Geodesy II

Earth rotation and orientation

M. Segobye
Table of contents
1 Introduction

2 Earth motions
Earth Rotation
Earth Revolution
3 hierarchy of three levels of reference systems
Inertial Reference System and frame
Conventional terrestrial reference system and frame
Local horizontal reference systems
4 Transformation between, conventional inertial and conventional
terrestrial
space-fixed to earth-fixed

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Introduction

Geodesy is the science of measurement and mapping of the earth’s surface.

Hence, we need coordinates and associated coordinate reference systems
(CRS) .
A reference system defines a spatial coordinates system (origin and
orientation of coordinate axes) for indicating spatial positions (location,
height) and gravity of points.
Reference systems are essential for accurate positioning and geospatial data
analysis.
They provide a framework for mapping and navigation by defining latitude,
longitude, and elevation

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Introduction

Reference system From observed quantities and through subsequent

geodetic computations one attempts to determine parameters of the earth’s
surface and external gravity field as well as the mean earth ellipsoid.
To this end, Reference systems are introduced in order to model geodetic
observations as a function of unknown parameters of interest.
They consist of a coordinate system with defined metric and curvature, and
its realization through a set of coordinate reference points (a reference frame)

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Introduction

There are three distinct coordinates systems used in geodesy

⇒ Terrestrial
⇒ Celestial
⇒ Orbital
Their definition depends on the motions of the earth and satellites in space.
⇒ There are two periodic motions of the earth.
• Earth rotates on its axis (diurnal motion) and
• revolves around the sun (annual motion)
⇒ Satellites orbit the earth

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Earth Rotation
Rotation refers to the spinning motion of Earth about an axis.
⇒ Earth’s axis is an imaginary line passing through the north and south poles; it
has a tilt of 23.45° when measured from the orbital plane.
⇒ The period of this rotation is one sidereal day (23 hours 56 minutes and 4.09
seconds). The sidereal day is shorter than the day used for civil timekeeping -
the mean solar day (by approximately 4min).
Sidereal time is of more significance than solar time in positioning, as there is
a direct relationship between the rotation of the Earth and longitude.
Solar day is based upon the time taken between two successive crossings of
the sun over a meridian.
⇒ Due to the motion of the Earth around the sun, this period is longer than that
taken for one complete rotation of the Earth on its axis.

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Earth Revolution
A revolution describes Earth’s orbital motion around the Sun due to the
latter’s strong gravitational pull.
⇒ It takes 365.25 days for Earth to complete one revolution.
⇒ To compensate for the ¼ day and to match the calendar and solar years, a leap
day is added every four years.
Since the orbit of Earth is elliptical, its distance from the Sun slightly varies
throughout the year.
⇒ It is closest to the Sun in early January, and
⇒ farthest in early July.
The dimensions of the earth and other celestial bodies are regarded as
negligible compared with dimensions of solar systems.

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Reference systems
The description of objects or events in space and time in a coordinate system
requires four coordinates, three identifying the position in space, the fourth
providing time.
Space-fixed or inertial systems, in which the positions of stars are fixed or
almost fixed and in which the motion of artificial satellites can be formulated
according to the Newtonian laws of mechanics.
Earth-fixed systems, in which all terrestrial points can be expressed
conveniently as well as vehicles in motion on the earth’s surface.
Local horizon systems, fixed to observatories or instruments and often
oriented horizontally with one axis pointing towards north.
These three levels of reference systems are complemented, when needed, by
some specialized ones such as orbit or spacecraft systems or regional terrestrial
systems.
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 Earth-fixed Local horizon
Inertial System
system systems
Mappings 2D coordinates

E G ϕ, λ LG

Obliquity Transformation ξ, η

MRA(τ0 ) CT Φ, Λ LA

Proper Motion
Polar Motion
Precession

MRA(τ ) IT

Nutation GAST

TRA(τ ) Annual Parallax

AP
Annual Aberation
E Celestial coordinate system
Ω, i, ω
i Terrestrial coordinate system

ORB I Orbital coordinate system

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Reference systems
When talking about reference systems it is useful to distinguish between the three
concepts of
1 Coordinate systems are the central - mathematical - element of any
geodetic reference system. The choice of a coordinate system in three
dimensions requires the definition of its origin (three elements), the
orientation of the axes (three elements), and the scale.
2 A reference system consists of the adopted coordinate system and, in
addition, of a set of constants, models and parameters, that are required in
order to achieve a certain degree of generality or idealisation.
3 A reference frame contains all elements required for the materialization of a
reference system in real world. In the case of space fixed or celestial frames
it is essentially an adopted catalogue of celestial objects such as stars or
quasars, in the case of a terrestrial frame it is the catalogue of coordinates of
terrestrial points (stations, observatories) as well as of their velocities. The
catalogues are chosen to be consistent with the conventions of the
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Inertial Reference system
The plane of the earth’s orbit is called the elliptic
The earth completes one revolution in one sidereal year.
Because of Kepler’s second law, the earth moves faster
when it is closer to the sun and slower when it is further
away.
The distance of the earth from the sun varies time to time
due to the elliptical shape of the orbit.
⇒ Perihelion – earth is closest to the sun
⇒ Aphelion – the earth is farthest from the sun
Another important point on the orbit is the vernal point or
vernal equinox
⇒ The point on the ecliptic where the sun crosses from the
southern celestial hemisphere to the northern hemisphere
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Inertial Reference System and frame
Origin:
⇒ barycentre of the solar system is chosen or the mass centre of the earth.
Orientation:
⇒ The x, y-plane of a CRS could either be chosen to coincide with the
(a) plane of the ecliptic, i.e. the orbit plane of the earth about the sun, or
(b) with the equator plane of the earth.
⇒ The x-axis, points in the direction of the vernal equinox. It is the line of
intersection between ecliptic and equator plane.
⇒ The z-axis points into the direction of the mean rotation axis of the earth.
⇒ The y-axis completes a right-handed system.
The position/direction to any object/event is expressed by the two angles right
ascension, α (angle in the equator plane counted from x axis) and
declination delta (elevation angle counted from the equator plane).

