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Table of Contents
Climate Change........................................................................................................................ 3
1. FUNDING INDIA’S CLIMATE FUTURE .......................................................................................................... 3
2. THE TWIN CLIMATE AND ENERGY CRISES .................................................................................................. 4
3. ELECTRIFICATION EMERGES AS COP31 PRIORITY ...................................................................................... 5
4. CLIMATE CHANGE AS A PUBLIC HEALTH EMERGENCY ............................................................................... 6
5. GENDER, AGRICULTURE, AND CLIMATE CHANGE ...................................................................................... 7
6. INDIA’S FOCUS ON AI AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ........................................................................ 9
7. INDIA’S CLIMATE AMBITIONS .................................................................................................................. 10
8. GLOBAL COOLING WATCH 2025 REPORT ................................................................................................ 12

Biodiversity ........................................................................................................................... 14
9. INDIA CAN SAVE ITS FORESTS BY WINNING THE WAR ON POVERTY ....................................................... 14
10. THE POWER OF MANGROVES OVER SEAWALLS .................................................................................. 15
11. SAND AND SUSTAINABILITY: AN ESSENTIAL RESOURCE FOR NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT REPORT .. 15
12. MANAGING COEXISTENCE IN HUMAN-ANIMAL CONFLICT ZONES ...................................................... 17
13. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION ................................................................................................................... 18
14. INDIA HAS SUBMITTED ITS 7TH NATIONAL REPORT TO THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL
DIVERSITY.. ....................................................................................................................................................... 19
15. BLUR OVER INDIA’S CARBON CREDIT PLAN: CCUS VS CARBON FARMING DEBATE ............................. 20
16. WETLANDS AS A NATIONAL PUBLIC GOOD ......................................................................................... 22
17. ILLEGAL MINING CRISIS ....................................................................................................................... 23
18. INDIA’S PROGRESS ON ITS CLIMATE TARGETS ..................................................................................... 25
19. GRASSLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE 2026......................................................................................... 25
20. BIOREMEDIATION ................................................................................................................................ 27
21. CONSERVATION AS COEXISTENCE ....................................................................................................... 28

Pollution................................................................................................................................ 31
22. UNEP SAFE DISPOSAL OF UNUSED MEDICINES REPORT ...................................................................... 31
23. THE MICROPLASTIC PROBLEM............................................................................................................. 32
24. AIR POLLUTION .................................................................................................................................... 33
25. COST OF CONVENIENCE: HEALTH HAZARDS OF DIGITAL TOOLS ......................................................... 35
26. GLOBAL PLASTIC POLLUTION CRISIS .................................................................................................... 36

Renewable Energy ................................................................................................................. 38

27. AGRI-PHOTOVOLTAICS (AGRIPV) ......................................................................................................... 38
Forest, Deforestation and Desertification ..................................................................................... 40
28. AI DATA CENTERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL FRICTION ........................................................................... 40
29. AMENDED FOREST CONSERVATION GUIDELINES 2026 ....................................................................... 41

Water Management............................................................................................................... 43
30. VIRTUAL WATER EXPORT CRISIS .......................................................................................................... 43
International Environmental Convention ..................................................................................... 45
31. GOVERNMENT RELEASES FIRST NATIONAL REPORT ON THE NAGOYA PROTOCOL ............................. 45
32. GLOBAL CLIMATE GOVERNANCE ......................................................................................................... 46
33. NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS (NBS) ...................................................................................................... 47

Disaster Management ............................................................................................................ 49

34. NALANDA TEMPLE STAMPEDE ............................................................................................................ 49
35. THE LEGISLATIVE VACUUM IN INDIA'S HEAT CRISIS ............................................................................ 50
36. MAINSTREAMING DISASTER RESILIENCE INTO INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT REPORT .......................... 51
37. EARLY SUMMER AND HEAT-WAVE CONDITIONS ................................................................................. 52
38. MELTING GLACIERS GREATER THREAT ................................................................................................ 53
39. 16TH FINANCE COMMISSION RECOMMENDS HEATWAVES AND LIGHTNING AS NATIONAL
DISASTERS......................................................................................................................................................... 54
40. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH EAST INDIA ................................................................................................... 56

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41. INDIA’S DISASTER RESPONSE: CENTRALISATION CONCERNS AND THE ROAD AHEAD ......................... 57
42. THE UN ESCAP ASIA-PACIFIC DISASTER REPORT 2025 ......................................................................... 59
43. INDIA’S DIRECTION FOR DISASTER RESILIENCE .................................................................................... 61
44. HIMALAYAN FRAGILITY AND UNSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ........................................................... 62
45. MALDIVES & LAKSHADWEEP SEA-LEVEL RISE ...................................................................................... 64
46. TECHNOLOGY-DRIVEN DISASTER MANAGEMENT STRATEGY .............................................................. 65
47. SETTING UP AN EARLY WARNING SYSTEM (EWS) FOR THE HIMALAYAS ............................................. 67

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Climate Change
1. Funding India’s Climate Future
Context: India's ambitious transition toward a low-carbon economy has brought intense focus
onto the domestic institutional architecture required to bridge its massive climate-financing
deficits.
• Funding India's climate future refers to the strategic
mobilization, allocation, and deployment of large-scale
public, private, and blended capital to achieve the
nation's climate objectives.
• This financial architecture is designed to support
decarbonization across heavy industries, accelerate
the adoption of clean energy, and fund localized
climate adaptation projects.

The Imperative Need for Funding India’s Climate Future

• Decarbonizing Hard-to-Abate Sectors: Heavy
industries require financial support because cleaner
technologies remain commercially expensive.
E.g. Steel, cement, power, and road transport need
US$467 billion additional investment by 2030.
• Bridging International Climate Finance Gaps: Limited global funding commitments require
India to mobilize domestic resources.
E.g. The New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) offers US$300 billion for developing nations
by 2035.
• Strengthening Local Climate Adaptation: Grassroots funding protects vulnerable
communities from climate impacts.
E.g. Coastal protection in Odisha and drought resilience in Vidarbha require sustained
investments.
• Managing Banking Sector Climate Risks: Financial institutions need robust frameworks to
assess climate-related risks.
E.g. Banks must evaluate flood-related loan exposure in Bihar systematically.
• Reducing Green Technology Costs: Affordable finance encourages investment in clean
technologies through risk-sharing mechanisms.
E.g. Blended finance lowers borrowing costs, making green projects more attractive than
carbon-intensive alternatives.

Key Challenges in Funding India’s Climate Future

• No Legal Green Taxonomy: India lacks a legally recognized framework defining
environmentally sustainable investments, increasing risks of greenwashing and reducing
investor confidence.
E.g. Unverified green bonds weaken market credibility.
• Weak State Borrowing Capacity: States lack institutional mechanisms to directly access
international climate finance.
E.g. Vulnerable regions struggle attracting global green capital.
• Limited Blended Finance: Public and concessional funds are rarely combined with private
investments for high-risk projects.
E.g. Offshore wind and green hydrogen lack first-loss guarantees.
• Expensive Industrial Decarbonization: Heavy industries require massive long-term capital
with slow financial returns.
E.g. Steel and cement sectors need sustained government support.

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• Weak Climate Risk Assessment: Commercial banks lack robust climate stress-testing
methodologies.
E.g. Floods and extreme weather can significantly increase loan default risks.

Way Forward
• National Climate Finance Taxonomy: Finalize a legally binding framework defining green
investments, preventing greenwashing, and attracting Environmental, Social, and
Governance (ESG) capital.
• Climate-Based Banking Norms: Reserve Bank of India (RBI) should align capital requirements
with climate risks.
• State Climate Finance Facility: Support states through National Bank for Agriculture and
Rural Development (NABARD)-backed financing.
• Expand Sovereign Green Bonds: Include them within Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR)
requirements.
• First-Loss Guarantees: Strengthen blended finance models using public funds to attract
private investment into clean energy projects.

Conclusion:
India’s trillion-dollar climate-finance challenge is a major structural task, but it remains entirely
within the nation's capacity to resolve. While international aid pools like the Baku NCQG remain
insufficient, India can unlock its domestic markets by finalizing a clear legal taxonomy and
introducing smart regulatory incentives through the RBI.

2. The Twin Climate and Energy Crises

Context: United Nations (UN) Secretary-General António Guterres delivered a critical address at
London Climate Action Week, warning that the world is simultaneously confronting twin climate
and energy crises.
• The United Nations (UN) Secretary-General describes today's world as facing twin crises
rooted in fossil fuel dependence: an escalating climate crisis approaching irreversible
ecological tipping points, and an energy crisis driven by West Asia conflicts, exposing the
economic vulnerability of volatile hydrocarbon supply chains and inflationary shocks.

Key Data and Statistics Highlighted by the United Nations (UN)

1. Scale of the Twin Shock
• Historic Temperature Rise: The world has recorded its 11 hottest years, with
temperatures nearing the 1.5°C limit under the Paris Agreement.
• Major Energy Crisis: The International Energy Agency (IEA) compares the current West
Asia energy disruption to the 1970s oil shocks and the Ukraine conflict.
• Windfall Profits: Eight leading fossil fuel companies earned US$6.5 billion in additional
profits during the first quarter of 2026.
2. Methane Emissions and Flaring
• Powerful Greenhouse Gas: Methane causes about one-third of global warming and is 80
times stronger than carbon dioxide (CO₂) over the short term.
• Gas Wastage: Oil and gas operations flared 167 billion cubic metres of natural gas in
2025.
• Weak Response: The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Methane Alert
and Response System issued 5,000+ alerts across 33 countries, but response rates
remained 12%.
3. Artificial Intelligence (AI) Resource Footprint
• Electricity Demand: By 2030, Artificial Intelligence (AI) data centres may consume more
electricity than all but five countries.
• Water Stress: Cooling systems could use freshwater sufficient for 1.3 billion people in
sub-Saharan Africa annually.

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4. Clean Energy Economics
• Falling Costs: Since 2010, solar costs fell 90%, onshore wind 70%, and battery storage
95%.
• Economic Savings: The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) estimates
renewables saved US$480 billion in fossil fuel costs during 2025.
• African Investment Gap: Despite abundant solar resources and critical minerals, Africa
receives only 2% of global clean energy investment, leaving 600 million people without
electricity.

Major Tipping Points & Barriers Identified

• Climate Tipping Points: The United Nations (UN) Scientific Advisory Board warns that rising
temperatures could trigger coral reef collapse, accelerated melting of Greenland and West
Antarctic ice sheets, and weakened ocean circulation, transforming parts of the Amazon
rainforest into savanna ecosystems.
• Transmission Infrastructure: Outdated electricity grids cannot efficiently integrate large-scale
solar and wind power.
• Storage Constraints: Limited grid-scale battery capacity reduces renewable energy reliability.
• Institutional Delays: Lengthy regulatory approvals slow clean energy projects.
• High Financing Costs: Developing countries face significantly higher borrowing costs,
discouraging investments in green infrastructure and accelerating climate transition
challenges.

Proposed Policy Responses & Way Forward

• Tax Windfall Profits: Levy taxes on oil and gas windfall earnings to fund renewable
infrastructure and protect vulnerable households.
• Reduce Methane Emissions: Enforce near-zero methane standards across oil and gas
operations using affordable technologies.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) Transparency: Mandate disclosure of carbon, water, and land
footprints while powering data centres with renewable energy by 2030.
• Deliver Climate Finance: Fulfil pledged US$300 billion and mobilize US$1.3 trillion annually
by 2035.
• Expand Multilateral Development Bank (MDB) Lending: Increase financing through
guarantees, local-currency lending, and debt-for-climate swaps.
• Strengthen Global Cooperation: Convene pre-Conference of the Parties (COP31) dialogues
for a just energy transition.

Conclusion:
Declining renewable energy costs enable cleaner growth. Windfall taxes, methane emission
controls, and stronger Multilateral Development Bank (MDB) financing can accelerate a resilient,
low-carbon global economy while reducing fossil fuel dependence.

3. Electrification emerges as COP31 priority

At the Copenhagen Climate Ministers’ Meeting, Türkiye’s Environment Minister and COP31
President-Designate Murat Kurum called for an aggressive global acceleration in economy-wide
electrification to aggressively replace fossil fuels.

Importance of Electrification as a COP31 Priority

• Reducing Fossil Fuel Volatility: Electrification lowers dependence on unstable oil and gas
markets and geopolitical disruptions.
• Meeting the 35 by 35 Goal: The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
recommends increasing electricity’s share in final energy consumption from 20% to 35% by
2035 to support the 1.5°C target.

