Assignment Submission Guidelines

Due Dates:
 Electrical Engineering Students – Tuesday, 29th July 2025
 Geological and Geomatic Engineering Students – Monday, 28th July 2025
Submission Procedure:
 Submit your handwritten report to your class representative before the class begins on the due
date.
 Late submissions will not be accepted.
Submission Requirements:
1. Format:
o Handwritten on official sheets.

o Clearly write each question before providing your answer.

o Provide calculations, values, and comments wherever applicable.

o Ensure neat, legible, and well-organized presentation.

2. Content:
o Simply follow the questions provided in the assignment document.

o Answer every question directly — be concise, yet complete.

3. Clarity is Key:
o Remember: I will be marking nearly 600 scripts.

o Please make your work easy to read, easy to follow, and easy to mark.

o Sloppy or disorganized submissions will be penalized, regardless of correctness.

Final Reminder:
Write neatly, present your work professionally, and ensure clarity and accuracy in your responses. A
well-presented report reflects both effort and understanding.
Introduction to BJT Amplifiers with 2N2222
Theoretical Background
1. Transistors as Amplifiers:
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), such as the 2N2222, can act as a current amplifier. When biased
properly, a small input current at the base controls a much larger current flowing from collector to
emitter. This property makes it a vital component in analog electronics for amplifying weak signals like
those from a microphone.

2. Operation Regions of BJT:

Cut-off Region: Both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse-biased. No current flows.
Active Region: Base-emitter junction is forward-biased and base-collector is reverse-biased. Transistor
acts as an amplifier.
Saturation: Both junctions are forward-biased. Transistor is fully on, acts as a switch.

3. The 2N2222 Transistor:

The 2N2222 is a popular NPN transistor used for low-power amplifying and switching. Downloading its
datasheet helps compare theoretical values with simulation data.
Practical Steps in LTspice
Choose the 2N2222 Transistor

Download the 2N2222 datasheet and compare to LTspice parameters. Use LTspice values for calculations
if there are discrepancies.

Simulate a Microphone Input: Connect a sinusoidal voltage source to the base to simulate a microphone
signal. Ground one end.

Build Circuit: Construct the basic amplifier circuit as shown in Figure 1

Analytical Task
i. Calculate the expected collector current using:
ii. Measure the collector current in LTspice and compare.

iii. Recalculate using both:

 Full exponential model with “–1”
Approximated model
Use Ic=Is ¿ ) and the approximated formula Ic=Is ¿ )

iv. Which formula gives a closer estimate to the measured value?

v. Why might the approximated formula be insufficient for small-signal levels like 10
mV?

vi. Analyze and explain what’s wrong with this setup.

Vii. Observe and comment on the input and output waveforms using the oscilloscope in
LTspice.

Step up as shown in Figure 1

Theoretical Background

1. Why Biasing is Necessary:

In the previous setup, the transistor did not amplify because the base-emitter voltage V BE did not
exceed the threshold (~0.6–0.7 V for silicon BJTs). A microphone signal alone—often a few
millivolts—cannot forward bias the transistor effectively. Biasing sets the transistor in its active
region, enabling it to respond linearly to small input signals.
2. Superposition of Bias and Signal:
To amplify a weak AC signal, we add a DC bias voltage to the AC input. This shifts the
transistor’s operating point (Q-point) above the threshold, allowing the AC signal to oscillate
around it and cause amplification.

Practical Experiment

1. Add DC Bias Voltage:

Modify your LTspice circuit by placing a DC voltage source in series with the AC
microphone input (Figure 2). This raises the total base voltage to a value like ~0.68 V,
allowing the transistor to turn on.

Measurements:

 Use the LTspice scope to measure collector current and base current.
 Calculate current gain:

β=Ic / Ib

 Calculate expected collector current using:

o Exponential model: IC=Is (eVBE/VT−1)
o
oApproximated model: IC=Is e(VBE/VT)
 Compare both calculated values to the simulated value from LTspice.

Waveform Analysis

 View the input and output voltage waveforms using the oscilloscope.
 Comment on any distortion, delay, or attenuation observed.
Analysis and Discussion

 Even with good biasing, why might the transistor still fail to amplify significantly?
 Change the DC bias voltage from 0.8 V to 0.68 V.
o Note: If the microphone adds ±10 mV, the total swings from 0.67 V to 0.69 V.
o Comment on how this shift affects the base-emitter junction and transistor
operation.
o Does amplification now occur?

