STATISTICAL ANALYSIS WITH BASIC SAMPLING
SOFTWARE APPLICATION DESIGN
BASIC SAMPLING DESIGN
❑The goal in sampling is to obtain individuals for a study in such a
way that accurate information about the population can be obtained.
REASON FOR SAMPLING
❑Important that the individuals included in a sample represent a cross
section of individuals in the population.
❑If sample is not representative it is biased. You cannot generalize to
the population from your statistical data.
SOME DEFINITIONS ARE NEEDED TO MAKE THE NOTION
OF A GOOD SAMPLE MORE PRECISE.
❑Observation unit
❑An object on which a measurement is taken.
❑This is the basic unit of observation, sometimes called an element.
❑In studying human populations, observation units are often
individuals.
DEFINITIONS:
❑Target population
❑The complete collection of observations we want to study.
DEFINITIONS:
❑Sampled population
❑The collection of all possible observation units that might have been
chosen in a sample; the population from which the sample was taken.
DEFINITIONS:
❑Sample
❑A subset of a population.
DEFINITIONS:
❑Sampling unit
❑A unit that can be selected for a sample.
❑We may want to study individuals, but do not have a list of all
individuals in the target population.
❑Instead, households serve as the sampling units, and the observation
units are the individuals living in the households.
DEFINITIONS:
❑Sampling frame
❑A list, map, or other specification of sampling units in the population
from which a sample may be selected.
❑For a survey using in-person interviews, the sampling frame might be
a list of all street addresses.
DEFINITIONS:
❑Sampling technique/Sampling Strategies
❑It is a plan you set forth to be sure that the sample you use in your
research study represents the population from which you drew your
sample.
DEFINITIONS:
❑Sampling Bias
❑This involves problems in your sampling, which reveals that your
sample is not representative of your population.
THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES INDICATE SOME WAYS IN
WHICH SELECTION BIAS CAN OCCUR:
❑Deliberately or purposively selecting a “representative” sample.
❑Misspecifying the target population.
❑Failing to include all of the target population in the sampling frame,
called under coverage.
❑Including population units in the sampling frame that are not in the
target population, called over coverage.
THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES INDICATE SOME WAYS IN
WHICH SELECTION BIAS CAN OCCUR:
❑Having multiplicity of listings in the sampling frame.
❑Substituting a convenient member of a population for a designated
member who is not readily available.
❑Failing to obtain responses from all of the chosen sample.
(Nonresponse)
THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES INDICATE SOME WAYS IN
WHICH SELECTION BIAS CAN OCCUR:
❑Allowing the sample to consist entirely of volunteers.
ADVANTAGE OF SAMPLING OVER COMPLETE
ENUMERATION
❑- Less Labor
❑- Reduced Cost
❑- Greater Speed
❑- Greater Scope
❑- Greater Efficiency and Accuracy
❑- Convenience
❑- Ethical Considerations
TWO TYPE OF SAMPLES
❑1. Probability Sample
❑Samples are obtained using some objective chance mechanism, thus
involving randomization.
❑They require the use of a complete listing of the elements of the
universe called the sampling frame.
❑The probabilities of selection are known.
❑They are generally referred to as random samples.
❑They allow drawing of valid generalizations about the
universe/population.
TWO TYPE OF SAMPLES
❑2. Non - probability Sample
❑Samples are obtained haphazardly, selected purposively or are
taken as volunteers.
❑The probabilities of selection are unknown.
❑They should not be used for statistical inference.
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
❑Identify the population.
❑Determine if population is accessible.
❑Select a sampling method.
❑Choose a sample that is representative of the population.
❑Ask the question, can I generalize to the general population from the
accessible population?
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Simple Random Sampling
❑Most basic method of drawing a probability sample.
❑Assigns equal probabilities of selection to each possible sample.
❑Results to a simple random sample.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Simple Random Sampling
❑Advantage: It is very simple and easy to use.
❑Disadvantage: The sample chosen may be distributed over a wide
geographic area.
❑When to use: This is preferable to use if the population is not widely
spread geographically. Also, this is more appropriate to use if the
population is more or less homogenous with respect to the
characteristics of the population.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Simple Random Sampling
❑Advantage: It is very simple and easy to use.
