoplasm and various cell organelles except centriole.
●​ Dendrites: These are the protoplasmic, branched processes of the cell body, which
receive and transmit stimulus.
●​ Axon : These are long, fibre-like cytoplasmic processes. They conduct impulses away
from the cell body. The axon may be covered by a protective sheath called myelin.
●​ Nerve Ending : These are the fine branches like termination of neurons.
●​ The structure of a neuron
​ Synapse
A small gap between two adjacent neurons, where nerve impulse passes from one neuron to
another in one direction

→→Transmission of a Nerve Impulse

●​ Information from the environment is detected by the receptors (sense organs) & transfer
it to sensory neurons.
●​ The information acquired at the dendritic tip of a neuron causes a chemical reaction
that produces an electrical impulse.
●​ This impulse travels from the dendrite of the sensory neuron to the cell body (cyton) and
then along the axon to its end.
●​ At the end of the axon, the electrical impulse causes the release of some chemicals
(neurotransmitters).
●​ These chemicals cross the gap (synapse) and start a similar electrical impulse in the
dendrite of the next neuron.
●​ A similar synapse allows the delivery of such impulses from neurons to other cells, such
as muscle cells or glands.
●​ The pathway followed by the nerve impulse in the body is given below.

Stimulus →Receptors.→Dendrites→Cell body →

Nerve endings→Synapse→Dendrites

Neuromuscular Junction

It is the connection between motor neurons and a muscle fibre.

●​ The point where a muscle fibre comes in contact with a motor neuron carrying nerve
impulses from the Central Nervous System (CNS).
●​ The neurotransmitter helps in the transmission of nerve impulse from neuron to the
muscle fiber/ the impulses are transmitted across a synapse between two neurons.

Reflex Action
 ●​ A reflex action is a fast, automatic and involuntary response to a specific stimulus
e.g. coughing, sneezing, blinking of eyes etc.
●​ Reflex actions are monitored and controlled through the spinal cord of the nervous
system, not by the brain.

Although the reflex action is controlled by the spinal cord, the brain later receives the
information and becomes aware of the action.

DIAGRAM

Stimulus (Hot Object)

↓
Receptor (Skin)
↓
Sensory Neuron
↓
Spinal Cord
(Relay Neuron)
↓
Motor Neuron
↓
Effector (Muscle)
 ↓
Response (Hand Withdrawn)

​ Importance of Reflex action

i. It enables an organism for an immediate response to a harmful stimulus
ii. It reduces the overloading of brain
[Link] increases the chances of survival of an organism.
iv. Information reaches the brain but the brain is not involved.
v. The thinking process of the brain is not fast enough.

​ ​ Reflex Arc
It is the pathway of an impulse during reflex action.

Voluntary action
Actions that are under conscious directions of brain

Involuntary action
​ Actions under unconscious directions of brain
Eg: Breathing, digestion, heart beat etc

Difference between

Involuntary actions​ ​ Reflex action

[Link] Not require consciousness/thinking Immediate response to stimulus

2. Don't require stimulus Need stimulus

3. Involves brain Brain is not involved directly

[Link] by midbrain and medulla Spinal cord is involved

[Link] process Fast movement

​ ​ ​ ​
 Flow chart

●​ Human brain is largest & most developed

●​ Main coordinating centre
●​ It's protected by cranium/ skull
●​ Cerebrospinal fluid protects and supplies nutrients to the brain
●​ It also acts as a shock absorber.
​ ​ 3 REGIONS
Fore brain, Midbrain, Hindbrain
Fore brain
●​ It is the largest, most developed and main thinking part of the brain.
●​ It receives sensory impulses from various receptors.
●​ Association areas put together information collected from other receptors
●​ It stores the information
●​ It comprises of
​ Cerebrum, Thalamus, Hypothalamus

[Link] :
●​ Largest part
●​ Thinking part
●​ It has 2 hemispheres - Cerebral hemisphere
●​ Connected by corpus callosum
●​ Each hemisphere has 4 lobes
Frontal lobe —Muscular & voluntary activities
Parietal lobe—-Sensation(pain,touch, smell,taste)
Occipital lobe— sight
Temporal lobe—hearing

[Link]
●​ Its main function is to relay motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex, along with
that it also regulates sleep, alertness, emotion, memory and wakefulness.

[Link]
This part acts as your body's control room. It manages:
●​ Body temperature (feeling hot or cold)
●​ Hunger and thirst
●​ Sleep and wake cycles
●​ Mood changes

​ ​ Midbrain:
●​ The midbrain sits in the middle of our head
●​ Connecting the top and bottom parts of the brain (Forebrain and Hindbrain).
●​ It helps in quick responses / involuntary actions

​ ​ Hindbrain
●​ It provides a connection between the spinal cord and rest of the brain.

(i) Cerebellum :
●​ It controls and coordinates different muscular actions
●​ It is responsible for precision (accuracy) of voluntary actions.
●​ It maintains posture and equilibrium of the body during various activities such as walking,
drinking, catching, riding etc.