Figure 2
Use the scope in LTspice to measure the collector current and the and the base current.
Introducing Collector Resistor and Understanding Gain

Theoretical Background
1. Role of Collector Resistor (Rc):
In a common-emitter amplifier, placing a resistor between the collector and Vcc allows us to develop an
output voltage. As the collector current Ic varies (in response to the input), the voltage across this resistor
changes according to Ohm's Law:

VRC=IC⋅RC
This causes the collector voltage to drop when IC and rise when IC decreases — providing an inverted,
amplified version of the input signal.
2. Voltage Gain of a BJT Amplifier:
The small-signal voltage gain for a common-emitter amplifier is approximately:
Av=−gmRC

Practical Steps
1. Modify Circuit:
 o Keep the DC bias at 0.68 V.
o Insert a resistor between the collector and Vcc as shown in the diagram

2. Run LTspice Simulation:

o Observe and compare the AC input waveform (without DC bias) to the AC output
waveform.
o Measure the peak-to-peak output voltage.
3. Estimate Gain from Measurement:
o Use: Vout / Vin
o Then calculate:
gm=IC/ VT and Av(theoretical)=gmRC
o Compare measured and calculated gain values.

DC and AC Separation

Why Separate DC and AC?

The output waveform contains both DC bias and amplified AC signal. To view only the AC signal, we
use a coupling capacitor and a high-impedance voltmeter model.
Impedance of Capacitor:
ZC=1/ 2πfC
Where:
The capacitor blocks DC but allows AC to pass, enabling us to isolate the signal.
LTspice Task
 1. Add 10 µF Capacitor between the collector and a voltmeter modeled with 10 MΩ resistance.
2. Calculate the capacitor's impedance at your signal frequency.
3. Comment on:
o Input vs output voltage waveforms (after capacitor)
o Effectiveness of capacitor in removing DC
o The role of high-impedance voltmeter

Exploring Gain Limits and the Effects of VBE

Theoretical Background
1. Clipping and the Limits of Amplification:
As we increase RC , the gain increases because:
Av=−gmRC
However, there’s a limit. The collector voltage cannot drop below 0 V (ground) or rise above V CC
If the output swing exceeds these boundaries, the waveform clips — flattening at the top or bottom —
introducing distortion.
2. Transistor Operating Point (Q-point):
To prevent clipping, the Q-point must be set such that the output can swing symmetrically within the
supply range. Increasing RC too much moves the Q-point too close to the limits.
3. Thermal and Bias Instability:
In reality, VBE can fluctuate due to temperature or circuit noise. Even a small variation can significantly
affect IC , since there exponential dependance.
Practical Tasks
1. Observe Clipping:
 Set RC=500 Ω, confirm the amplifier works normally.
 Then increase RC in steps of 100 Ω.
 Watch the output waveform using LTspice.
 At what RC value does the waveform start to clip?
 Comment on the shape and cause of clipping.

Real-World Bias Variations

2. Change VBE
 Return RC to 500 Ω.
 Change the DC bias to give VBE=0.75 V.
 Measure IC from the scope and calculate it using approximate and actual equations for Ic.

VRC=IC⋅RC
 Calculate the voltage drop across RC

 Estimate the “resting” DC output voltage at the collector:

 Vout,DC=VCC−VRC
 Compare to measured value from the scope.
Discussion Prompts
 How sensitive is your amplifier to changes in VBE ?
 What does this tell you about the stability of your design?
 Would this variability be tolerable in an audio amplifier?

Emitter Degeneration — Stabilizing Gain and Improving Linearity

Theoretical Background
Emitter Degeneration:
Adding a resistor between the emitter and ground introduces negative feedback into the amplifier. This
configuration is known as emitter degeneration and it improves:
1. Stability of the operating point
2. Linearity of amplification
3. Predictability of gain
4. Temperature robustness
5. 2. Modified Gain Expression:
With emitter resistance RE the voltage gain becomes:

This shows gain is now less dependent on transistor parameters (like β) and more on resistors — which is
much more stable.
Practical Experiments
Add Emitter Resistor:
Insert a resistor between emitter and ground.
Start with 10 Ω.
Simulate and observe:
Input waveform
Output waveform
Estimated voltage gain from oscilloscope
Voltage Measurements
2. Measure Key Voltages:
Base Voltage VB (w.r.t ground)
Emitter Voltage VE (w.r.t ground)
Calculate actual base-emitter voltage:
VBE=VB−VE
3. Vary emitter resistance RE in Steps of 50 Ω:
Measure new VE for each resistance
Observe how output voltage and gain respond
Discussion Prompts
Confirm that as RE increases, gain decreases.
Plot or tabulate RC/RE vs gain.
Does this match your observations?
Critical Thinking
Is reduced gain always bad? What benefits does emitter degeneration bring?
Does increasing RE improve amplifier performance in real-world conditions (e.g., temperature changes,
device variation)?