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• Decarbonizing End-Use Sectors: Electrification helps transport and buildings shift from fossil
fuels to cleaner technologies.
• Ensuring Policy Continuity: The Troika approach promotes coordinated climate action across
successive summit presidencies.
• Advancing Energy Justice: Expanded electricity access supports clean cooking, modern
technologies, economic development, and improved living standards for vulnerable
populations worldwide.

Challenges to Global Electrification

• Funding Deficits: Massive investments are needed to expand and modernize power grids
worldwide.
• Lack of Global Consensus: Securing a binding United Nations (UN) commitment remains
difficult.
• Grid Constraints: Renewable energy integration requires storage systems and greater grid
flexibility.
• Climate Finance Diversion: Some developed nations are reducing climate-related funding
commitments.
• Socio-Economic Inequities: Developing countries and small island states face challenges in
financing electrification infrastructure and clean-energy transitions without substantial
international support and targeted financial assistance.

Initiatives Taken So Far Around the World

• Australia–European Union Alliance: Coordinates supply chains and policy support for faster
electrification.
• International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) Roadmap: Targets electricity’s share of
energy consumption at 35% by 2035 and over 50% by 2050.
• Strategic Material Reshoring: European initiatives seek critical battery minerals from regional
sources to strengthen energy-storage supply chains and reduce external dependence.

Way Forward
• Codify the 35% Target: Formally adopt the electrification goal in the Antalya decision to
strengthen global commitment.
• Sovereign Wealth Transition Funds: Use fossil-fuel windfall taxes to finance electricity-grid
modernization.
• Pacific Pre-COP Dialogues: Integrate indigenous knowledge and coastal resilience into clean-
energy planning.
• Technology Transfer: Facilitate patent waivers for electric heat pumps and long-duration
battery-storage technologies.
• Cross-Border Grid Integration: Expand High-Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) networks to share
renewable electricity across regions.

Conclusion
• Economy-wide electrification offers a practical pathway for climate action and energy
security. Despite major financing challenges, achieving large-scale grid modernization and
clean-energy deployment remains essential for reducing emissions, strengthening resilience,
and supporting sustainable development worldwide.

4. Climate Change as a Public Health Emergency

The health experts warned that climate change has transitioned from an environmental threat to
a full-blown medical emergency in India.

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• Climate change refers to long-term shifts in
temperatures and weather patterns,
primarily driven by human activities like
burning fossil fuels, which release
greenhouse gases.

Factors Raising Climate Change Concerns

• Urban Heat Island Effect: Concrete
structures trap heat, raising nighttime
temperatures and intensifying urban heat
stress.
• Sanitation Overload: Flooding overwhelms
drainage systems, increasing risks of Cholera
and Typhoid outbreaks.
• Feedback Loops: Air conditioning use raises
emissions, further worsening atmospheric
heat retention.
• Water Scarcity: Droughts push communities toward unsafe water sources, increasing disease
burden.
• Agricultural Disruption: Unseasonal rains and heat stress reduce yields and nutritional
quality, worsening malnutrition.

Implications of the Health Crisis

• Vector-Borne Surge: Climate change expands mosquito habitats, increasing Malaria and Zika
risks.
• Chronic Organ Damage: Fine particulate matter harms cardiovascular health, raising stroke
incidence.
• Maternal and Infant Risks: Heat stress increases preterm births and low birth weight.
• Renal Stress: Prolonged heat exposure contributes to Chronic Kidney Disease among workers.
• Food and Milk Insecurity: Reduced crop yields and livestock productivity worsen nutrition.

Way Ahead
• Climate-Resilient Healthcare: Strengthen hospitals to manage heatwaves, floods, and
climate-linked disease surges.
• Early Warning Systems: Use meteorological data to predict outbreaks and alert vulnerable
populations.
• Urban Greening: Expand cool roofs and green cover to reduce heat stress.
• Clean Energy Transition: Reduce fossil fuel use to break emission-heat cycle.
• Nutritional Safeguards: Promote resilient crops and support dairy systems for food security.

Conclusion:
Climate change is now a public health crisis in India, impacting infant health and spreading
infections. Recognizing it beyond an environmental issue is essential to build resilience against
rising climate threats.

5. Gender, Agriculture, and Climate Change

• Gender-Responsive Agriculture: Recognises unequal climate impacts. In rural India, women
face triple burden: intensive farm labour, unpaid domestic care work, and climate shocks,
while lacking adequate resources, secure land ownership, and decision-making power
compared to men.

The United Nations has designated 2026 as the International Year of the Woman Farmer (IYWF
2026) to recognize their indispensable role in global food security.

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• In alignment, India hosted
the Global Conference on
Women in Agri-Food
Systems (GCWAS–2026) in
New Delhi to drive policy
reforms and celebrate
women's contributions to
agriculture.

The Role of Women in

Agriculture:
• Primary Cultivators:
Women perform labour-
intensive tasks like
sowing, weeding and
harvesting.
E.g. In Chhattisgarh and
Odisha, women lead
transplantation and
processing.
• Livestock Managers: They
support dairy and poultry
income during crop
failures.
E.g. Pashu Sakhis under
Deendayal Antyodaya
Yojana–National Rural
Livelihoods Mission
provide veterinary
services in Rajasthan.
• Seed Guardians and
Biodiversity Experts:
Women conserve indigenous climate-resilient seeds.
E.g. Deccan Development Society maintains seed banks in Telangana.
• Natural Resource Managers: They lead water conservation and forest collection.
E.g. Jeevika Self-Help Groups use drip irrigation in Bihar.
• Extension and Knowledge Disseminators: Women train communities in practices.

Challenges Associated:
• Lack of Legal Recognition: Without land titles, women are not recognised as farmers, limiting
access to schemes like Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN).
E.g. A Landesa study found only 13% women had land documents.
• Digital and Technology Divide: Limited literacy and mobile access restrict use of digital
platforms.
E.g. Only 22% rural women independently access internet services.
• Gendered Drudgery: Farm tools are unsuitable, increasing physical strain and workload.
E.g. Manual paddy weeding remains highly exhausting without small tools.
• Limited Decision-Making Power: Women work extensively but lack control over farm
decisions.
E.g. In Maharashtra, men decide inputs while women handle picking.
• Climate-Induced Migration Stress: Male migration increases women’s unpaid workload and
responsibilities.
E.g. In Bundelkhand, women manage farms and fetch water during droughts.

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Way Ahead:
• Recognize ‘Farmer’ by Activity: Redefine farmer from landowner to tiller for inclusion.
• Climate-Smart Drudgery Reduction: Promote gender-friendly tools via Custom Hiring Centres
(CHCs).
• Hyper-Local Value Addition: Support village processing units for better income opportunities.
• Strengthen Land Rights: Encourage joint titling and reduced stamp duties for women.
• Advanced Financial Products: Provide weather-based insurance and credit to Farmer
Producer Organisations (FPOs).

Conclusion:
Empowering women farmers is an economic necessity. Reducing drudgery and enhancing
decision-making will build resilience, boost productivity, and transform women into agricultural
entrepreneurs and leaders.

6. India’s Focus on AI and Its Environmental Impact

• India is currently at a technological crossroads. While the IndiaAI Mission (2024) and the
development of homegrown models like BharatGen (launched June 2025) aim for digital
sovereignty, the physical infrastructure—data centers—is straining the nation's resources.

Key Data & Facts

• Energy demand: The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector contributes
up to 3.9% of global greenhouse gas emissions. In India, data centre capacity is projected to
reach 2,073 megawatts by 2027, reflecting rapid digital growth.
• Carbon footprint: Training a single large Artificial Intelligence (AI) model can emit over
626,000 pounds of carbon dioxide (CO₂), comparable to the lifetime emissions of multiple
cars.
• Resource intensity: One ChatGPT query consumes nearly ten times more electricity than a
standard Google search.
• India’s status: India has a 59% AI adoption rate, yet half of its data centres are located in
extremely water-stressed regions such as Bengaluru and Mumbai.

How AI Impacts the Environment

• Electricity consumption: AI training and inference demand continuous, high-density power,
often supplied by fossil fuels.
• Water scarcity: Data centre cooling systems consume millions of litres of freshwater,
intensifying urban water crises.
• Electronic waste growth: Rapid obsolescence of Graphics Processing Units (GPUs)
accelerates toxic electronic waste generation.
• Carbon-intensive training: Training Large Language Models (LLMs) significantly increases
indirect (Scope 2) emissions.
• Resource depletion: Semiconductor manufacturing for AI chips requires rare earth minerals
and ultrapure water, stressing local ecosystems.

Challenges to Countering the Environmental Impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI)

• Data opacity: Firms are not legally required to disclose model-wise energy and water use,
masking the true ecological footprint and weakening accountability.
• Infrastructure–cooling paradox: In India’s hot climate, cooling high-performance Graphics
Processing Units (GPUs) consumes power comparable to computing itself, multiplying
electricity and water demand.
• Regulatory gaps: The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) framework targets physical
industries, allowing cloud-based AI facilities to bypass environmental clearance.

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• Electronic waste challenge: Rapid obsolescence of AI chips and weak recycling infrastructure
push toxic hardware into informal scrapyards.
• Energy-grid dependency: AI data centres require 24×7 power, but reliance on coal and diesel
undermines renewable-based sustainability claims.

Way Forward
Global Context
• Legislative action: The United States Artificial Intelligence Environmental Impacts Act
(2024) and the European Union Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD)
mandate disclosure of energy and water use by technology firms.
• UNESCO guidance: Over 190 countries have adopted United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) ethics highlighting Artificial Intelligence
(AI)’s environmental impacts.
India’s Strategy
• Regulatory expansion: Amend the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification,
2006 to cover large data centres.
• Disclosure norms: Mandate Carbon Usage Effectiveness (CUE) and Power Usage
Effectiveness (PUE) reporting through regulators.
• Green transition: Promote Green AI over resource-intensive Red AI, backed by renewable
integration.

Conclusion
India must regulate AI as a resource-intensive industry. Embedding environmental audits within
the IndiaAI Mission can position India as a global leader in sustainable innovation, ensuring
Green AI supports growth without degrading vital natural resources.

7. India’s Climate Ambitions

• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) are each country’s self-defined climate
commitments under the Paris Agreement, updated every five years (Article 4).
• They include targets for emissions reduction, renewable energy, adaptation, climate finance
and technology deployment.

India’s Current NDC Targets:

• Reduce Emissions Intensity by 45% (2005–2030): India commits to lowering CO₂ emissions
per unit of GDP by almost half, signalling a shift toward cleaner production while sustaining
economic growth.
• 50% Non-Fossil Installed Capacity by 2030: India aims to ensure half of its total power
capacity comes from solar, wind, hydro, nuclear and biomass, contingent on affordable global
finance and technology transfer.
• Additional 2.5–3 Bt CO₂ Carbon Sink: Through large-scale afforestation and agroforestry, India
plans to expand forest/tree cover to naturally sequester emissions by 2030.
• Promote LIFE Movement: India pledges to mainstream sustainable lifestyles through
behavioural change campaigns encouraging low-carbon consumption and resource-efficient
habits.
• Strengthen Adaptation in Vulnerable Sectors: Investments will be scaled in agriculture,
water, coastal systems, Himalayan ecology, health and disaster management to reduce
climate risks.
• Mobilise Climate Finance & Technology: India seeks both domestic funds and international
support to expand renewable energy, adaptation systems, and indigenous research in climate
technologies.

Performance of India’s Climate Ambitions:

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• Non-Fossil Capacity Crossed 50% (June 2025): India achieved its 2030 target ahead of
time, indicating rapid renewable expansion and strong policy momentum.
• Renewables Hit 51.5% Daily Share (July 2025): For the first time, more than half of India’s
electricity demand was met from renewables in a single day, marking a milestone in grid
integration.
• Emission Intensity Reduced by 36%: Steady efficiency gains and renewable uptake have
sharply lowered carbon intensity, placing India ahead of its projected 2030 trajectory.
• Global Renewable Ranking: India now ranks 4th globally in total renewables, 3rd in solar,
and 4th in wind, reflecting its emergence as a clean-energy powerhouse.
• Rapid Electrification Trends: Railways and urban mobility are shifting to electric systems,
reducing oil dependence and creating structural emission reductions.