(ii) Pons :
●​ It lies above the medulla and takes part in respiration.
●​ It relays impulses between different parts of the brain.
●​ Helps us to sleep

(iii) Medulla Oblongata :

●​ It is found continuously with the spinal cord.
●​ It controls involuntary actions such as breathing, heart beat, blood pressure (BP) etc.,
and regulates reflex responses like salivation and vomiting.
 II Spinal Cord
●​ It is a long, tubular bundle of nervous tissue arising from medulla oblongata.
●​ Transmission of neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

Protection Of Human Brain & Spinal Cord

●​ Brain is kept inside a bony box, inside a fluid-filled cavity (cerebrospinal fluid) acts as
shock absorption
●​ There are hard structures called the vertebral column or backbone protects spinal cord.

​ Mechanism of Nervous Tissue Action

Nervous tissue receives informations from

body parts and sends it to the brain.
​ ​ ↓
Brain processes informations and makes deci-
sions based on that particular information.
​ ​ ↓
Conveys that decision to the muscular tissue.
​ ​ ↓
Muscles have special proteins that change both
shape and arrangement in cell in response to
nervous impulses.
​ ​ ↓
The new arrangement of proteins thereby, give
the muscle cells a shorter form and move in
direction according to the mind

​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

It consists of following types of nerves, which carry both sensory and motor neurons

(i) Cranial nerves : These are the nerves, which emerge from the brain and spread throughout
the head.
(ii) Spinal Nerves : These are the nerves, which arise from the spinal cord and spread
throughout the body (except the head).
(iii) Visceral nerves These are the special kind of nerves that mostly arise from the spinal cord
and are connected to the internal organs of the body.

Autonomic Nervous SystemRegulates unconscious bodily functions

Coordination in Plants

They coordinate their activities using hormones and movement responses.

●​ Plants show two different types of movements in response to various stimuli using
hormones.
●​ Plants possess only chemical coordination.
●​ Growth and movements in plants are regulated by both external and internal
(hormones) factors.
​ ​ Plant movements –
●​ Plants generally show movements at a very slow rate.
Movements — Tropic movements or Nastic movements
●​ Tropi[Link] are directional. These are the Movements of a specific part of plants
in response to growth.
●​ External stimuli. Tropic movements are very slow. If the movement of the plant part is
towards the stimulus, it is termed as +ve tropism. If the movement of the plant part is
away from stimulus, it is termed as -ve tropism.

Types of Tropism
●​ (A) Phototropism:- it is the directional movement of the plant part in response to light
stimulus, stem moves towards light thus shows +ve phototropism root of a plant away
from light thus show –ve phototropism.

​ ​ ​

(B) Geotropism:- This is a response to gravity. Roots move downward in the soil in the
direction of gravity +ve geotropism shoots of a plant move away from gravity so -ve
tropism.
(C) Hydrotropism:- It is the directional movement of the plant part in response to water
stimulus. Bending of roots of the plant towards water signifies +ve hydrotropism.

(D)Chemotropism:- This is a response to chemical stimulus. During the process of

fertilization, growth of pollen tube towards the ovule in the ovary is an example of +ve
chemotropism.

(E) Thigmotropism:- Directional movement due to growth in response to touch.

Example:- The movement of stem (tendril) around the support___ +ve thigmotropism.

Nastic movements:- These movements are very fast.

Nastic movements are plant movements that occur in response to environmental stimuli
such as temperature, humidity, and light. Some of the most spectacular plant movements
are nastic movements. Eg
a. Venus fly trap when it captures a prey.

b. The folding of the mimosa leaf when it is touched.

(A) Thigmonasty:- Response towards touch. Eg. If we touch the leaves of Chui Mui plant
with our finger, we find that all its leaves immediately fold up and drop

[Link]

●​ ​ Plant Hormones:
●​ Plants coordinate their responses through chemical messengers called
phytohormones, that help in growth and development.
●​ Auxins: Growth hormone
●​ These are present at growing parts ( main growth tip of every vegetative part regulator)
of plant.
●​ These hormones control directional growth, —stems grow toward light.
●​ When light hits a plant stem unevenly, auxins accumulate on the shaded side,
causing asymmetric growth that results in the stem bending toward light.

●​ Functions:- (a) Promote cell enlargement (b) Promote stem and fruit growth (c)
Regulate important plant growth movements (tropisms).

●​ Gibberellins: Growth Accelerators

●​ Acting as natural growth boosters, gibberellins promote stem elongation and
seed germination.
●​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

●​ Cytokinins:
●​ These hormones promote cell division and prevent premature aging.
●​ Help in breaking dormancy of seeds and buds. promote the opening of stomata.

●​ ​ ​ ​ ​

●​ Abscisic Acid: The Stress hormone

●​ This hormone helps plants to adjust with environmental stress, particularly
drought conditions.
●​ It triggers water conservation responses and maintains seed dormancy until
conditions become favorable for growth.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

●​ In lower multicellular animals, the coordination takes place through the nervous
system.
●​ In higher animals, coordination takes place through two types of control systems
: nervous system and endocrine system.
●​ Nervous system:- This system is composed of specialized cells called neurons
which exercise control by sending electrical signals called nerve impulses. The
nervous control is speedy.

●​ Endocrine system:- This consists of specialized glands (endocrine glands)

which bring about control by sending chemical messengers termed hormones.
The hormonal control is slow acting.
 ●​ Chemical coordination in Animals: Hormones:- These are chemical
substances secreted by ductless glands (endocrine glands) in specific part of the
body in response to changes in external or internal environment.