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International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF)

Finally, the definition of a conventional reference system, in which celestial objects

can be catalogued, requires the definition of a reference epoch. Currently the
adopted reference epoch is J2000.0, which is 12h January 1, 2000 Greenwich
time.
International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF)
⇒ realization:
• 212 defining quasars (VLBI)
• 608 quasar positions in total
• 144 000 star positions of HIPPARCOS catalogue

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Terrestrial reference system
Used for the description of the position of points on the earth’s surface or, in the
case of navigation, that of the motion of a vehicle on the earth’s surface or close
to it.
Definition of the coordinate system:
Origin: geocentre. The geocentre is thereby defined as the centre of mass of
the earth including oceans and atmosphere.
Orientation:
⇒ The axis are earth-fixed.
⇒ The x, y-plane coincides with a conventional equatorial plane of the earth.
⇒ The x-axis lies by definition in the Greenwich meridian plane.
⇒ The z-axis corresponds to the mean position during 1900 to 1905 of the rotation
axis of the earth. This terrestrial pole is denoted conventional terrestrial pole
(CTP) or IERS reference pole (IRP).
⇒ Finally, y-axis completes the right-handed system.
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International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF)
The realization of the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) is
denoted International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF).
It consists of an adopted global set of cartesian station coordinates and
velocities.
Almost annually a new ITRF is produced, based upon newest observations
and identified as [Link], where the numbers (yy) following the designation
ITRF specify the last year whose data were used for the realization of the
frame
realization: coordinates x (τ0 ) and velocities v (τ0 ) at epoch τ0 of a large
number of instrument locations of geodetic observatories equipped with one
up to six techniques in parallel
notation: [Link], ITRF.94

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Local horizontal reference systems
This class of systems is associated with an instrument such as a GPS receiver, a
VLBI telescope or a camera. Local horizontal systems are introduced in order to
express the fixed or time variable pointing direction of the instrument to a target
point and in order to predict when and under what angles a target will rise or fall.
Definition of the coordinate system:
Origin:
⇒ instrument origin (topocentre).
Orientation:
⇒ The x, y-plane coincides with the local horizon (level surface). surface.
⇒ The base x-axis (n) points towards north.
⇒ The z-axis (u) points towards the zenith (or normal of the ellipsoid or sphere).
⇒ The y-axis (e) completes the left- handed orthonormal triad; it points towards
east.
The angle to an object in the horizontal plane counted from north (towards
east) is called azimuth A, the angle to an object from the zenith is denoted
zenith distance z, its complement to π , the elevation angle above the
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Orbital coordinate system
Ascending Node (Ω): Orients the
orbital plane horizontally,
Semi-major axis (a): Determines
specifically the angle from a
the size of the orbit (e.g., average
reference direction to the point
distance in an elliptical orbit).
where the orbit crosses the
Eccentricity (e): Describes the reference plane upward.
shape of the orbit, ranging from a
Argument of Perigee (ω): Defines
perfect circle (e = 0) to a parabola
the orientation of the ellipse in the
(e = 1).
orbital plane, measured from the
Inclination (i): Represents the ascending node to the perigee.
vertical tilt of the orbit plane
True Anomaly (ν or θ): Defines
relative to a reference plane
the specific position of the object
(usually the equator).
along the orbital ellipse at a
specific time
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ORB

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Orbital coordinate system
     
x cos ν a (cosE − e)
p
Definition of the coordinate system: y  = r  sin ν  = a (1 − e2 ) sin E 
z ORB 0 0
Origin:
⇒ mass center of the earth. one of the foci of the orbital ellipse.
Orientation:
⇒ The x, y-plane coincides with the orbital plane.
⇒ The x-axis (n) points towards satellite perigee (closest point).
⇒ The z-axis normal of the orbital plane.
⇒ The y-axis completes a right- handed system.
The position of a satellite is described using True Anomaly (ν or θ):

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space-fixed to earth-fixed system

Precession P
Nutation N
Earth rotation R3 Θ, Θ = GAST
Polar Motion W = R3 (−xp ) R1 (−yp )

The transformation of the space fixed system ei to the earth fixed system ee is
composed of

ee = Rei ei
= (W · R3 (Θ) · N · P)ie ei

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Precession and Nutation

Precession: External gravitational torques

from the sun and moon leads to the
phenomenon pf precession.
Nutation: The short-periodic oscillations in
the motion of the pole of rotation of a freely
rotating body that is undergoing torque from
external gravitational forces.

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Polar motion

Polar motion is defined as the movements

of the earth’s instantaneous spin axis
relative to ITRF. It is split into a x- and
y-component in a coordinate system fixed to
the IERS reference pole (IRP) as a tangent
plane.

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Terrestrial transformations

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Orbital to terrestrial

   
x x
y  = R3 (GAST ) R3 (−Ω) R1 (−i) R3 (−ω) y 
z CT z ORB

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