Challenges Associated with Climate Ambition:

• Absolute Emissions Still Rising: Despite efficiency gains, rapid GDP growth means total
emissions will peak only around 2035, delaying net-emission decline.
• Persistent Coal Dependence: Coal remains critical for grid stability, making rapid phase-down
difficult without viable alternatives or CCS solutions.
• $62 Billion Annual Investment Need: India requires sustained high-level investment through
2035 for renewables, storage, and grid upgrades, straining fiscal space.
• Technology & Storage Gaps: India lacks commercially scalable long-duration storage, green
hydrogen systems, and CCS needed for deep decarbonisation.
• Inadequate Climate Finance: Global commitments fall short, forcing developing countries like
India to self-finance major parts of the transition.
• Just Transition Pressures: Coal-heavy states must retrain workers, diversify economies, and
ensure welfare as fossil fuel employment declines post-2040.
• Adaptation Lag vs. Climate Risks: Heatwaves, urban pollution and extreme weather are rising
faster than India’s health, water and urban adaptation capacities.

Way Ahead:
• Announce a Peak-Emission Year (~2035): Formally identifying the emissions peak will bolster
India’s credibility and align national planning with the 2070 net-zero roadmap.
• Target 80% Non-Fossil Capacity by 2035: Scaling solar, wind and storage to ~170 GW will
allow clean electricity to dominate supply and meet rising demand reliably.
• Phase Down Unabated Coal Post-2030: Stopping new coal plants after 2030 and retiring older
units gradually aligns emissions with India’s long-term climate objectives.
• Accelerate Electrification of Transport: Electrifying railways, buses and three-wheelers will
cut oil imports and urban pollution while supporting clean mobility ecosystems.
• Strengthen Carbon Credit Trading Scheme: CCTS must evolve with tighter norms and wider
sector coverage to become a credible market tool for emission reductions.
• Reform Electricity Pricing: Time-of-day tariffs and market-based trading will allow flexible
pricing, supporting variability in renewable-dominated grids.
• Revive PM’s Council on Climate Change: A centralised apex body can coordinate federal
action, monitor progress, and dynamically refine the national transition strategy.

Conclusion:
India has made early gains in renewables and efficiency, but the next phase needs deeper reforms
and sharper targets. A credible, well-financed 2035 transition plan is essential to sustain global
trust amid a warming climate. Clear timelines, strong investment and coordinated institutions will
decide whether India can achieve a just and ambitious path to net-zero.

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8. Global Cooling Watch 2025 Report
Context: The UNEP launched the Global Cooling Watch 2025 report at COP30 in Belém, Brazil,
warning that global cooling demand could triple by 2050 under a business-as-usual scenario,
potentially doubling emissions and straining power systems.

About Global Cooling Watch 2025 Report:

• The Global Cooling Watch 2025 is UNEP’s second global assessment on the environmental,
economic, and equity dimensions of cooling, providing the scientific foundation for the Global
Cooling Pledge.
• Published by: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) at COP30 (2025).
• Aim: To analyse global cooling trends, project future emissions, and propose a “Sustainable
Cooling Pathway” to achieve near-zero emissions while ensuring equitable access to cooling
worldwide

Key Trends Identified:

• Rising Cooling Demand: Global cooling capacity is projected to rise 2.6 times (22 TW → 58
TW) by 2050, driven by rapid urbanization, income growth, and intensifying heatwaves,
particularly in developing nations.
• Emission Surge: Without strong policy intervention, cooling-related GHG emissions may
reach 10.5 billion tons of CO₂e by 2050, nearly double 2022 levels, threatening to offset gains
from other climate actions.
• Developing Country Growth: Cooling demand in Article 5 countries (developing nations) is
set to increase fourfold, highlighting a widening divide in energy use and infrastructure
readiness between rich and poor economies.
• Energy Consumption: Global electricity use for cooling may rise from 5,000 TWh (2022) to
18,000 TWh (2050), straining power grids and escalating peak load demands, especially in
tropical regions.
• Heat Inequality: Over 2 billion people in low-income households remain vulnerable to
extreme heat exposure due to lack of access to affordable, efficient cooling technologies.
• Passive Cooling Potential: Integrating passive cooling design—like reflective roofing and
urban greening—can lower indoor temperatures by up to 8°C and cut energy use by 15–55%,
offering scalable climate adaptation.
• HFC Transition: Phasing down high-global-warming refrigerants (HFCs) and adopting low-
GWP alternatives could eliminate up to 0.4°C of projected global warming this century.
• Global Cooling Pledge Progress: So far, 72 nations and 80 organizations have joined the
Global Cooling Pledge, collectively aiming for a 68% emission reduction in the cooling sector
by 2050.

Successes:
• Strengthened global collaboration through the Global Cooling Pledge, harmonizing standards
and accelerating knowledge sharing among nations.
• Mainstreaming of passive cooling measures in building codes and urban policies, especially in
Asia and Africa.
• Rapid technological progress in hybrid and low-energy cooling systems, improving energy
efficiency by up to 50%.
• Enhanced private sector participation in manufacturing and financing sustainable cooling
technologies.
• Emerging Tiered Access Frameworks are improving cooling equity and resilience for low-
income and heat-vulnerable populations.

Limitations:
• Persistent inequality in cooling access, with millions in tropical developing regions still
unprotected from lethal heat exposure.

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• Insufficient adaptation finance, as current funding meets less than 20% of global cooling
resilience needs.
• Policy fragmentation across sectors—energy, housing, and environment—hampers unified
cooling governance.
• Delayed HFC phase-down and poor refrigerant disposal continue to drive high direct
emissions.
• Dependence on fossil-based electricity undermines gains from efficiency and refrigerant
transition efforts.

UNEP Recommendations:
• Adopt a Sustainable Cooling Pathway combining passive design, efficient appliances, and
rapid clean energy integration.
• Accelerate refrigerant phase-down through Kigali Amendment implementation and enforce
full lifecycle refrigerant recovery.
• Mobilize green finance via concessional lending, PPPs, and climate bonds to expand access to
sustainable cooling.
• Mandate passive cooling standards in national building and urban planning regulations.
• Ensure equitable access by subsidizing efficient cooling for vulnerable communities and heat-
stressed regions.

Conclusion:
The Global Cooling Watch 2025 underscores that unchecked cooling demand could derail global
climate goals. A coordinated shift toward efficient, equitable, and low-emission cooling is
essential. If implemented urgently, UNEP’s pathway could cut 97% of future emissions and secure
a climate-safe, heat-resilient future.

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Biodiversity
9. India Can Save Its Forests By Winning The War On Poverty
Context: A breakthrough international study
published in the journal Nature Sustainability has
challenged the traditional fortress conservation
model by establishing a direct link between poverty
alleviation and forest biodiversity.
• Researchers analyzed 322 community-managed
tropical forests across 15 countries using
International Forestry Resources and
Institutions (IFRI) data (1993–2017), revealing
how livelihood changes influence tree species
diversity, ecological stability, and long-term
forest resilience.

Positive Indicators: Community-Led Conservation

Successes
• Hornbill Nest Adoption Program (Arunachal
Pradesh): Former hunters became nest
protectors, safeguarding hornbill habitats.
• Mangrove Co-Management (Maharashtra): Communities conserve mangroves while
promoting sustainable livelihoods.
• Snow Leopard Conservancy (Ladakh): Homestays and livestock insurance reduce human-
wildlife conflict.
• Clean Energy Distribution: Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) connections, efficient stoves, and
heaters reduce dependence on forest fuelwood around tiger reserves.

Key Challenges in Co-Managed Forestry

• Funding Constraints: Irregular funding disrupts long-term livelihood and conservation
programmes.
• Uneven Community Participation: Socio-economic differences influence adoption of
alternative livelihoods.
• Unequal Tourism Benefits: Wildlife tourism revenues rarely reach forest-dependent
communities.
• Limited Traditional Knowledge Integration: Conservation policies often overlook indigenous
ecological knowledge, reducing opportunities to strengthen scientific forest management and
sustainable biodiversity conservation.

Way Forward
• Expand Clean Energy Subsidies: Extend Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and solar support
across wildlife corridors.
• Share Tourism Revenue: Mandate eco-tourism funds for forest community development.
• Inclusive Forest Governance: Empower communities with harvesting rights and management
roles.
• Scale Community Enterprises: Replicate successful homestays, aquaculture, and village-led
conservation models nationwide to strengthen sustainable livelihoods and biodiversity
conservation.

Conclusion:
The findings of the Nature Sustainability study demonstrate that the war on poverty and the fight
for biodiversity conservation are two sides of the same coin. Relying on rigid, exclusionary fortress

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models is no longer sustainable in a human-dominated landscape where 275 million people
depend on forest resources.

10. The power of mangroves over seawalls

Context: The landfall of Cyclone Dana near
Bhitarkanika on Odisha’s coast has highlighted
the powerful protective role of coastal
mangroves over expensive, engineered
infrastructure.
• Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) uses
biodiversity and natural ecosystems,
including mangroves, seagrasses, and coral
reefs, to strengthen climate resilience,
offering sustainable alternatives to
conventional engineered grey infrastructure.

Challenges Associated with India’s Coastal

Adaptation Policy
• Risk Displacement: Hard infrastructure shifts
wave energy, worsening erosion in nearby
coasts.
• Policy Ambiguity: Overlapping terms like
Nature-based Solutions (NbS), Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR), and
Ecosystem-based Climate Adaptation (EbCA) create confusion.
• Hidden Adaptation Measures: Climate actions remain embedded within broader
development schemes.
• Fragmented Governance: Divided institutional responsibilities weaken monitoring and
implementation.
• Weak Climate Framing: Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes
(MISHTI) emphasizes conservation over climate adaptation.

Way Forward
• National Coastal Taxonomy: Establish clear legal definitions for Ecosystem-based Adaptation
(EbA) projects.
• Nature-Based Planning: Integrate mangroves and seagrasses into coastal disaster
management strategies.
• Green Infrastructure Funding: Prioritize ecosystem restoration over costly seawalls.
• Community-Led Protection: Expand Sundarbans-style restoration through Self-Help Groups
(SHGs) and women’s cooperatives.
• Global Adaptation Alignment: Strengthen monitoring systems to measure ecosystem
benefits and improve access to international climate finance.

Conclusion:
India’s heavy reliance on rigid, concrete seawalls provides temporary relief but ultimately shifts
and worsens long-term erosion risks along its fragile coastline. The proven success of mangrove
systems during intense cyclones demonstrates that investing in natural capital is both
economically sound and socially equitable.

11. Sand and Sustainability: An Essential Resource for Nature and

Development Report
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) released a landmark report titled Sand and
Sustainability: An Essential Resource for Nature and Development.

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• Sand mining involves extracting sand
from riverbeds, beaches, and seabeds
for construction, land reclamation,
and manufacturing. Sand is the most
extracted solid material globally and
the second-most consumed resource
after water.

Reasons for Rising Sand Mining

• Rapid Urbanization: Expanding cities
increase demand for concrete, glass,
and transport infrastructure.
E.g. Land reclamation projects
require enormous quantities of
dredged sand.
• Infrastructure Development: Housing
and transport projects consume large
volumes of aggregates.
E.g. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana
(PMAY) and highway expansion
increase river-sand demand.
• Population Growth: Rising populations require more homes, schools, and hospitals.
E.g. Urban expansion in developing countries accelerates sand consumption.
• Climate Adaptation: Sand is used for coastal protection and land elevation.
E.g. Island-building projects create climate-resilient settlements.
• Technological Demand: High-purity sand is essential for advanced industries.
E.g. Semiconductor manufacturing, solar panels, and data centres depend on industrial-
grade sand.

Impacts on the Ecology

• Riverine Degradation: Excessive sand mining lowers riverbeds, causing bank erosion,
infrastructure instability, and altered river flows.
E.g. Deepened channels in the Chambal River increase downstream flood risks.
• Groundwater Depletion: Sand removal reduces natural water storage and lowers
groundwater tables.
E.g. Wells and hand pumps often dry up near mining sites.
• Biodiversity Loss: Dredging destroys habitats of fish, crustaceans, and microorganisms.
E.g. Mining within Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) damages coral reef ecosystems.
• Saline Water Intrusion: Coastal sand extraction allows seawater to enter freshwater aquifers.
E.g. Communities face saline drinking water supplies.
• Health Risks: Silica dust and stagnant pits threaten human health.
E.g. Workers face silicosis, while pits promote malaria transmission.

Recommendations and Way Ahead

• Strategic Resource Status: Recognize sand as a critical strategic resource requiring sustainable
management.
• Manufactured Sand (M-Sand): Promote crushed rock and recycled construction waste as
alternatives to river sand.
• Strengthening Governance: Mandate Cumulative Impact Assessments (CIA) for large
dredging and extraction projects.
• No-Go Zones: Prohibit mining in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and ecologically sensitive
river stretches.