Features of hormones:
●​ (a) These act as chemical messengers.
●​ (b) These are secreted by endocrine glands in small amounts.
●​ (c) These act on specific organs called target organs.
●​ (d) Hormonal action is slow.
●​ They reach each and every cell of the body.

Types of Glands: Gland:- This is cell, a tissue, or an organ which secretes certain
useful chemical compounds required for particular function.
●​ (1) Exocrine Glands:- These have ducts to pour their secretions into the body
surface or into the cavities in the body. Eg. Sweat glands, Salivary glands, gastric
glands in stomach etc.
●​ (2) Endocrine Glands:- These are ductless glands that pour their secretions
(hormones) directly into the blood stream. Eg. Pituitary glands, thyroid glands
etc.
●​ (3) Heterocrine Glands:- These glands consist of both exocrine tissue and
endocrine tissue. Eg. Pancreas- its endocrine portion secretes insulin and
glucagon hormones. On the other hand, its exocrine portion secretes pancreatic
juice containing digestive enzymes into the pancreatic duct that leads to the
alimentary canal.
HORMONAL CONTROL IN ANIMALS

(A) Hypothalamus:-
It is situated at the base of the brain. Its cells secretes Releasing Hormones and
Inhibiting Hormones. These hormones are carried to the pituitary gland to stimulate and
inhibit the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones.

(B) Pituitary Gland:-

It is present just below the brain. It is a small, redgrey, pea shaped gland attached to
the hypothalamus of the brain by a stalk.
 ●​ It secretes Growth Hormone. It stimulates growth and development of all tissues
by accelerating protein synthesis and cell division and by retaining calcium in the
body.
●​ Disorders:
●​ (i) Dwarfism:- It is due to the deficiency of growth hormone from an early age.
●​ (ii) Gigantism:- It is caused due to excess secretion of growth hormone from
childhood.

(C)Thyroid Gland:-
●​ It is the largest endocrine gland. It is situated in the neck region.
●​ It secretes Thyroxine hormone. This hormone needs iodine for its synthesis.
●​ Its functions:
●​ (i) It regulates the rates of oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins and
production of energy in our body.
●​ Disorders: Iodine deficiency goitre:- its common in hilly areas. It causes
enlargement of the thyroid gland.

(D)Parathyroid Gland:-
●​ These are four small, flat and oval glands situated on
●​ the posterior surface of the thyroid gland, two in each lobe.
●​ The hormone secreted by this gland is Parathormone.
●​ – It regulates calcium – phosphorus balance in the blood.

(E) Adrenal Gland:-

●​ These are a pair of glands situated on the upper side of each kidney. It secretes
adrenaline hormone.
●​ This is also called emergency hormone to prepare the body to face emergency
situations.
●​ These increase the rate of heart beat to supply more oxygen to muscles.
●​ Also, blood supply to the digestive system and skin is reduced due to contraction
of muscles around small arteries in these organs to direct more blood to our
muscles.
●​ The breathing rate also increases due to contraction of the diaphragm and rib
muscles.
●​ Also, blood pressure, basal metabolic rate and sugar level in blood is increased.
●​ The adrenals are known as the glands of emergency.

(F) Pancreas:- It lies below the stomach in the loop of duodenum, part of small
intestine.
●​ It is an elongated, heterocrine gland.
 ●​ Endocrine part of pancreas secretes two hormones. (i) Insulin-it is secreted by β
cells of islets of Langerhans.
●​ Insulin helps to regulate the blood glucose level. Deficiency of insulin hormone in
the body causes a disease called diabetes mellitus. In this disease, a patient
excretes sugar in urine.

(G) Thymus Gland:-it is situated in the upper chest near the front side of heart. It is a
bilobed structure and is a prominent gland in young children.
●​ It secretes thymosin hormone which stimulates development of lymphocytes and
thereby increases resistance to infection, it gradually degenerates in adults .

(H) Pineal Gland:-

●​ It is small, solid body lying between the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain.
●​ It secretes melatonin hormone.
(I) Gonads

It regulates the working of glands (reproductive organs i.e., testes in male and ovaries
in female).
●​ Testes in males: (it is male reproductive organ. It secretes hormone
Testosterone).
●​ Functions of this hormone: (a) It stimulates formation of sperms. (b) It stimulates
the development of secondary sexual characters in boys.

Ovaries:-
●​ It is a female reproductive organ.
●​ It secretes (a) Estrogen (b) progesterone
●​ Estrogen:- Its function (a) help in formation of ova (eggs) (b) It stimulates the
development of secondary sexual characters in girls.
●​ Progesterone:- Maintenance of pregnancy.

Feedback mechanism

The timing and amount of hormone released are regulated by a feedback mechanism.
Example: When sugar level in the blood rises more insulin is secreted. Insulin removes
extra glucose from the blood by converting into glycogen. Falling glucose level reduces
insulin secretion by Pancreas.
REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new
individuals similar to themselves. It ensures continuity of life on earth.

→ Nucleus of the cell contains DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) which is

the heredity material.

→ DNA replicates and forms new cells causing variation. So, these new
cells will be similar but may not be identical to the original cell.

→ Variations are useful for the survival of the individual and species
over time as well as the basis for evolution.

1. DNA – The Blueprint of Life

●​ All living organisms have DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), which contains
instructions for growth, development, functioning, and reproduction.​

●​ When an organism reproduces, it must copy its DNA to pass on the genetic
information to the next generation.