❑Disadvantage: The sample chosen may be distributed over a wide
geographic area.
❑When to use: This is preferable to use if the population is not widely
spread geographically. Also, this is more appropriate to use if the
population is more or less homogenous with respect to the
characteristics of the population.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Simple Random Sampling
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Systematic Random Sampling
❑It is obtained by selecting every kth individual from the
population.
❑The first individual selected corresponds to a random number
between 1 to k.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Obtaining a Systematic Random Sample
❑1. Decide on a method of assigning a unique serial number, from 1
to N, to each one of the elements in the population.
𝑁 (𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒)
❑2. Compute for the sampling interval 𝑘 =
𝑛 (𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒)
❑3. Select a number, from 1 to k, using a randomization mechanism.
The element in the population assigned to this number is the first
element of the sample. The other elements of the sample are those
assigned to the numbers and so on until you get a sample of size.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Systematic Random Sampling (Example)
❑We want to select a sample of 50 students from 500 students under
this method kth item and picked up from the sampling frame.
❑Solution:
500
❑𝑘= = 10
50
❑We start to get a sample starting form i and for every kth unit
subsequently. Suppose the random number i is 6, then we select 15,
25, 35, 45, .. .
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Systematic Random Sampling
❑Advantage: Drawing of the sample is easy. It is easy to administer in
the field, and the sample is spread evenly over the population.
❑Disadvantage: May give poor precision when unsuspected
periodicity is present in the population.
❑When to use: This is advisable to us if the ordering of the population
is essentially random and when stratification with numerous data is
used.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Systematic Random Sampling
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Stratified Random Sampling
❑It is obtained by separating the population into non-overlapping
groups called strata and then obtaining a simple random sample from
each stratum.
❑The individuals within each stratum should be homogeneous (or
similar) in some way.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Stratified Random Sampling (Example)
❑A sample of 50 students is to be drawn from a population consisting
of 500 students belonging to two institutions A and B. The number of
students in the institution A is 200 and the institution B is 300. How will
you draw the sample using proportional allocation?
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Stratified Random Sampling (Example)
❑Solution:
❑𝑁1 = 200, 𝑁2 = 300, 𝑁 = 500, 𝑛 = 50
𝑛 50
❑𝑛1 = 𝑁1 = 200 = 20
𝑁 500
𝑛 50
❑𝑛2 = 𝑁2 = 300 = 30
𝑁 500
❑The sample sizes are 20 from A and 30 from B. Then the units from
each institution are to be selected by simple random sampling.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Stratified Random Sampling
❑Advantage: Stratification of respondents is advantageous in terms
of precision of the estimates of the characteristics of the population.
Sampling designs may vary by stratum to adjust for the differences in
the conditions across strata. It is easy to use as a random sampling
design.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Stratified Random Sampling
❑Disadvantage: Values of the stratification variable may not be
easily available for all units in the population especially if the
characteristic of interest is homogeneous. It is possible that there are
not representative in one or two strata. Also, transportation costs can
be high if the population covers a wide geographic area.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Stratified Random Sampling
❑When to use: If the population is such that the distribution of the
characteristics of the respondents under consideration concentrated in
small and spread segment of the population. Thus, this is preferred to
use if precise estimates are desired for stratified parts of the
population and if sampling problems differ in the various strata of the
population.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Stratified Random Sampling
❑When to use: If the population is such that the distribution of the
characteristics of the respondents under consideration concentrated in
small and spread segment of the population. Thus, this is preferred to
use if precise estimates are desired for stratified parts of the
population and if sampling problems differ in the various strata of the
population.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Stratified Random Sampling
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Cluster Sampling
❑You take the sample from naturally occurring groups in your
population.
❑The clusters are constructed such that the sampling units are
heterogeneous within the cluster and homogeneous among the clusters.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Obtaining a Cluster Sample
❑1. Divide the population into non-overlapping clusters.
❑2. Number the clusters in the population from 1 to N.
❑3. Select n distinct numbers from 1 to N using a randomization
mechanism. The selected clusters are the clusters associated with the
selected numbers.
❑4. The sample will consist of all the elements in the selected clusters.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Obtaining a Cluster Sample (Example)
❑A researcher wants to survey academic performance of high school
students in MIMAROPA.
❑1. He/She can divide the entire population into different clusters.