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• Transboundary Cooperation: Develop international frameworks for shared river basins and
offshore resources.

Conclusion
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) warns that unsustainable sand extraction
threatens ecosystems and climate resilience. A circular economy based on recycling and M-Sand
is essential for balancing development with environmental protection.

12. Managing Coexistence in Human-Animal Conflict Zones

• Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) refers to
negative interactions between humans and wild
animals, causing harm to both. Consequences
include human deaths, livestock losses, and
crop damage, alongside retaliatory killings,
habitat destruction, and wildlife mortality.
Recent incidents highlight its growing severity,
with significant human and wildlife casualties
reported across India.

Reasons for Rise in Human-Animal Conflict

• Habitat Fragmentation: Roads, mines, and
other projects divide forests, forcing wildlife
into human-dominated areas.
E.g. Infrastructure expansion in the
Western Ghats has disrupted elephant
corridors.
• Agricultural Expansion: Farms extending into forest fringes attract wildlife seeking food.
E.g. Leopards increasingly occupy sugarcane fields near settlements.
• Climate Variability: Droughts and rising temperatures reduce natural food and water sources.
E.g. Elephants move into croplands during dry seasons.
• Ecological Imbalance: Invasive species and wildfires reduce natural forage availability.
E.g. Invasive weeds in Bandipur push herbivores toward farmlands.
• Behavioral Shifts: Certain deterrence methods can increase animal stress and accidents.
E.g. Panic-driven movements may result in higher elephant mortality.

Challenges in Managing Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) Zones

• Delayed Compensation: Lengthy procedures and documentation slow relief to affected
communities.
E.g. Remote households struggle to access compensation for crop losses.
• Technological Limitations: Early-warning systems face connectivity and scalability constraints.
E.g. Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking is effective but difficult to expand widely.
• Unsystematic Responses: Poorly trained groups may worsen conflict situations.
E.g. Disorganized crowd-chasing can provoke animal attacks.
• Habitat Quality Degradation: Invasive species reduce food availability within protected areas.
E.g. Lantana camara lowers herbivore-carrying capacity in reserves.
• Social Hostility: Repeated losses weaken community support for conservation.
E.g. Livestock predation may trigger poisoning and illegal trapping incidents.

Way Ahead
• Landscape Connectivity: Protect and restore wildlife corridors for safe animal movement.
• Community-Based Management: Involve local communities and share conservation benefits.
• Rapid Compensation: Digitize claims to ensure timely financial assistance.
• Habitat Restoration: Remove invasive species and restore degraded grasslands.

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• Smart Infrastructure: Incorporate eco-bridges and underpasses in forest-area projects.

Conclusion
Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) requires scientific, equitable, and sustainable management.
Strengthening habitat quality, connectivity, and community participation can promote long-term
coexistence while improving human safety and wildlife conservation outcomes.

13. Wildlife Conservation

The world observed World Wildlife Day on 3 March 2026 under the theme “Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants: Conserving Health, Heritage and Livelihoods.”

About Wildlife Conservation:

• Definition: Protection of wild plants, animals, and habitats to maintain ecosystem balance
and ecological stability.
• Objective: Prevent species extinction and conserve biodiversity for future generations.
• Approach: Integrates law enforcement, scientific research, habitat restoration, and
community participation for sustainable conservation outcomes.

Types of Conservation Methods:

1. In-Situ Conservation (On-site)
Protecting species within their natural habitats where they have evolved.
• National Parks & Sanctuaries: Areas with strict protection for flora and fauna (e.g.,
Corbett, Kaziranga).
• Biosphere Reserves: Large areas for ecosystem conservation and sustainable
development (e.g., Nilgiri).
• MPCDAs: Medicinal Plants Conservation and Development Areas specifically
designated for medicinal flora.

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• Sacred Groves: Community-protected forest fragments based on religious and
cultural beliefs.

2. Ex-Situ Conservation (Off-site)

Protecting species outside their natural habitats in controlled environments.
• Gene Banks: Long-term preservation of genetic material (e.g., National Seed Gene
Bank at NBPGR).
• Botanical Gardens & Zoos: Providing breeding grounds and educational displays for
rare species.
• Cryopreservation: Storage of seeds, pollen, or embryos at ultra-low temperatures to
maintain viability.
• Herbal Gardens: Institutional or school gardens (e.g., Aushadhi Vantika) used for
awareness and local supply.

Challenges Associated:
• Overexploitation of Wild Stocks: High demand causes unsustainable harvesting of rare
medicinal species.
E.g. Himalayan Trillium depletion due to illegal extraction.
• Habitat Fragmentation: Development reduces natural corridors and biodiversity.
E.g. Western Ghats saw loss of endemic aromatic plants.
• Inadequate Standardisation: Lack of quality certification limits global market access.
E.g. Export rejections due to poor Good Agricultural and Collection Practices compliance.
• Climate Change Vulnerability: Changing climate affects plant potency and cycles.
E.g. Kashmir saffron yields impacted by erratic weather patterns affecting farmers’ livelihoods
significantly.

Way Ahead:
• Mainstreaming Cultivation: Shift from wild collection to controlled farming to protect forests.
• Blockchain in Supply Chain: Ensure traceability and ethical sourcing through digital platforms.
• Research and Development in Bio-Prospecting: Explore pharmaceutical potential of
medicinal species.
• Community-Led Conservation: Strengthen Biodiversity Management Committees for
protection and benefit-sharing.

Conclusion:
Integrating technology, research, and community participation, India can conserve medicinal
plants while enhancing economic potential, ensuring sustainable development and long-term
ecological and healthcare security for future generations.

14. India has submitted its 7th National Report to the Convention on Biological
Diversity
India has officially submitted its 7th National Report (NR7) to the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD), marking the first comprehensive assessment since the 2022 Kunming-Montreal
Global Biodiversity Framework.

• The NR7 is a mandatory report under the Convention on Biological Diversity tracking 23
global targets for 2030.
• Coordinated by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and National
Biodiversity Authority using 142 indicators nationally comprehensively.

Key Achievements:
According to the report, India has shown robust progress in planning and specific ecological
recoveries:

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• Policy Alignment: India has successfully updated its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan (NBSAP) to fully align with global 2030 goals.
• Land-Use Planning (NBT1): This target is officially on track, with forest and tree cover
reaching 25.17% of India's total geographical area.
• Ecosystem Restoration (NBT2): Also on track, India has restored or put under restoration
24.1 million hectares of land, nearing its 26-million-hectare Bonn Challenge pledge.
• Flagship Species Recovery: The tiger population has reached 3,167, alongside increases in
Asiatic lions and stable one-horned rhino populations.
• Carbon Sequestration: Forest carbon stock increased by 81.5 million tonnes, showcasing the
role of biodiversity in climate mitigation.
• Wetland Management: National-level inventories of wetlands are complete, providing a
baseline for the conservation of Ramsar sites and local water bodies.
• Digital Governance: The launch of PARIVESH 2.0 has streamlined environmental clearances,
integrating biodiversity data into infrastructure planning.

Challenges Associated:
• Persistent Land Degradation: Nearly one-third land remains degraded despite restoration
initiatives nationwide.
E.g. Rajasthan and Gujarat continue facing desertification despite afforestation programs.
• Data Gaps for Non-Flagship Species: Lack of data on insects, fungi, and small mammals
persists.
E.g. Tiger counts exist, but Great Indian Bustard trends lack standard data.
• Conservation Coverage Gaps: Protected Areas cover only five percent, below global targets
significantly.
E.g. Andaman and Nicobar expansion faces development and security challenges.
• Invasive Species and Pollution: Monitoring of invasive species and runoff remains
unstandardized nationally.
E.g. Lantana camara spreads in Bandipur without a national eradication map.
• Climate Change Pressures: Extreme events increasingly reverse conservation gains across
ecosystems.
E.g. Fires in Odisha and Uttarakhand destroy restored habitats frequently.

Way Ahead:
• Mainstreaming Biodiversity: Integrate biodiversity goals into Agriculture and Urban
Development budgets effectively.
• Strengthening Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures: Expand community
forests to achieve thirty percent conservation coverage target nationally.
• Standardizing Data: Create a unified digital system tracking all biodiversity indicators in real
time.
• Incentivizing Agroforestry: Promote Trees Outside Forests initiative to reconnect fragmented
habitats efficiently nationwide.
• Community-Led Conservation: Empower Biodiversity Management Committees to document
and conserve traditional ecological knowledge locally.

Conclusion:
India has strong biodiversity policies, but slow implementation persists; achieving 2030 targets
requires bridging restoration gaps, preventing new degradation, strengthening data systems,
and expanding inclusive, community-driven conservation efforts nationwide.

15. Blur Over India’s Carbon Credit Plan: CCUS vs Carbon Farming Debate
• The Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) initiative specifically targets hard-to-
abate industries where emissions are concentrated and technically difficult to eliminate

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through renewable energy alone. The primary sectors identified for the large-scale
deployment of these technologies include:
o Power and Refineries.
o Steel and Cement.
o Chemicals.

Why Agriculture is Not Included in CCUS?

• Diffuse Emission Sources: Unlike industrial point-source emissions from factory flues,
agricultural emissions are spread across vast landscapes.
• Biological Mediation: Emissions in agriculture (primarily methane and nitrous oxide) are
biologically mediated, making them unsuitable for mechanical capture technology.
• Technological Mismatch: CCUS is defined by capturing CO2 from concentrated gas streams,
whereas agricultural solutions focus on drawing down existing atmospheric CO2.
• Strategic Distinction: The DST roadmap draws a clear line between preventing new industrial
emissions (CCUS) and Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) through nature-based solutions like soil
sequestration.

Key Opportunities:
• Industrial Decarbonization: CCUS provides a critical pillar for cleaning sectors responsible for
a quarter of India’s emissions.
E.g. ₹20,000 crore investment captures carbon dioxide from factories.
• New Rural Income Streams: Creating a trusted domestic carbon market benefits farmers
significantly.
E.g. Farmers earn credits through regenerative practices turning farms climate solutions.
• Enhanced Soil Carbon Sequestration: Vast agricultural lands act as carbon sinks.
E.g. Agroforestry and biochar draw down atmospheric carbon dioxide.
• Growth of Voluntary Carbon Markets: Rising demand supports nature-based credits.
E.g. Private initiatives compensate farmers enhancing soil organic carbon.
• Climate Resilient Farming: Carbon-friendly practices improve long-term soil health.

Challenges Associated:
• Communication Gaps: Use of the term carbon credit blurs industrial and agricultural
concepts, causing confusion among stakeholders.
E.g. Public expects farmer funding though allocation targets heavy industry decarbonization.
• High Implementation Costs: Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) is capital-
intensive and technology-driven.
E.g. ₹20,000 crore investment over five years enables initial large-scale industrial deployment.
• Monitoring and Verification: Agricultural emissions are harder to measure than industrial
sources.
E.g. Soil carbon accounting needs robust institutional mechanisms for credibility.
• Policy Conflation: Frameworks fail to separate emission prevention and atmospheric carbon
dioxide removal strategies.
E.g. Carbon farming requires distinct policies and funding beyond CCUS initiatives.
• Managing Stakeholder Expectations: Misinterpretation may lead to farmer dissatisfaction
regarding benefits.
E.g. Government must clarify industrial focus of current financial allocation clearly.

Way Ahead:
• Clear Policy Demarcation: Separate industrial and agricultural initiatives to manage
expectations effectively.
• Dedicated Carbon Farming Framework: Establish funded systems for agricultural carbon
sequestration nationwide.

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• Strengthen Communication: Use precise terms distinguishing Carbon Capture, Utilization and
Storage (CCUS) and markets.
• Scale Industrial Deployment: Implement Department of Science and Technology (DST)
roadmap in sectors.
• Promote Multi-Sectoral Ambition: Advance both sectors for a balanced climate strategy.

Conclusion:
India must align industrial Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) investments with
agricultural carbon initiatives, ensuring clear policies, balanced funding, and integrated strategies
to achieve sustainable and inclusive climate goals.

16. Wetlands as a National Public Good

India celebrated World Wetlands Day with the theme Wetlands and traditional knowledge,
notably adding two new Ramsar sites—Patna Bird Sanctuary (UP) and Chhari-Dhand (Gujarat)—
bringing the national total to 98.

About Wetlands as a National Public Good:

• Wetlands are land areas saturated or flooded with water, either permanently or seasonally.
They act as national public goods because they provide essential services—like flood control
and water purification—that benefit the entire community and cannot be easily restricted to
private owners.