2. DNA Copying During Reproduction

●​ During reproduction, a cell divides to form new [Link] division,

the DNA replicates (copies itself).
●​ This ensures that each new cell gets a copy of the DNA.
●​ DNA copying is a biochemical process involving the unwinding of the
double helix and the formation of new complementary strands.

3. Do Organisms Make Exact Copies of Themselves?

●​ No, organisms do not make exact copies of themselves
because:DNA copying is not 100% accurate.
 ●​ Sometimes small errors (mutations) occur during the copying
process.
●​ These errors may cause changes in the genes, leading to variations.​

●​ Example: A bacterium dividing might create slightly different

daughter cells due to an error in DNA copying.

Variation is the difference in genetic makeup or traits between individuals of

the same species.

🔹 Types of Variation:
●​ Inherited Variation – Comes from DNA (from parents).​

●​ Environmental Variation – Comes from surroundings (like

climate, nutrition).​

Example: In a family, siblings may look different from each

other even though they come from the same parents.

Importance of Variation

Variation plays a crucial role in the survival and evolution of species.

Helps in Survival:

●​ Suppose a change occurs in the environment (e.g., climate, food

source, disease).​

●​ But if some have variations, a few might survive and continue the
species.
●​ Example: A few plants might survive a drought because of a
variation in their roots or leaf size.

Leads to Evolution:
 ●​ Over generations, beneficial variations accumulate.​

●​ This process is called natural selection (Charles Darwin).​

●​ Eventually, this can lead to the formation of a new species.

●​ Example: Bacteria that develop resistance to antibiotics due to
variation.

6. Real-World Examples of Variation

Example Description

Antibiotic resistance in bacteria Variation helps some bacteria to survive

some medicines

Peppered moth Changed colour due to pollution - a variation

that helped Camouflage

Crop improvement Farmers select plants with good variations for

better yield

COVID -19 Mutations Virus variants ( like Delta, Omicron) are

results of variation in RNA
 REPRODUCTION

●​ The phenomenon of the formation of new individuals by the

existing ones is called reproduction.
●​ Two main broad categories of reproduction are
(i) Asexual reproduction and
(ii) Sexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction
●​ It is the production of young ones without the formation and
fusion of gametes.
●​ It is a rapid mode of multiplication in which one parent (either
male or female) is involved.
●​ The new individuals produced are identical to their parents.

Sexual Reproduction:
●​ In this process, the gametes from parents of opposite sex (male
and female) fuse together to form a zygote.
●​ The individual produced by this method exhibits variation.
 ●​ Asexual production occurs in unicellular organisms by fission,
budding, spore formation, fragmentation, regeneration (in
animals) and vegetative propagation (in plants).
●​ It occurs in multicellular organisms by budding and
regeneration.

These are as follows:

(i)Fission :
●​ The process where a unicellular organism splits itself into two or
more daughter cells. Two types
(a) Binary Fission :
●​ The parent cell divides into two identical cells.
e.g:- Amoeba, Leishmania.
(b) Multiple Fission :
●​ In this process, parent cell divides into many identical
daughter organisms simultaneously,
e.g. Plasmodium.

(ii) Fragmentation :
●​ The parent body on maturation breaks up into two or more small
fragments, which later grow into a complete new organism,
●​ e.g. Spirogyra.
(iii) Regeneration :
●​ In this process, all fragments or parts that are separated from the
body develop in new animal
●​ e.g. Sponge, Planaria, Hydra, etc.

(iv) Budding :
●​ A new organism is formed from a small projection known as bud.
●​ It develops as an outgrowth due to repeated
cell divisions of the parent body.
●​ When fully grown, it detaches to grow into a new independent
individual, e.g. Hydra.
(v) Vegetative Propagation :
●​ The process of obtaining a complete plant from any vegetative part of
a plant is called vegetative propagation.

It is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants grow from

the vegetative parts of the plant — such as roots, stems, or
leaves, instead of seeds.

Advantages of Vegetative Propagation

●​ Fast and efficient method
●​ Offspring are genetically identical (true to type)
●​ Good for seedless plants (banana, grapes)
●​ Helps in preserving desired traits (like taste, color, size)
●​ Artificial methods allow year-round propagation

Disadvantages
●​ No genetic variation
●​ Diseases can pass to the next generation
●​ Not suitable for all plant types
●​ Less adaptation to changing environments

●​ This is mainly of two types.

(a) Natural Vegetative Propagation :
 ●​ The vegetative propagation that occurs automatically in plants is
called natural vegetative propagation. It can be achieved by root,
stem, leaf, etc
●​ e.g. Bryophyllum.

●​

(b) Artificial Vegetative Propagation :

●​ The artificially made vegetative propagules in plants by humans, is
called artificial vegetative reproduction, e.g. Cutting, layering, grafting,
etc.
●​
• Grafting :
A small part of stem from one plant without roots (scion) is attached
to the part with root (stock) of another plant.

• Layering :
The development of roots on a stem, while the stem is still attached to
the parent plant is called layering.

• Tissue culture :
It is a technique used for growing new plants using living tissues (like
flower buds, stems, growing tips, leaves, etc.) in vitro in an artificial culture
medium.
• Using this technique, large number of plants can be developed from a
single parent.
(vi) Spore Formation :

●​ It is a type of asexual reproduction where blob-like structures

called sporangia are involved. These cells or spores have the
ability to germinate under favourable conditions forming new
plants, e.g. Rhizopus.