Voltage Divider Biasing and Capacitive Effects in Amplifier Design

Theoretical Background
1. Voltage Divider Biasing:
Instead of relying on a single DC source for biasing the base, we use two resistors R1 and R2 in a voltage
divider to create a stable base voltage:

This improves thermal stability and allows the amplifier to function predictably even with changes in
temperature or transistor parameters.
Practical Task – Voltage Divider Bias
 Build the voltage divider bias circuit as shown
 Measure:
o Base voltage VB
 o Emitter voltage VE
 Calculate VBE=VB−VE

Comment on:
 Whether the transistor is in active region
 Stability of biasing with respect to small signal variations
🔍 2. Coupling Capacitor at the Input
Why use a coupling capacitor?
A coupling capacitor is placed between the microphone and the transistor’s base to:
 Block any DC component from the microphone
 Pass only the AC signal (e.g., voice or waveform)
This prevents DC shift of the base bias voltage and allows consistent Q-point operation.
Task – Input Coupling Capacitor
 Add a capacitor (e.g., 10 µF) between the microphone and base.
 Simulate and observe:
o Gain of the amplifier
o Base voltage VB, Emitter voltage VE, and resulting VBEV
Comment on:
 Whether the gain changed
 Any shift in base or emitter voltages
 The role the capacitor played in signal conditioning

3. Bypass Capacitor across RE

Why bypass RE?
While emitter degeneration improves linearity and stability, it also reduces gain. By placing a
capacitor across RE (from emitter to ground), we:
 Short the emitter resistor for AC signals (low impedance path)
 Maintain degeneration for DC signals (high impedance path)
Thus:
 AC gain increases
 DC bias stability is retained
Task – Bypass Capacitor
Place a capacitor (e.g., 10 µF) in parallel with the emitter resistor.
Simulate and compare:
o Output waveform (with and without bypass capacitor)
o Voltage gain
Calculate and comment on AC vs DC gain:
AC gain uses a reduced RE
DC gain still considers full RE
Reflection Questions
 Do you see that AC and DC paths “see” different RER_ERE values?
 How does this affect gain calculations?
 What are the tradeoffs in using a bypass capacitor?

Comment on the gain, base, emitter and base emitter voltages.

What role do you think the newly placed capacitor is playing.

Finally let us place another capacitor between the emitter and the ground as shown

Comment on the new upgrade.

Do you recall the behavior of the gain the the Ratio of Rc to Re ?

 Do you see that the Ratio of Rc to Re will be different for AC and DC values ?

To AC values the Re will be very small and to DC values the Re will still be 100 ohms comment
on this

Finally our Amplifier is up and running …..

Hurray now we can connect our speaker… Replace the 10 M ohm resistor (voltmeter) with a
speaker 8 ohm resistor. Comment

Speaker Loading, Practical Limits, and Final Reflections

Theoretical Background

1. Output Loading:
Until now, we’ve measured the output using a high-impedance voltmeter model (10 MΩ),
meaning no current was drawn from the amplifier — a perfect open-circuit condition.
But in practice, output devices (like speakers) have low impedance (typically 8 Ω), and
connecting them introduces a load that affects the amplifier’s performance:
 Output current increases
 Voltage across RCR_CRC changes
 Output swing may reduce or distort
This is why output impedance and load matching are crucial in amplifier design.

Practical Task – Connect a Speaker

1. Replace the 10 MΩ voltmeter with an 8 Ω resistor, representing a speaker.
2. Run the simulation and observe:
o Output waveform amplitude
o Shape of waveform (any clipping or flattening?)
o Voltage drop across RCR_CRC
o Current into the speaker load

Discussion Prompts
 Compare the speaker-loaded output to the voltmeter (no-load) output.
 Does the amplifier still provide audible signal strength?
 Is the amplifier driving the load effectively, or does it need a buffer or power stage?
 How would you improve this amplifier to drive a real speaker better?

Final Reflection
1. After all the experiments:
o What was the most surprising discovery?
o How did real transistor behavior differ from your expectations?
 o Do you now appreciate the role of biasing, coupling, feedback, and loading in analog
design?
2. Answer honestly:
“I am really sorry to disappoint you!!!! We still have a lot more to learn. I hope you had loads of
fun (I want your answer, be honest 😊)”

Congratulations!
You’ve built, tested, and analyzed a full analog amplifier with practical design challenges in
LTspice. This hands-on assignment mirrors real-world electronics development — debugging,
modeling, and optimizing under constraints.