Key Characteristics of Wetlands:

• Hydrology: Presence of water at or near the soil surface for at least part of the year.
• Hydric Soils: Soils developed under anaerobic (low oxygen) conditions due to prolonged
saturation.
• Hydrophytes: Specialized vegetation, such as mangroves or reeds, adapted to grow in water-
logged soil.
• Ecotone Status: They serve as transition zones (buffer areas) between dry land and deep-
water aquatic systems.

Threats and Challenges

• Urban Encroachment: Rapid
real estate expansion leads to
wetland filling for
construction, shrinking
natural flood buffers and
biodiversity habitats.
E.g. Pallikaranai Marsh
(Chennai) has declined due to
high-rise townships and
infrastructure projects.
• Pollution and Dumping:
Wetlands are misused for
solid waste and sewage
disposal, degrading water
quality and aquatic life.
E.g. Ashtamudi Lake (Kerala) witnessed fish deaths in 2025 from industrial effluents and
organic waste dumping.
• Hydrological Disruption: Dams and sand mining obstruct natural water inflows, altering
ecological balance.
E.g. Harike Wetland (Punjab) shrank as paddy cultivation expanded.
• Invasive Species: Non-native plants reduce biodiversity and water storage capacity.

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E.g. Water Hyacinth dominates Loktak Lake (Manipur).
• Climate Change: Sea-level rise and increasing salinity endanger coastal and high-altitude
wetlands.
E.g. Sundarbans (West Bengal) faces accelerating mangrove loss.

Way Forward
• Notification and Demarcation: Legally notify wetland boundaries and publish maps to curb
illegal conversion.
• Watershed-Scale Governance: Manage wetlands within entire river basins, not isolated
projects.
• Capacity Building: Launch a national mission training managers in Geographic Information
Systems, hydrology, and community restoration.
• Mainstreaming Traditional Knowledge: Integrate indigenous systems like Kenis of Wayanad
into planning.
• Nature-Based Infrastructure: Embed wetlands in Smart City designs as flood buffers.

Conclusion
Wetlands ensure water security and climate resilience through ecological functionality and shared
stewardship.

17. Illegal Mining Crisis

A massive explosion at an illegal rat-hole coal mine in Meghalaya's East Jaintia Hills killed at least
18 labourers, reigniting the national debate over the persistence of banned mining practices and
lack of enforcement.

About Illegal Mining Crisis

• Illegal mining involves extraction without valid licenses, environmental clearances, or despite
bans. In Meghalaya, it mainly occurs as rat-hole mining, where narrow horizontal tunnels or
vertical pits are dug unsafely.
• Despite the 2014 ban by the National Green Tribunal and Supreme Court support, high-value
low-ash coal sustains this hazardous practice.

Implications of Illegal Mining in India

• Loss of Human Life: Absence of ventilation and structural safeguards causes collapses and
toxic explosions.
E.g. The Thangsku blast killed 18 workers due to unsafe dynamite use in rat-hole mines.
• Severe Environmental Degradation: Acid mine drainage contaminates rivers and destroys
aquatic ecosystems.
E.g. The Kopili River in Meghalaya and Assam turned highly acidic, eliminating aquatic life.
• Revenue Leakage: Evasion of royalties and taxes weakens public finances.
E.g. A 2025 Comptroller and Auditor General report in Uttar Pradesh flagged massive losses.
• Funding Organized Crime: Coal mafias exploit profits to sustain criminal networks.
E.g. Activist Agnes Kharshiing faced attacks for exposing illegal coal transport.
• Ecological Destabilization: Unscientific extraction triggers subsidence and deforestation.
E.g. Land sinking in Jharia, Jharkhand, collapsed houses.

Challenges in Controlling Illegal Mining

• Politico-Criminal Nexus: Influential mine owners backed by politicians weaken enforcement
and ignore oversight mechanisms.
E.g. The High Court-appointed Katakey Committee reported repeated executive inaction in
Meghalaya.

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• Difficult Terrain and Remote Locations: Forested hills obstruct drone and satellite
monitoring, delaying emergency response.
E.g. The Thangsku blast site’s remoteness slowed National Disaster Response Force
deployment.
• Socio-Economic Dependence: Limited livelihoods compel communities to rely on coal income
despite bans.
E.g. Families in East Jaintia Hills continue illegal mining for higher wages.
• Ineffective Technological Adoption: Mining Surveillance System alerts lack timely ground
verification and prosecution.
E.g. Right to Information records showed zero convictions despite multiple triggers.
• Legal Ambiguity and Grandfathering: Disputes over pre-ban coal enable fresh extraction to
be misrepresented as old stock.
E.g. Meghalaya High Court hearings highlighted misuse claims.

Way Ahead
• Satellite-to-Action Mandate: Legally mandate action on Mining Surveillance System alerts
within forty-eight hours, with departmental accountability for negligence.
• Scientific Mining Policy: Transition toward regulated, safety-compliant mining aligned with
Supreme Court directives and environmental norms.
• Alternative Livelihoods: Strengthen Meghalaya’s Bioeconomy (2024–2026) and eco-tourism
to reduce dependence on illegal coal income.
• Internet of Things and Smart Sensors: Install Smart Weighbridges and Global Positioning
System tracking to ensure coal moves only with digital transit permits.
• Special Environmental Courts: Establish fast-track courts for swift prosecution of mining
violations.

Conclusion
Prevent tragedies through technology-driven enforcement, institutional accountability, and
sustainable, scientific mining reforms.

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18. India’s progress on its climate targets
Context: Recent analyses and commentaries have reviewed India’s performance on its Paris
climate commitments, noting that while emissions intensity reduction and renewable capacity
targets are largely on track, absolute emissions and coal dependence remain key concerns for the
coming decade.

About India’s progress on its climate targets:

• India’s climate targets arise from its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the
UNFCCC, guided by the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR). These
targets aim to balance development needs with climate mitigation and adaptation.

India’s key climate targets

• Emissions intensity reduction: Reduce emissions intensity of GDP by 33–35% by 2030 from
the 2005 level (updated to 45% by 2030 in the 2022 NDC).
• Non-fossil power capacity: Achieve 40% (now 50%) of installed power capacity from non-
fossil sources by 2030.
• Renewable energy expansion: Initially 175 GW by 2022, later scaled to 500 GW by 2030.
• Forest carbon sink: Create an additional 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO₂-equivalent carbon sink
through forests and tree cover by 2030.
• Long-term goal: Achieve net-zero emissions by 2070.

Roadblocks to Achieving Climate Targets

• Rising absolute emissions: Despite a 33% reduction in emissions intensity, India’s total
emissions rose to about 3.35 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e) due to surging
electricity demand.
• Coal lock-in: Coal-based power remains central, with large installed capacity and planned
additions risking long-term carbon dependence.
• Storage and grid gaps: Rapid solar growth is constrained by weak Battery Energy Storage
Systems (BESS) and delayed transmission infrastructure.
• Forest governance issues: Poor utilisation of Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management
and Planning Authority (CAMPA) funds and plantation-centric afforestation weaken carbon
sinks.

Way Ahead: Strategic Pillars

• Energy storage and grids: Implement the National Electricity Transmission Plan to integrate
500 gigawatts (GW) of non-fossil capacity, supported by Viability Gap Funding (VGF) for
storage.
• Coal transition: Retire inefficient plants and repurpose old coal mines for solar and pumped
storage to ensure a just transition.
• Industrial decarbonisation: Use the National Green Hydrogen Mission to cut emissions in
steel, fertilisers, and refining, supported by Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen
Transition (SIGHT) incentives.
• Carbon and forest reforms: Operationalise the Indian Carbon Market and shift CAMPA
toward Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) for resilient carbon sinks.

Conclusion
India has met key climate commitments, but absolute emissions, coal reliance, and weak storage
and forest governance remain challenges. The coming decade is decisive to convert policy targets
into lasting emissions reduction and ecological resilience.

19. Grasslands and Climate Change 2026

Context: Recent climate negotiations continue to prioritise forests, prompting debate on why
grasslands must be integrated into national climate plans and NDCs.

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What are grasslands?
• Grasslands are open ecosystems dominated by grasses, with few or no trees, found across
savannahs, steppes, prairies, and rangelands.
• They cover ~40% of Earth’s land surface and support pastoral livelihoods, wildlife, and soil-
based carbon storage.

Why Grasslands Matter in Climate Action

• Stable carbon sinks: Nearly 90% of grassland carbon is stored underground in deep root
systems, making it more secure than above-ground forest biomass. This below-soil
sequestration is resilient to logging and storms, ensuring long-term carbon storage.
• Fire resilience: Grassland fires usually burn surface biomass while soil carbon remains intact,
enabling rapid ecological recovery and maintaining carbon permanence.
• Climate cooling (albedo effect): Grasslands reflect more solar radiation than dense forest
canopies, reducing local heat absorption, especially in semi-arid regions.
• Hydrological regulation: Dense root networks act like natural sponges, enhancing
groundwater recharge and buffering both droughts and floods.

Global Policy Bias: Forests over Grasslands

• Forest-centric climate finance: Global climate funds largely prioritise forests, despite
grasslands offering comparable mitigation benefits.
• Institutional silos: Separate governance under climate, biodiversity, and desertification
regimes fragments grassland protection.
• Exclusion from climate pledges: Nationally Determined Contributions often mention forests
but ignore grasslands as carbon sinks.
• Misclassification as wastelands: Productive grasslands are labelled degraded, legitimising
conversion and undermining climate goals.

Implications of Declining Grasslands

• Accelerated biodiversity loss: Tree plantation over grasslands causes extinction by
afforestation, threatening open-habitat and endemic species.
• Weakened climate resilience: Degradation increases desertification, flash floods, and
drought–flood volatility, reducing landscape stability.
• Loss of pollination services: Grasslands sustain pollinators vital for food security, directly
supporting global crop production.
• Displacement of communities: Conversion disrupts pastoral and indigenous livelihoods,
restricting mobility and access to commons.

The Way Forward

• Recognise Open Natural Ecosystems (ONEs): Replace the “wasteland” label with ecologically
valuable land-use categories.
• Integrate grasslands into Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Explicit inclusion
unlocks climate finance and policy priority.
• Ecosystem-based climate planning: Balance forests, grasslands, wetlands, and mangroves
using cross-biome carbon accounting.
• Community governance and incentives: Secure land rights and promote sustainable grazing
and Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) models.

Conclusion
Grasslands are climate-critical ecosystems, storing carbon, sustaining biodiversity, and supporting
livelihoods. A forest-only climate strategy is scientifically incomplete and socially unjust.
Integrating grasslands into NDCs, finance, and land governance is essential for credible, resilient,
and inclusive climate action.

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20. Bioremediation
Context: India’s growing pollution burden and recent expert discussions highlight the urgent need
for bioremediation as a sustainable method to clean contaminated soil, water and waste sites.
• Bioremediation means using living organisms—bacteria, fungi, algae, or plants—to break
down, transform or detoxify environmental pollutants such as oil, pesticides, heavy metals,
plastics and industrial chemicals.
• Microbes metabolise contaminants as food, converting them into harmless by-products like
water, carbon dioxide, organic acids, or non-leachable metal forms.

Types of Bioremediations:
1. In-situ Bioremediation (on-site)
Pollutants are treated directly
at the contaminated location.
• Bioventing: Injecting
air + nutrients to
stimulate indigenous
microbes in
unsaturated soil.
• Air Sparging: Pumping
air into groundwater to
oxygenate microbes and strip volatile pollutants.
• Biobarriers/Biowalls: Permeable trenches where microbes degrade contaminants
as groundwater flows through.
• Water Recirculation Systems: Extracting contaminated water, treating it and
reinjecting it to stimulate biodegradation.

2. Ex-situ Bioremediation (off-site)

• Contaminated soil or water is removed, treated in controlled reactors, and returned
after cleaning—used when pollutant levels are very high or conditions cannot be
controlled on-site.

Need for Bioremediation in India:

• Growing Pollution Burden: Rivers such as Ganga, Yamuna and Cauvery receive massive loads
of untreated sewage and industrial effluents.
• Industrial Contamination: Urban and industrial sites show oil spills, heavy metals, pesticides,
plastics, hydrocarbons, and hazardous waste.
• High Cost of Conventional Clean-up: Mechanical and chemical remediation are expensive,
energy-intensive and generate secondary pollution.
• India’s Biodiversity Advantage: India hosts diverse indigenous microbes adapted to heat,
salinity and pollutants, making bioremediation more effective than imported technologies.
• Sustainable, Scalable Solution: Bioremediation is cheaper, eco-friendly, minimally invasive
and suitable for large polluted landscapes.