TISSUE CULTURE
●​ In tissue culture, new plants are grown by removing tissue or
separating cells from the growing tip of a plant.
●​ The cells are then placed in an artificial medium where they
divide rapidly to form a small group of cells called callus.
●​ The callus is transferred to another medium containing
hormones for growth and differentiation.
●​ The plantlets are then placed in the soil so that they can grow
into mature plants. Using tissue culture, many plants can be
grown from one parent in disease-free conditions. This technique
is commonly used for ornamental plants.
●​
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

●​ In this type of reproduction, both sexes male and female are involved.
●​ Sex cell or gamete of one parent (male) fuses with the sex cell or
gamete of another parent (female).
●​ This results in production of zygote
●​ Thus, the sexual mode of reproduction involves two major processes.
●​ (i) Formation of gametes by meiosis
(ii) Fusion of gametes.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

●​ Angiosperms (Flowering Plants)bear the reproductive parts inside the

flower and seeds enclosed in fruit.
●​ Most plants have both male and female reproductive organs in the
same flower and are known as bisexual flowers.
●​ While others have either male or female reproductive parts in a flower
known as unisexual flowers.
●​ A flower comprises four main parts, i.e. sepals, petals, stamens and
carpels. Stamens and carpels are the reproductive part of a flower.
(i) Stamen: It is the male reproductive of part of the flower.

(ii) Anther: It is a bilobed structure containing two pollen sacs parent at the tip of
stamen. These produce pollen grains that are yellowish in colour.

(iii) Carpel (Pistil): It is the female repro-ductive part, which is present in the
centre of the flower. It comprises three parts.

Stigma:
●​ Terminal sticky part of pistil (carpel).
●​ It receives pollen grains during pollination.

Style:
●​ Middle elongate part of pistil (carpel).
●​ It helps in the attachment of the stigma of the ovary.

Ovary:
●​ Swollen bottom part of pistil (carpel).
●​ It contains ovules having an egg cell (female gamete).
POLLINATION
●​ The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the
stigma of a flower is termed as pollination.
●​ The pollen grains can be transferred by various agents like wind,
water insects and animals.

●​ Pollination usually occurs in two ways.

(i) Self-pollination: The pollen from the stamen of a flower is transferred to

the stigma of the same flower or another flower of same plant.

(ii) Cross-pollination: The pollen from the stamen of a flower is

transferred to the stigma of another flower of different plant of the same
species

FERTILISATION
●​ It is the process of fusion of male and female gametes.
●​ It gives rise to a zygote.
●​ When pollen lands on suitable stigma, it reaches the female germ
cells in the ovary.
 ●​ This occurs through the pollen tube.
●​ The pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain, travels through the
style and finally reaches the ovary.
●​ After fertilization, ovule develops a rough coat around itself and gets
converted to seeds and ovary ripens as fruit.

Germination of pollen grain on stigma diagram

Sexual Reproduction In Human

●​ Human beings can reproduce sexually after attaining puberty.
●​ During adolescence reproductive organs start developing and sexual
maturity is attained.
 ●​ Some changes during puberty are common in males and females,
such as hair growth in armpits and genitals, oily skin, acne, etc.
●​ Specific changes in boys include facial hair growth, hoarse voice, etc.
In girls, these changes are enlargement of breast size, beginning of
menstruation, etc.

Human Reproductive System

(i) Male Reproductive System :

●​ It includes parts which produce the germ cells and
those which deliver these cells during fertilisation.

Testes •
●​ Paired, oval shaped male sex organs.
●​ Consist of seminiferous tubules, where sperms are
produced.
●​ Produce male sex hormone testosterone, which brings
about changes in appearance of boys at puberty.
Scrotum
●​ Small pouch that contains testis.
●​ Present outside the abdominal cavity.
●​ As sperms are formed here, this requires a lower
temperature than the normal body tem-perature.
Vas deferens
●​ Tube-like structure which connects testis to the urethra for
the passage of semen.
Urethra •
●​ Common passage for both sperms and urine.

Prostate gland and seminal vesicles

●​ Secretes seminal fluid and nutrients.
●​ Fluid & nutrients combine with sperm to form semen.
●​ It contains fructose, proteins and other chemicals for
nourishing and stimulating sperms.

Penis •
●​ External male genital organ.
●​ Transfers sperms into the vagina of the female during
copulation.

Sperms
●​ Tiny and motile bodies that use their long tail to move
through the female reproductive tract.

(ii) Female Reproductive System:

●​ Human, female reproductive system is immature at birth
and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce
gametes, and to carry a foetus.
Parts of Details of the Female Reproductive System

Ovaries
●​ Paired, oval-shaped organs located in the abdominal cavity
near the kidney.
●​ Produce thousands of ova or egg cells.
●​ Secrete female sex hormones like oestrogen &
progesterone.
Oviduct(Fallopian tube)
●​ It has a funnel-shaped opening near the ovary.
●​ Carries ova or egg from ovary to the uterus.
●​ It is the site of fertilisation.
●​ These open into the uterus from both the sides.
Uterus (Womb) •
●​ Hollow, pear-shaped, bag-like structure.
●​ The growth and development of foetus takes place.
Cervix
●​ It is the lower and the narrower portion of the uterus which
opens into the vagina.
Vagina
●​ Receives the sperm from the male partner.
●​ Serves as a birth canal.