❑2. Then the researcher selects a number of clusters depending on
his research through simple or systematic random sampling.
❑3. Then, from the selected clusters the researcher can either include
all the high school students as subject or he can select a number of
subjects from each cluster through simple or systematic random
sampling.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Cluster Sampling
❑Advantage: There is no need to come out with a list of units in the
population; all what is needed is simply a list of the clusters. It is also
less costly since the elements are physically closer together.
❑Disadvantage: In actual field applications, adjacent households tend
to have more similar characteristics than households distantly apart.
❑When to use: If the population can be grouped into clusters where
individual population elements are known to be different with respect
to the characteristics under study, this preferable to use.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Cluster Sampling
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Multi - Stage Sampling
❑Selection of the sample is done in two or more steps or stages, with
sampling units varying in each stage.
❑The population is first divided into a number of first-stage sampling
units from which a sample is drawn. Smaller units, called the
secondary sampling units, comprising the selected first-stage units then
serve as the sampling units for the next stage. If needed additional
stages may be added until the units of observation for the survey are
clearly identified. The units comprising the samples selected from the
previous stage constitute the frame for the stages.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Obtaining a Multi-Stage Sampling
❑1. Organize the sampling process into stages where the unit of
analysis is systematically grouped.
❑2. Select a sampling technique for each stage.
❑3. Systematically apply the sampling technique to each stage until
the unit of analysis has been selected.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Obtaining a Multi-Stage Sampling (Example)
❑Suppose we wish to study the expenditure patterns of households in
NCR. We can select a sample of households for this study using simple
three-stage sampling.
❑First, divide into smaller cities/municipalities and a random sample
of these cities/ municipalities is collected.
❑Second, a random sample of smaller areas such as barangays is
taken from within each of the cities/municipalities chosen in the first
stage.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Obtaining a Multi-Stage Sampling (Example)
❑Advantage: It is easier to generate adequate sampling frames.
Transportation costs are greatly reduced since there is some form of
clustering among the ultimate or final samples; i.e., they are in the
sample lower-stage units.
❑Disadvantage: Its complexity in theory may be difficult to apply in
the field. Estimation procedures may be difficult for non-statisticians to
follow.
❑When to use: If no population list is available and if the population
covers a wide area.
TAKE NOTE!
❑Used probability sampling if the main objective of the sample
survey is making inferences about the characteristics of the
population under study.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Accidental Sampling
❑There is no system of selection but only those whom the researcher
or interviewer meets by chance.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Quota Sampling
❑There is specified number of persons of certain types is included in
the sample.
❑The researcher is aware of categories within the population and
draws samples from each category.
❑The size of each categorical sample is proportional to the
proportion of the population that belongs in that category.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Convenience Sampling
❑It is a process of picking out people in the most convenient and
fastest way to get reactions immediately. This method can be done by
❑telephone interview to get the immediate reactions of a certain
group of sample for a certain issue.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Purposive Sampling
❑It is based on certain criteria laid down by the researcher.
❑People who satisfy the criteria are interviewed.
❑It is used to determine the target population of those who will be
taken for the study.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
❑Judgement Sampling
❑Selects sample in accordance with an expert’s judgment.
CASES WHEREIN NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING IS
USEFUL
❑Only few are willing to be interviewed
❑Extreme difficulties in locating or identifying subjects
❑Probability sampling is more expensive to implement
❑Cannot enumerate the population elements.
SOURCES OF ERRORS IN SAMPLING
❑1. Non-sampling Error
❑Errors that result from the survey process.
❑Any errors that cannot be attributed to the sample-to-sample
variability.
SOURCES OF ERRORS IN SAMPLING
❑Sources of Non-Sampling Error
❑1. Non-responses
❑2. Interviewer Error
❑3. Misrepresented Answers
SOURCES OF ERRORS IN SAMPLING
❑Sources of Non-Sampling Error
❑1. Non-responses
❑2. Interviewer Error
❑3. Misrepresented Answers
❑4. Data entry errors
❑5. Questionnaire Design
❑6. Wording of Questions
❑7. Selection Bias
SOURCES OF ERRORS IN SAMPLING
❑2. Sampling Error
❑Error that results from taking one sample instead of examining the
whole population.
❑Error that results from using sampling to estimate information
regarding a population.