Current Status in India:

Government & Institutional Efforts:
• Department of Biotechnology (DBT): Supports R&D under its Clean Technology
Programme.
• CSIR–NEERI: Nodal agency for bioremediation pilot projects across contaminated sites.
• IITs: Research on oil-absorbing nanocomposites, pollutant-eating bacteria, and water-
purifying microbial consortia.
Technological Advances:

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• Use of genetically modified (GM) microbes to degrade persistent pollutants (plastics,
hydrocarbons).
Best Practice:
• Japan: Integrates plant–microbe systems for urban waste cleanup.
• EU: Funds multi-country bioremediation research for oil spills and mining sites.

Challenges in Adoption:
• Lack of Site-specific Data: Pollutants vary by region; microbial solutions must be customised.
• No Unified National Standards: India lacks universal bioremediation protocols and
certification systems.
• Complex Pollutant Mixtures: Mixed contaminants require microbial consortia, not single
strains.
• Regulatory Gaps for GM Microbes: Use of engineered organisms risks ecological imbalance
without strict biosafety oversight.
• Slow Process & Unpredictability: Bioremediation takes time and depends on environmental
conditions—temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrients.

Way Forward:
• Create National Standards: Develop protocols, guidelines and certification for microbial
formulations and site assessment.
• Establish Regional Bioremediation Hubs: Link universities with industries and local
governments to tailor solutions for polluted sites.
• Invest in Biosafety & Monitoring: Strengthen regulation of GM microbes and ensure long-
term ecological monitoring.
• Integrate with National Missions:
o Swachh Bharat Mission
o Namami Gange
o Urban waste management and Smart Cities
• Promote Public Awareness: Educate communities on the safety and benefits of microbial
technologies.

Conclusion:
Bioremediation offers India a low-cost, sustainable and scientifically robust pathway to restore
polluted ecosystems. With rising industrialisation and complex waste streams, microbial solutions
are not optional but essential. A coordinated national strategy—grounded in standards, biosafety
and innovation—can transform India’s environmental future.

21. Conservation as Coexistence

Context: A recent analysis highlights that India must shift from exclusionary, top-down wildlife
protection towards community-rooted conservation.
• The idea of “Conservation as Coexistence” has gained prominence after new evidence
showed that biodiversity thrives where local communities remain active stewards.

What is Conservation?
• Conservation refers to the sustainable management of ecosystems, species, and natural
resources so they can renew themselves and support both biodiversity and human well-being.

Types of Conservation:
• Protection-based conservation: Involves creating strictly regulated zones like national parks
and sanctuaries where human activity is restricted to prevent disturbances to wildlife habitats
and ecological processes.

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• Community-based conservation: Local communities manage and protect forests, grazing
lands, and water bodies using traditional norms, ensuring sustainable use while maintaining
biodiversity.
• Co-management models: Government agencies and local communities jointly plan and
manage ecosystems, blending statutory authority with indigenous knowledge for balanced
conservation outcomes.
• Landscape-level conservation: Focuses on protecting ecological networks across farms,
forests, wetlands, and corridors beyond protected boundaries to sustain wide-ranging species
and ecosystem functions.

Existing Conservation Methods in India:

• Protected Areas Network: India designates national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and tiger
reserves to legally safeguard core habitats for flagship species and critical ecosystems.
• Legal Frameworks: Strong laws like the WLPA 1972, Forest Conservation Act 1980, and
CAMPA regulate diversion, protection, and regeneration of forests through stringent
permitting systems.
• Species-specific Missions: Flagship programs such as Project Tiger, Project Elephant, and
Project Snow Leopard target recovery of vulnerable species through habitat protection and
scientific monitoring.
• Regulatory Tools & Enforcement: Eco-sensitive zones, anti-poaching squads, and advanced
tracking technologies strengthen on-ground enforcement and buffer impacts near protected
areas.
• Expansion & Relocation: Protected areas are increasingly expanded, with voluntary relocation
of human settlements to reduce human–wildlife conflict and improve habitat integrity.

Limitations of Existing Methods:

• Exclusionary Approach: Eviction and restrictions imposed on indigenous communities sever
traditional stewardship systems that historically safeguarded local biodiversity.
• Colonial Mindset: Conservation assumes forests must be “pristine,” ignoring that many Indian
ecosystems are cultural landscapes shaped by human–nature interactions over centuries.
• Weak Enforcement: Mining pressures, encroachment, inadequate manpower, and poor
surveillance compromise the ecological security of protected areas.
• Human–Wildlife Conflict: Hard boundaries and fencing increase conflict by restricting wildlife
movement without addressing the livelihood dependence of local communities.
• High Financial Cost: State-led conservation drains crores annually for patrolling and
infrastructure, whereas community-managed forests sustain themselves at minimal cost.

Best Case Studies of Coexistence Conservation:

1. Gir Landscape, Gujarat: Nearly half of Asiatic lions now thrive outside Gir National Park due to
Maldhari pastoralists’ tolerance, supported by efficient compensation systems and cultural
reverence.
2. Biate Villages, Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya): Community-managed jhum landscapes showed no
deforestation or species decline, even revealing new bird records—highlighting that
traditional land use can sustain biodiversity.

Redefining Conservation in India:

• Shift to Inclusive Conservation: Policy must move from fortress-style protection to models
that integrate community rights, cultural values, and participatory decision-making.
• Recognising Indigenous Knowledge: Traditional ecological practices, such as rotational
farming, sacred groves, and species taboos, must be formally integrated into conservation
planning.

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• Landscape-scale Governance: Conservation should expand beyond park boundaries by linking
forests, farms, pastures, and wetlands into coherent ecological networks that support wide-
ranging species.
• Shared Governance & FPIC: Ensuring fair compensation, transparent benefit-sharing, and
free, prior, informed consent for local communities builds trust and strengthens long-term
conservation outcomes.

Conclusion:
India’s ecological future depends on recognising that people are not external threats but essential
partners in conservation. True sustainability emerges where cultural practices, livelihoods, and
biodiversity reinforce each other. Conservation must evolve into a model of coexistence—rooted
in justice, community wisdom, and shared stewardship of the land.

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Pollution
22. UNEP Safe Disposal of Unused Medicines Report
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has released a new report, Safe Disposal of
Unused Medicines, highlighting that improper disposal poses grave risks to environmental and
public health.

About UNEP Safe Disposal

of Unused Medicines
Report:
• This 2026 publication
provides a
comprehensive,
multisectoral
framework using a
One Health approach
to strengthen national
systems for the safe
disposal of human and
veterinary medicines.
• It focuses on
integrating waste
prevention, take-back
schemes, legal
frameworks, and awareness-raising across the healthcare, agriculture, and household sectors.

Methods for Disposal of Medical Waste:

• High-Temperature Incineration: The optimal method for hazardous waste, involving
combustion at temperatures between 800-1200°C with flue gas cleaning.
• Waste Immobilization: Processes like encapsulation or inertization that entrap hazardous
waste in a solid mass to prevent leaching into the environment.
• Engineered Landfills: Final disposal sites that use engineered systems to ensure the long-term
confinement and control of hazardous residues.
• Co-processing: Utilizing high-temperature industrial processes, such as cement kilns, to
destroy pharmaceutical waste effectively.

Challenges Associated with Disposal of Medical Waste:

• Lack of Public Awareness: Consumers often ignore environmental and health risks of
improper disposal practices.
E.g. Study in Indonesia showed 53.1 percent unaware of impacts.
• Infrastructure Gaps: Rural areas lack facilities for safe hazardous waste treatment and
disposal systems.
E.g. Indonesia faces poor compliance due to limited incineration facilities.
• Inadequate Regulations and Enforcement: Legal frameworks remain fragmented, weakening
effective waste management systems globally.
E.g. Germany depends on voluntary pharmacy-based take-back mechanisms.
• Financial and Resource Constraints: Advanced technologies are costly for developing
countries to implement widely.
E.g. Oxidation wastewater treatment remains expensive.
• Risks During Emergencies: Crises generate surplus and mismanaged pharmaceutical waste
volumes locally.
E.g. Excess drug donations create disposal challenges.

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UNEP Recommendations:
• Strengthen Disease Prevention: Improve Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, biosecurity, and
vaccination to reduce medicine demand significantly.
• Implement Stepwise Take-Back Schemes: Create national systems for households and farms
to safely return unused medicines.
• Enact Legal Frameworks: Adopt Extended Producer Responsibility to shift waste
management costs to producers effectively.
• Promote Appropriate Use: Encourage unit-dose packaging and diagnostics to prevent
overuse and stockpiling.
• Enhance Transparency and Monitoring: Use digital systems to track medicine use and
disposal outcomes efficiently.

Conclusion:
The United Nations Environment Programme emphasizes a One Health approach combining
prevention, Extended Producer Responsibility, awareness, and take-back systems to reduce
pharmaceutical waste, antimicrobial resistance, and environmental contamination risks
effectively.

23. The Microplastic Problem

• Microplastics are plastic particles smaller than 5 mm in diameter. They are categorized into
primary microplastics (purposely manufactured small, like microbeads in scrubs) and
secondary microplastics (resulting from the breakdown of larger plastic items like bottles,
nets, and synthetic clothes).

Sources of Microplastics in
India:
• Fishing Industry:
Abandoned nylon nets
and ropes release
microplastic fragments
into marine
ecosystems.
E.g. Chennai studies
identify nylon fibers as
highly persistent
pollutants.
• Synthetic Textiles:
Washing polyester and
nylon clothes releases
microfibers into
drainage systems.
E.g. Urban sewage in
Mumbai and Chennai
carries fibers to
oceans.
• Mismanaged Plastic
Waste: Single-use plastics fragment under Ultraviolet radiation and waves.
E.g. Polyethylene Terephthalate bottles degrade into secondary microplastics.
• Personal Care Products: Microbeads bypass filtration and enter aquatic ecosystems.
E.g. Detected in Ganges and Yamuna river systems.

Challenges Associated with Microplastics:

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• Detection Difficulty: Monitoring counts ignore chemical toxicity of fibers, leading to
underestimation.
E.g. Chennai studies show nylon fibers are highly toxic despite low counts.
• Bioaccumulation: Microplastics move up food chains, concentrating toxins in humans.
E.g. Contaminated shellfish in Kerala linked to hormonal and immune risks.
• Transboundary Nature: Ocean currents transport plastics across borders, complicating
regulation.
E.g. Waste from neighboring countries reaches Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Lack of Alternatives: Industries lack affordable biodegradable substitutes for plastics.
E.g. Fishermen prefer nylon nets over costly hemp or cotton.

Way Ahead for India:

• Mandatory Washing Machine Filters: Enforce filters in machines to capture synthetic
microfibers effectively.
• Biodegradable Fishing Gear: Subsidize compostable alternatives to nylon nets and ropes.
• Risk-Based Monitoring: Update Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) norms
beyond counts.
• Enhanced Sewage Treatment Plants: Add tertiary filtration systems to capture microplastics
efficiently.
• Public Awareness and Labeling: Introduce Plastic Footprint labels on clothing.

Conclusion:
Microplastics pose serious risks to ecosystems and human health; India must adopt advanced
monitoring, stronger regulations, sustainable alternatives, and public awareness to effectively
mitigate long-term environmental and economic impacts.

24. Air pollution

Context: A new assessment shows that air pollution is now India’s largest health threat, cutting
life expectancy, worsening disease burdens, and affecting vulnerable groups nationwide.

Trends in India’s Air Pollution:

• Air pollution is no longer a seasonal winter issue, but a perennial national health crisis
affecting rural and urban regions alike.
• Of 256 cities monitored in 2025, 150 exceeded PM2.5 limits, indicating widespread non-
compliance.
• Delhi’s seasonal PM2.5 levels reached 107–130 µg/m³, far above India’s limit (60 µg/m³) and
WHO guideline (15 µg/m³).
• India’s AQI system still caps readings at 500, masking extreme pollution that often crosses
600–1,000.
• Long-term exposure now reduces life expectancy by 3.5–8 years across northern India.