Fertilisation and Post-Fertilisation Changes

●​ Fusion of sperm with ovum is called fertilisation.
●​ It results in the formation of diploid zygote.
●​ This process takes place in the oviduct or Fallopian tube.
●​ The formation of embryo is the result of cleavage and
growth in zygote.
●​ The embryo sinks downward, reaches into the soft uterine
lining and gets embedded.
●​ This process is known as implantation.
●​ A disc-like structure called placenta grows between the
uterine wall and embryo.
●​ It has finger-like projections called villi, which provide surface
area for the exchange of nutrients, oxygen and waste
products between the embryo and the mother.
●​ Childbirth (after a gestation period of approximately 9
months) occurs by strong rhythmic contractions of uterine
muscles.
●​ This process is also called parturition.

MENSTRUATION
●​ In the absence of fertilization, the uterine lining which
becomes thick and spongy to receive a fertilized egg, is no
longer required.
 ●​ It sheds out as blood and mucus comes out through the
vagina,which lasts for about 2-8 days and occurs every
month.
●​ This phase is known as menstruation
●​ It starts with Menarche and ends by Menopause

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
●​ It can be defined as the state of physical, mental and social
fitness to lead a healthy reproductive life.
●​ Good reproductive health provides both male and females
with fertility control methods.
●​ Awareness about how to limit their family size.
●​ Protection from infection and sexually transmitted diseases.

Methods of Family Planning

●​ The sexual act always carries the risk of potential pregnancy.
●​ In order to avoid unplanned pregnancies, many ways have
been devised, which are called contraception or birth
control methods.

[Link] Methods
a)Condom
●​ Rubber sheath worn over the penis to stop sperm from
entering the vagina.
●​ Prevents transmission of Sexually transmitted Diseases
(STDs) and has no side effect.

b)Diaphragm
●​ Rubber cup placed in the vagina over the cervix.
c) Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD)
●​ Copper- T placed in uterus by doctor.
●​ Used to prevent pregnancy.
●​ Can cause side effects due to the irritation of uterus.

[Link] Spermicide
●​ Applied in vagina.
●​ Kills sperm.
●​ Can only be used with condoms or diaphragm.

[Link]
​ Oral contraceptive pills
●​ Contain hor-mones, which prevent release of ovum, so that
fertilization cannot occur.
●​ These disturb the hormonal balance (levels of FSH and LH)
of the body.
●​ Can cause side effects also.

[Link]
a)Vasectomy
●​ Small portion of vas deferens is cut or tied properly.
●​ Therefore, the sperm will be prevented.
●​ Prevents sperms from coming out of urethra.
●​ An irreversible process.

b)Tubectomy
●​ Small portion of the oviduct is cut or tied properly.
●​ The Fallopian tube in the female gets blocked.
●​ The egg will not be able to reach the uterus and thus,
fertilisation will not take place.
 ●​ Prevents the egg from meeting the sperms.
●​ An irreversible process.

FEMALE FOETICIDE
●​ The killing of an unborn girl child is called female foeticide.
●​ It is happening because of the misuse of ultrasound
techniques by which people get to know the sex of the child.
(Amniocentesis)
●​ If it is female, they get it removed by surgery.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs)

●​ Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are caused by
different pathogens transmitted by an intimate contact
between a healthy person and an infected person.

Bacterial Infections
Gonorrhoea

●​ During unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected

person.
●​ Also passed by an infected mother to the developing foetus.
 ●​ Treatment with antibiotics is effective.
●​ Symptoms: Discharge of pus from penis and vagina.

Syphilis

●​ Syphilis is transmitted from person by direct contact with

syphilis sores.
●​ These occur mainly on the external genitals, vagina, anus or
in the rectum, can also occur in lips and mouth.
●​ Pregnant women with the disease can pass it to their unborn
children.
●​ Can be cured by antibiotics.
●​ Symptoms of syphilis
●​ Appearance of sores on body parts.
●​ Fever, ulcers, bone pain, liver disease and anaemia.
●​ These symptoms slow up during the tertiary stage of
syphilis.
Viral infectionsAIDS (Acquired Im-muno Deficiency
Syndrome)HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)

●​ Incurable and fatal as it suppresses the immune system of

the body.
●​ It can be transferred in following ways.
●​ During unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected
person.
●​ Sharing needles and transfusion of HIV unscreened blood.
●​ From the mother to the child via placenta during pregnancy

Genital warts HPV (Human Papillomavirus)

●​ Causes warts over external genitalia and perianal area.

HEREDITY
Heredity
Terms in Genetics

​ Genetics : The branch of biology in which the ‘continuity of features

between generations’ and the ‘occurrence of differences among the
individuals’ is studied is termed as genetics.
​ Heredity :The transmission of traits from parents to the offspring is
termed as heredity.

​ VARIATION:The occurrence of differences in characteristics among

the individuals of the same species is termed as variation.

​ Chromosome : a chromosome is a thread-like

structure within the nucleus of a cell, composed of DNA
and proteins, that carries genetic information in the form
of genes.

​ DNA : the genetic material in almost all organisms,

carrying the instructions for building and operating their
bodies, like a blueprint.

​ Gene: fundamental unit of heredity, a segment of DNA

that carries the genetic code for a specific trait or
protein, passed from parents to offspring.
​ Recessive: one allele that only appears in an individual's
phenotype when two copies of the corresponding allele are
present, the individual is homozygous for that trait. (tt)
​ Dominant: one allele that is expressed or appears in an
organism even only one copy of the allele is present,
masking the recessive allele. ( Tt )
​ In heterozygous condition(Tt) one allele is dominant over the
other or masking the other
​ Homozygous: having two identical alleles for a particular
trait, inherited from both parents. (TT/tt)
​ Heterozygous: an organism has two different alleles of a
gene for a particular trait, inherited from both parents.
​ Phenotype: the physical traits that are observed in an
organism which are the outcome of the expression of the
genes of an individual.
​ Genotype :Genotype refers to the genetic constitution of
living organisms
​ Haploid - the condition of having only one set of chromosomes per
cell (n)
​ Diploid - the condition of having two sets of chromosomes per cell
(2n)
​ Chromatin - the complex of DNA, RNA and proteins that makes up
uncondensed eukaryotic chromosomes.
​ Homologous chromosomes - chromosomes that are similar in
morphology (shape and form) and genetic constitution. In animals
one set comes from the father and the other from the mother.
​ Alleles - genes governing variations of the same characteristic (trait)
that occupy corresponding positions (loci) on homologous
chromosomes; alternative forms of a gene.
​ Hybrid - an offspring resulting from the mating between individuals
of two different genetic constitutions.
​ Dihybrid cross - Crossing two different plants that differ in One
contrasting character (two different genes).
​ Monohybrid cross :Crossing two different plants that differ in One
contrasting character
The creation of variation in a species promotes survival.

●​ Variation creates individuals with different characteristics.

●​ Thus, the Creation of variation in a species promotes survival.
●​ Bacterial survival

The Process of Variation Accumulation

●​ In asexual reproduction, the genetic makeup of a single parent is

transferred, leading to minimal variation in their physical traits.
●​ Slight changes may occur due to minor errors during DNA replication.

●​ In Sexual reproduction fusion of genes from both parents, leading to a

wide variety of organisms.
 ●​ This results in combinations of the same gene set, & offspring differs
from their parents.
●​ The variation accumulated over the years results in noticeable changes
over generations.
●​ Environmental factors largely influence the selection of these variants.

The Significance of Variations

Why variations are important:

●​ Variations provide the raw material for evolution .

●​ They allow the creation of hybrids: Variations can lead to different
versions of animals and plants.
●​ Variations form the basis for heredity among organisms.
●​ They enable organisms to adapt to diverse environmental conditions.
●​ Variations assist in the selection of variants suited to different
environmental conditions.
●​ They result in organisms appearing distinct from each other.

​ ​ Mendel’s Work

●​ The “Father of Genetics,” Gregor Johann Mendel,

●​ Austrian monk
●​ Studied pea plants to show the idea of heredity.
●​ Three fundamental laws of inheritance that he created.

The Law of Dominance, the Law of Segregation, and the Law of

Independent Assortment
Reasons for Mendel’s success

●​ The pea plant shows a number of distinct contrasting characters.

●​ Easy to cultivate the pea plants in open ground.
●​ They have a short growth period and short life cycle
●​ Many pure breeding varieties are available (TT,tt,RR,rr)
●​ Self-pollination & Cross pollination was easy.
●​ The genes for the seven pairs of characters chosen by Mendel are
located on seven separate homologous pairs of chromosomes.
 MONOHYBRID CROSS:

●​ Inheritance of traits for One Contrasting Character

Crossing two different plants that differ in One contrasting character

●​ Mendel took pea plants with different characteristics such as height (tall
and short plants)
●​ The progeny produced F1 -generation were all tall.
●​ F1 progeny plants do undergo self-pollination.
●​ In the F2 - generation, all plants were not tall,both tall and short.
●​ In F2 - generation, both the characters are recovered.
●​ During gamete formation, the factor or allele of a pair segregates from
each other.
●​ Thus, the phenotypic ratio 3 : 1 and the genotypic ratio is 1 : 2 : 1 for the
inheritance of traits for one contrasting character, i.e. monohybrid cross.

●​
 DIHYBRID CROSS:

●​ Inheritance of Traits for Two Visible Contrasting Characters

Crossing two different plants that differ in TWO contrasting characters

●​ Mendel took pea plants with 2 contrasting characters, a green round

seed and the other one with a yellow wrinkled seed.
●​ In F1 they had round and yellow seeds.
●​ Mendel then allowed the F1 progeny to be self-crossed (self–
pollination) to obtain F2
●​ The F2 Phenotypic ratio was 9 : 3 : 3 : 1.
●​ In F2 - generation, all the four characters were assorted out
independent of the others.
●​ Therefore, he said that a pair of alternating or contrasting characters
behaves independently of the other pair
Laws of Mendel

According to the Law of Dominance, a gene contains two alleles, in

heterogeneous condition one dominates over other and other gets
[Link] one expressed is the dominant gene.
 The Law of Segregation It is called the law of purity of gametes. Law
states that the factors or alleles of a pair segregate from each other during
gamete formation such that a gamete receives only one of the two factors.
They do not show any blending.