Causes of Air Pollution in India:

Structural issues:
• Vehicular emissions: Rapid motorisation, old diesel fleets, traffic congestion, and poor public
transport lead to continuous NOx, PM2.5 and ozone formation, especially in metros.
• Industrial pollution: Coal-based power plants, refineries, brick kilns, and chemical units
release sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, heavy metals and particulate matter throughout the
year.
• Construction and demolition dust: Unregulated digging, material loading, concrete mixing,
and demolition generate large amounts of PM10/PM2.5, worsening air quality in expanding
urban corridors.
• Household biomass use: Firewood, dung cakes and crop residues burned in rural and peri-
urban kitchens produce indoor and outdoor smoke, contributing heavily to PM2.5 levels.

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Seasonal Amplifiers:
• Stubble burning: post-harvest crop burning in Punjab-Haryana adds massive but short-term
particulate spikes, worsening air quality in Delhi and the Indo-Gangetic Plains.
• Winter inversion layers: Cold, stagnant air traps pollutants near the surface, preventing
dispersion and causing PM2.5 to accumulate for days or weeks in northern India.
• Fireworks and festival combustion: Diwali and New Year fireworks, combined with low wind
speeds, create sudden surges in toxic gases and particulates, amplifying existing pollution
loads.

Impacts of Air Pollution on the Human Body:

• Cardiovascular System:
o PM2.5 enters bloodstream, causing inflammation, hypertension, heart attacks,
strokes.
o Every 10 µg/m³ increase leads to 8% rise in annual mortality.
• Respiratory System:
o Rising cases of asthma (6% of Indian children), COPD, chronic bronchitis.
o PM2.5 increases paediatric emergency visits by 20–40%; lung capacity drops 10–15%
in exposed children.
• Neurological System:
o PM2.5 crosses the blood–brain barrier → neuroinflammation, cognitive decline,
dementia risk (+35–49%).
o Linked to reduced academic performance in polluted Indian cities.
• Maternal & Child Health:
o Higher risks of preterm birth, low birth weight, stillbirths, and neonatal mortality.
o Worsens intergenerational health inequities.
• Social & Economic Inequalities: The poor live closest to roads, industrial belts, landfills,
suffering disproportionate exposure and healthcare burdens.

Initiatives Taken by India:

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP):
o Targets 40% reduction in PM10 in 131 non-attainment cities.
o Expanded monitoring networks, city action plans, and clean mobility pilots.
• Policy & Regulatory Measures:
o GRAP in Delhi-NCR, BS-VI fuel norms, EV push, smog towers, anti-smog guns.
o Industrial emission norms, construction dust rules, waste management guidelines.
• Judicial Interventions: Supreme Court and NGT directives on stubble burning, fireworks, and
industrial emissions.
• Technological Steps: Real-time monitoring, satellite-based assessments, low-emission zones
(pilot), and EV incentives.

Way Ahead:
• Modernise Air Quality Governance: Reform the AQI system by removing the 500 cap, aligning
thresholds with WHO norms, and making PM2.5 the central regulatory metric for all clean-air
planning.
• Strengthen Environmental Institutions: Increase staffing, funding, and technical capacity of
pollution control boards, ensure independent oversight, and enforce real-time, science-based
compliance monitoring.
• Transform Transport and Industry: Accelerate electrification of buses, autos and two-
wheelers; shift freight to rail; and mandate strict industrial emission standards while phasing
down coal-heavy processes.
• Regulate Construction and Waste Burning: Implement compulsory dust suppression,
enclosure norms and mechanised sweeping, while reforming municipal waste systems to end
open burning in all urban clusters.

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• Integrate Health & Community Action: Embed AQI advisories in healthcare, expand lung-
function testing and COPD screening, and promote citizen-led air monitoring and localised
clean-air interventions.

Conclusion:
India’s air pollution is an invisible epidemic—silent, chronic, and the largest threat to public
health. The evidence is unequivocal: it shortens lives, harms the unborn, weakens the brain, and
deepens inequity. Clean air must now be recognised as a fundamental right and national priority,
anchored in science, backed by political will, and implemented with urgency to secure a healthier,
equitable future.

25. Cost of Convenience: Health Hazards of Digital Tools

Context: India generated 2.2 million tonnes of e-waste in 2025, becoming the third-largest
generator globally after China and the US. Despite formal recycling capacity, more than half of the
waste is still processed informally.

India and E-waste Burden:

• India’s e-waste surged 150% since 2017–18, from 0.71 MT to 2.2 MT in 2025.
• 65 cities produce 60% of total e-waste, with hotspots like Seelampur (Delhi), Moradabad
(UP), Bhiwandi (Maharashtra).
• Though 322 formal units can process 2.2 MT annually, >50% remains in informal chains of
kabadiwalas and scrap dealers.

Health Hazards of E-Waste

• Respiratory Illnesses:
o Open-air burning and acid treatment release fine particulate matter.
o Eg: 2025 MDPI study found 76–80% of Indian informal e-waste workers suffered
chronic bronchitis and asthma.
• Neurological Damage:
o Heavy metals like lead and mercury impair brain development in children.
o Eg: A 2023 review in Frontiers in Public Health linked blood lead levels ≥5 µg/dL
with cognitive decline and behavioral disorders.
• Skin and Ocular Disorders:
o Direct contact causes rashes, burns, dermatitis, and eye irritation.
o Eg: A 2024 review reported skin issues in up to 100% of informal recyclers in
certain clusters.
• Genetic and Systemic Impacts:
o DNA damage, oxidative stress, and endocrine disruption are increasingly
documented.
o Eg: WHO notes 18 million children worldwide live or work in e-waste zones, many
in India.
• Syndemic Impact:
o Hazards intersect with poverty, malnutrition, and poor housing, worsening
outcomes for urban poor.
o Eg: Informal recycling hubs report higher miscarriages and preterm births (Guiyu,
China as global parallel).

Policy Response:
• Strengthened EPR norms – The 2022 Rules tightened Extended Producer Responsibility,
making producers accountable for collection and recycling.
• Mandatory registration – Dismantlers and recyclers must be registered to curb illegal, unsafe
practices and improve accountability.

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• Incentives for formalisation – Policies encourage transition from informal to formal units by
offering compliance-linked incentives.
• Persistent gaps – Only 43% of e-waste was formally processed (2023–24); disputes over
capped EPR credits hinder effective enforcement.

Way Ahead:
• Formalise informal sector – Train kabadiwalas, provide PPE, healthcare and social security so
that livelihoods are protected while ensuring safe recycling practices.
• Strengthen enforcement – Introduce digital tracking, periodic audits and empower Pollution
Control Boards to crack down on unsafe, unregistered recycling units.
• Medical surveillance – Organise regular health camps, baseline studies and long-term
monitoring in e-waste hotspots to safeguard vulnerable workers and children.
• Promote innovation – Support R&D for affordable, local recycling technologies and create
decentralised hubs to reduce transport costs and increase efficiency.
• Awareness building – Integrate e-waste education in school curricula and launch public
campaigns to promote responsible disposal among citizens.

Conclusion
India’s digital leap cannot be allowed to create a toxic legacy of disease and degradation.
Systemic reforms must combine science, justice, and innovation to safeguard people and
ecosystems. Only then can digital empowerment truly align with sustainable and inclusive
growth.

26. Global Plastic Pollution Crisis

Context: Global plastic pollution is reaching alarming levels, with waste projected to triple by
2060 to 1.2 billion tonnes, posing a grave ecological threat.

Scale of the Crisis:

• Explosive Growth: Global plastic production doubled between 2000–2019, touching 460 MT;
this growth is driven by packaging and fast consumption.
• Low Recycling Rate: Only 9% of plastic is recycled, leading to massive leakage into landfills,
rivers, and open dumps.
• Marine Catastrophe: 11 MT of plastic enters oceans annually, harming marine species and
contaminating the food chain.
• Microplastic Spread: Plastics degrade into micro/nano particles that infiltrate air, water, soil,
and even human blood and lungs.
• Future Outlook: Without urgent reforms, OECD projects plastic waste will nearly triple by
2060, overwhelming waste systems globally.

Grave Problems of Plastic Pollution:

• Persistence: Plastics take centuries to decompose, resulting in permanent accumulation in
ecosystems.
• Climate Impact: Plastic production and burning contribute 3.4% of global GHG emissions,
intensifying climate change.
• Biodiversity Threat: Turtles, seabirds, and fish ingest plastic, causing starvation, poisoning,
and reproductive harm.
• Human Health Risks: Carcinogens and endocrine disruptors in plastics leach into food and
water, impacting fertility and immunity.
• Economic Burden: Marine plastic pollution causes losses worth $13 billion yearly in fisheries,
tourism, and shipping sectors.

Initiatives Taken:
• Global Efforts:

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o UNEA-5 Treaty (2022): 193 nations agreed to negotiate a binding treaty to end
plastic pollution by 2024.
o SDG Alignment: Plastic reduction supports SDG-12 (sustainable consumption),
SDG-13 (climate action), SDG-14 (life below water).
o Circular Economy Push: Global campaigns promote reuse, redesign, and recycling
to reduce virgin plastic production.
• Indian Efforts:
o Plastic Waste Management Rules 2016/2022: Bans selected single-use plastic
items and enforces producer responsibility.
o Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0: Focuses on 100% door-to-door waste collection,
segregation, and processing.
o Plastic Roads: Over 1.2 lakh km of Indian roads use waste plastic, reducing
bitumen use and improving durability.

Role in Eliminating Plastic Crisis:

• Individuals
o Refuse Single-Use Plastics: Avoid disposable bags, straws, bottles to reduce daily
plastic footprint.
o Segregate Waste: Separate wet and dry waste at home to enable efficient
recycling and composting.
o Conscious Consumerism: Choose products with eco-friendly packaging and
brands with EPR compliance.
• Society & Community:
o Community Clean-ups: Organise beach, river, and park clean-ups to remove
plastic litter collectively.
o Plastic Banks: Set up local collection centres offering incentives for returning
plastic waste.
o PPP Collaboration: Engage private recyclers and NGOs to manage local waste
efficiently.
• Governments:
o Strict Legislation: Enforce penalties for illegal production, sale, and use of banned
plastics.
o EPR Enforcement: Mandate companies to take back used packaging and meet
recycling targets.
o Tax and Incentives: Levy landfill/incineration taxes, subsidise eco-friendly
packaging and R&D.

Way Ahead
• Adopt 6Rs: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover, and Redesign should guide all plastic
use.
• Promote Circular Economy: Design products that can be reused and recycled without loss of
value.
• Boost R&D: Invest in bio-based, compostable plastics and innovative recycling technologies.
• Decentralise Waste Management: Empower panchayats and ULBs with funds and autonomy
for waste handling.
• Behavioural Shift: Use media, influencers, and campaigns to make zero-plastic living
aspirational.

Conclusion:
Plastic pollution is a man-made ecological disaster threatening climate, health, and biodiversity. It
requires multi-level action — strong governance, industry responsibility, and citizen participation.
A plastic-free future is essential for environmental justice and sustainable development.

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Renewable Energy
27. Agri-photovoltaics (agriPV)
In the 2026-27 Budget, the outlay for the PM-KUSUM scheme nearly doubled to ₹5,000 crore,
with the government considering a National Agri-photovoltaics Mission to achieve 10 GW of
capacity.
• AgriPV is a dual-use land technology that integrates solar power generation with agricultural
cultivation on the same parcel of land. By mounting solar panels at specific heights or in
spaced rows, it allows crops to grow underneath or between them, turning a single field into a
powerhouse for both food and energy.

Opportunities for India in Agri-Photovoltaics (agriPV):

• Income Diversification: Farmers earn stable income through surplus power sales or leasing
land.
E.g. A Maharashtra farmer earns rent while growing vegetables.
• Water Conservation: Partial shading reduces evapotranspiration, conserving soil moisture
and irrigation needs.
E.g. In Rajasthan, garlic cultivation requires less frequent watering.
• Land Neutrality: Enables solar generation without diverting agricultural land from food
production.
E.g. Small adoption supports 300 gigawatt solar goals sustainably.
• Rural Industrialisation: Solar energy powers storage and processing, reducing post-harvest
losses.
E.g. Solar cold storage in Karnataka increases tomato shelf-life.
• Climate Resilience: Panels protect crops from heatwaves and erratic rainfall.
E.g. In Madhya Pradesh, leafy vegetables avoid heat stress effectively.

Challenges Associated:
• High Capital Intensity: Elevated structures need more steel and engineering, increasing costs
compared to ground-mounted systems.
E.g. Three-metre mounting raises cost per megawatt significantly.