The Law of Independent Assortment states that When two pairs of traits
are combined in a hybrid segregation of one pair of character is
independent of other pair of character.

GENE:

A segment of DNA that occupies a specific position on a chromosome, and

which is a hereditary unit of a specific biological function is termed as a
gene.

Genes control traits.

Genes are a segment of DNA that are responsible for the synthesis of
specific proteins in the body. Genes control traits.

Sex Determination

●​ Sex determination is the process of identifying a person’s sex based on

the makeup of their genetic makeup.
●​ Different elements determine an embryo’s sex in different animals.
●​ When it comes to humans, sex is determined by whether or not the Y
chromosome is present.
 ●​ XY is a man, whereas XX is a woman.
●​ An X chromosome is present in every ovum.
●​ An ovum produces a male offspring when it fuses with sperm that
contains Y, and a female child when it fuses with sperm that contains X.

[Link]
gtY7DdJ5Ro0enY/edit?usp=drivesdk
OUR ENVIRONMENT
 ​ ​
[Link]
It refers to the complete range of physical and
biological conditions in which organisms live
and interact with biotic and abiotic factors.

[Link] and its components

a) Ecosystem :- An ecosystem consists of all
the living organisms in an area along with the non
living components and their interaction.

There are different types of ecosystems. They are :-

i) Natural ecosystems :- like forests, deserts,

grass lands, mountains,ponds, lakes, rivers, oceans
etc.
ii) Artificial ecosystems :- like gardens, parks, crop
fields, aquarium, zoo etc.

b) Components of an ecosystem :-
An ecosystem consists of two main components.
They are biotic and abiotic components.

i) Biotic components :- are the living components

like plants, animals and microorganisms. They consist
of producers, consumers and decomposers.

Producers :- are green plants which produce food

by photosynthesis.
Consumers :- are herbivores which get their food
directly from plants,carnivores which get their food
indirectly from plants and omnivores which get their
food directly or indirectly from plants.
Decomposers :- are microorganisms which
decompose dead plants and animals. They
decompose complex organic substances into simple
inorganic substances in the soil which are again used
by plants.
ii) Abiotic components :- are the non living
components like air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight ,
temperature, wind etc.
3a) Food chain :-
A food chain is the flow of food energy from one
organism to the next and to the next and so on. They
usually start with a producer (plants) and end with a
carnivore. In a food chain an organism gets food from
one group of organisms.
b) Food web :-
Food web is a group of several interconnected
food chains.
In a food web an organism gets food from more
than one group of organisms.
4) Trophic levels :-
Each step in a food chain where transfer of food
energy takes place is called trophic level.
●​ The first trophic level consists of producers.
●​ The second trophic level consists of primary
consumers.
●​ The third trophic level consists of secondary
consumers.
●​ The fourth trophic level consists of tertiary
consumers.
●​ Since the transfer of food energy decreases at
every trophic level, the number of trophic levels
are limited and do not exceed four or five.
5) Energy flow in
trophic levels :-
●​Green plants (producers) absorb about 1% of
solar energy falling on the leaves and stores
it as food energy during photosynthesis.
●​ During the transfer of food energy from one
trophic level to the next, 90% of the energy is
lost to the environment and only 10% is
transferred to the next trophic level.
●​So there is a decrease in the amount of food
energy transferred at every trophic level by
10%.
●​ This is known as the 10% law.
7) Human activities affect the
environment

a) Depletion of ozone layer in the

atmosphere :-
●​Ozone molecule contains three oxygen
atoms (O3).
●​At higher levels in the atmosphere the UV
radiation splits some oxygen molecules (O2)
into free oxygen atoms which combines with
oxygen molecules (O2) to form ozone.
●​It is highly poisonous.

​ UV radiation

O2 O + O

O2 + O O3

●​The ozone layer present in the higher layer of

the atmosphere protects the earth from the
harmful UV radiation from the sun.
●​UV radiation causes skin cancer in humans.
 ●​ The ozone layer is being damaged by the
use of chemicals like chloro fluoro carbons
(CFCs) used in refrigerators and fire
extinguishers.
●​So the use of CFCs is now being reduced to
protect the ozone layer.

Effect of adding waste to the environment

●​Human activities produce a lot of waste

materials and are released to envt.
●​These wastes cause pollution of air, water
and soil.
●​They are of two main types.
Biodegradable wastes and non biodegradable
wastes.

i) Biodegradable wastes are wastes which are

decomposed into harmless substances by
microorganisms.
Eg :- vegetables, fruits, pulses, cereals,
cotton, jute, wool, wood, leather, paper, animal
dung, animal bones etc.

ii) Non biodegradable wastes :- are wastes which

are not
decomposed by microorganisms.
Eg :- polythene bags, plastics, synthetic
fibres, glass, metals, synthetic rubber,
insecticides, pesticides etc.

b) Managing the garbage we produce

●​The household waste is called garbage.
●​Some of the garbage is biodegradable and
some are non biodegradable.
●​Garbage causes pollution of air, water and
soil.
 ●​So it should be disposed properly.

Some of the methods of garbage disposal

i) Land fills
ii) Recycling
iii) Production of biogas and manure
iv) Preparation of compost
v) Incineration
vi) Sewage treatment
Sewage treatment
Tab 6