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• Yield Uncertainty: Poor design or excessive shading can reduce photosynthesis and crop
output.
E.g. Dense panels lower grain weight in sun-loving cereals.
• Regulatory Hurdles: Ambiguity in land classification creates legal and taxation concerns.
E.g. Farmers fear losing subsidies if land becomes industrial.
• Technical Skill Gap: Managing solar systems and crops requires specialised dual expertise.
E.g. Panel cleaning without crop damage is challenging.
• Grid Connectivity: Remote areas lack infrastructure to supply surplus power.
E.g. Distant substations limit electricity sales despite successful projects.

Way Ahead:
• Region-Specific Planning: Develop crop matrices to optimise shade and yield balance.
• Clear Governance Frameworks: Establish dual-use land laws ensuring rights and revenue
clarity.
• Accessible Finance: Provide low-interest loans and involve Farmer Producer Organisations
(FPOs).
• Standardisation of Design: Central Water Commission (CWC) and Ministry of Power should
issue uniform structures.
• Research and Development Expansion: Expand live labs across agro-climatic zones for
evidence-based outcomes.

Conclusion:
Agri-Photovoltaics enables synergy between food and energy production, empowering farmers as
producers of both. It strengthens resilience, supports sustainability, and drives India towards an
inclusive, net-zero rural economy.

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Forest, Deforestation and Desertification
28. AI Data Centers and Environmental Friction
Context: Global resistance against the environmental toll of Artificial Intelligence (AI) data centers
has intensified significantly. Communities and activists across the US, Europe, Latin America, and
Southeast Asia are increasingly opposing these mega-infrastructure projects.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) data centres are hyper-scale computing facilities that train and
operate advanced machine learning models, requiring continuous high-performance
processing, unlike traditional data centres primarily designed for digital data storage.

The Imperative Need for Strict Environmental

Regulation
• Protect Local Utilities: Hyper-scale data
centres strain electricity grids and
groundwater, threatening essential
public services.
E.g. Andhra Pradesh provides long-term
power and water subsidies for large
technology projects.
• Conserve Fragile Ecosystems: Large
facilities can damage coastal zones,
farmland, aquifers, and biodiversity
through intensive resource use.
E.g. Projects increasingly occupy
environmentally sensitive coastal and
agricultural landscapes.
• Ensure Realistic Economic Claims: Data
centres create limited long-term
employment despite receiving
substantial incentives.
• Maintain Fair Utility Pricing: Corporate
subsidies should not increase costs for
households.
E.g. Citizens may face higher tariffs while technology companies receive discounted
utilities.
• Strengthen Environmental Oversight: High-impact projects must undergo mandatory
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) before approval.
E.g. Waived assessments weaken environmental accountability and sustainable
development.

Key Institutional Challenges in India

• Environmental Impact Assessments: Waivers weaken environmental safeguards for large
server projects.
• Resource Scarcity: Water stress and electricity shortages challenge sustainable data
centre expansion.
• Limited Economic Returns: Hyper-scale facilities generate fewer jobs and innovation than
expected.
• Weak Sustainability Advocacy: Limited political focus on environmental costs reduces
policy scrutiny of rapid Artificial Intelligence (AI) infrastructure growth.

Way Forward
• Restore Environmental Impact Assessments: Mandate comprehensive reviews for large
data centres exceeding power thresholds.

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• Promote Sustainable Cooling: Require recycled water and closed-loop cooling systems.
• Rationalize Subsidies: Replace utility subsidies with market-based pricing for technology
firms.
• Develop Regional Hubs: Encourage smaller, energy-efficient facilities using waste-heat
recovery.
• Strengthen Political Consensus: Build bipartisan support for rigorous state-level audits on
Artificial Intelligence (AI) infrastructure, energy, water, and land use sustainability.

Conclusion:
India's aggressive push to become a global hub for AI data centers overlooks the heavy
environmental costs that are fueling protests worldwide. Granting extensive tax holidays and
utility subsidies to hyper-scale server farms places a severe burden on the nation's already
strained water tables and electricity grids.

29. Amended Forest Conservation Guidelines 2026

Context: In January 2026, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
amended guidelines under the Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam, 1980 to allow
non-government participation in restoring degraded forest land.

What it is
• The amendment revises the 2023 guidelines under the Van (Sanrakshan Evam
Samvardhan) Adhiniyam, earlier known as the Forest Conservation Act, 1980.
• It reclassifies selected plantation and afforestation activities on forest land as forestry
activities, even when undertaken by government or non-government actors.
• Such activities must align with approved working or management plans and remain
under State Forest Department supervision, reducing prior clearance requirements.

Need for the Amendments

• The Indian State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023 highlights extensive degraded forests
requiring restoration.
• India’s National Forest Policy target of 33% forest cover needs funding beyond public
resources.
• Rising paper and paperboard imports and limited public finances encourage private and
non-government investment.

Challenges Associated with the Amendments

• Monoculture plantations may replace native ecosystems, reducing biodiversity.
• Dilution of Compensatory Afforestation (CA) and Net Present Value (NPV) weakens
safeguards.
• Plantation-centric models risk marginalising communities protected under the Forest
Rights Act and enable regulatory misuse.

Way Ahead
• Clear distinction: Policies must clearly separate ecological restoration of natural forests
from commercial monoculture plantations for timber or pulp.
• Native species focus: Restoration should mandate indigenous, mixed-species planting
with biodiversity benchmarks, not just tree counts.
• Community consent: Gram Sabha consultation and strict compliance with the Forest
Rights Act (FRA) are essential before approvals.
• Ecological valuation: Even if Compensatory Afforestation (CA) and Net Present Value
(NPV) are exempted, alternative safeguards must internalise environmental costs.
• Transparency: Public disclosure, third-party audits, and independent monitoring are vital
to prevent misuse.

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Conclusion
The amended guidelines seek to mobilise resources for degraded forest restoration and green
cover targets. However, equating plantations with natural forests risks biodiversity loss,
community exclusion, and weakened safeguards. A science-based, rights-centred, and
transparent framework is crucial to ensure restoration strengthens, not substitutes, India’s
forests.

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Water Management
30. Virtual Water Export Crisis
Context: India has emerged as the world’s largest rice producer and exporter, accounting for
nearly 40% of global rice trade, but this export dominance is intensifying groundwater depletion
in water-stressed States like Punjab and Haryana.
• The debate has resurfaced around India’s growing “virtual water export crisis”, where
scarce groundwater is effectively exported through water-intensive crops.

• The virtual water export crisis refers to the export of water embedded in agricultural
commodities, especially water-intensive crops like rice, from a water-stressed country.
• In India’s case, large rice exports mean exporting billions of cubic metres of groundwater,
even as domestic aquifers face depletion.

Key trends:
• India exports over 20 million metric tonnes of rice annually, embedding massive
quantities of irrigation water.
• Rice production alone accounts for 34–43% of global irrigation water use.
• Around 24,000+ million cubic metres of virtual water is exported annually through rice
trade.
• Northern rice belts increasingly rely on groundwater rather than surface irrigation.

Reasons behind the virtual water export crisis:

• Water-intensive rice cultivation model: Rice requires 3,000–4,000 litres of water per kg,
far exceeding global averages, making it unsustainable in semi-arid regions.
• Distortionary subsidies: High MSPs for rice and free or cheap electricity incentivise
excessive groundwater extraction and discourage crop diversification.
• Policy legacy of food security: Green Revolution-era policies prioritised rice and wheat to
ensure food security, but were not recalibrated for water scarcity realities.
• Weak groundwater regulation: Groundwater remains poorly regulated, allowing
unrestricted borewell drilling and over-extraction by farmers.
• Global market dependence: India’s dominance in global rice trade makes policy shifts
politically and economically sensitive due to price and export implications.

Impacts on India:
• Rapid groundwater depletion: In Punjab and Haryana, CGWB data shows most blocks
classified as over-exploited, with borewell depths increasing from 30 feet to 80–200 feet,
sharply raising irrigation costs.
• Rising farm distress: Small farmers in rice belts report mounting debt to finance deeper
pumps and electricity, reflected in rising input costs despite MSP hikes, as highlighted in
recent Reuters field surveys (2025).
• Climate vulnerability: Even with good monsoons in 2023–25, excessive extraction
prevented aquifer recharge, exposing northern agriculture to severe risk during any
future weak monsoon year.
• Ecological imbalance: Falling water tables have degraded wetlands and soil moisture
regimes in Punjab–Haryana, reducing biodiversity and long-term land productivity, per
PAU studies.
• Inter-generational inequity: India exports over 24,000 million cubic metres of virtual
water annually through rice, effectively transferring future water security costs to coming
generations.

Challenges associated:

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• Political resistance to reform: The rollback of the 2020–21 farm laws after nationwide
protests shows the political sensitivity of reducing MSP dependence and procurement
guarantees.
• Farmer income insecurity: One-season diversification incentives, such as Haryana’s
₹17,500/ha millet scheme (2024), failed to scale due to lack of income certainty.
• Uneven State capacity: As water is a State subject, groundwater regulation remains weak
and fragmented, with enforcement varying widely across Punjab, Haryana and eastern
States.
• Short-term policy design: Crop-switch schemes limited to a single season have not offset
long-term risk, discouraging farmers from abandoning assured rice procurement.
• Data and enforcement gaps: Despite NAQUIM mapping, absence of real-time extraction
monitoring allows unchecked borewell drilling in over-exploited blocks.

Initiatives taken to handle the water crisis:

1. Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA): Mission-mode water conservation and recharge campaign since
2019, with focus on over-exploited districts.
2. Atal Bhujal Yojana: Community-led groundwater management in water-stressed districts.
3. Mission Amrit Sarovar: Rejuvenation of local water bodies to enhance groundwater
recharge.
4. Per Drop More Crop: Promotion of micro-irrigation to improve farm water-use efficiency.
5. NAQUIM 2.0: Scientific aquifer mapping for informed groundwater management
decisions.

Way ahead:
• Reorient MSP and procurement policy: Expanding assured procurement for millets under
International Year of Millets momentum can replicate rice-like income security with lower
water use.
• Price groundwater realistically: Rationalising free power for agriculture and promoting
solar pumps with usage caps can curb wasteful extraction, as piloted in parts of Gujarat.
• Long-term diversification support: Experts recommend 5–7 year income assurance, as
short-term schemes have failed to induce durable crop shifts in Punjab–Haryana.
• Promote climate-smart agriculture: Techniques like Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) promoted
by Punjab Agriculture Department reduce water use by 15–20% per hectare.
• Integrate trade and water policy: India’s export strategy must internalise water footprint
costs, shifting exports toward less water-intensive, higher-value crops to reduce virtual
water loss.

Conclusion:
India’s rice export success masks a silent crisis of groundwater depletion through virtual water
exports. Continuing to subsidise water-intensive crops in stressed regions threatens long-term
food and water security. Sustainable agriculture now demands aligning farm policy, water
governance and trade strategy with ecological limits.

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International Environmental Convention
31. Government releases first national report on the Nagoya Protocol
Context: The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) published
insights from India’s First National Report on the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing
(ABS).
• The Nagoya Protocol is a legally binding supplementary treaty to the Convention on
Biological Diversity, establishing a transparent framework for access to genetic resources
and Digital Sequence Information, while ensuring fair and equitable sharing of benefits
arising from their utilization.

Key Features of the Nagoya Protocol

• Prior Informed Consent (PIC): Approval
required before accessing biological
resources.
• Mutually Agreed Terms (MAT):
Agreements define use, responsibilities,
benefit-sharing.
• Fair Benefit-Sharing: Royalties, fees,
research, technology transfer support
local communities.
• Access and Benefit-sharing (ABS)
Clearing-House Mechanism: Tracks
permits, issues compliance certificates,
prevents biopiracy.
• Traditional Knowledge Protection:
Safeguards indigenous knowledge,
cultural practices, community rights
through equitable governance and
sustainable biodiversity conservation
globally.

Successful Domestic Case Studies

• Dengue Treatment Resource (Madhya Pradesh): Sun Pharmaceutical Industries paid
upfront access fees for Cocculus hirsutus, supporting conservation and local welfare
through benefit-sharing transferred to Madhya Pradesh Minor Forest Produce
Federation.
• Bioethanol Agricultural Project (Uttar Pradesh): Indian Oil Corporation Limited paid
upfront benefit-sharing fees for agricultural residue research, transferring funds to Uttar
Pradesh State Biodiversity Board directly.

Key Challenges in Implementation

• Tracing Biological Supply Chains: Identifying original source communities is difficult
because biological resources pass through multiple intermediaries.
E.g. Medicinal herbs sold in wholesale markets often lose traceable origins.
• Complex Documentation: Differences between domestic and international Access and
Benefit-sharing (ABS) formats delay compliance.
E.g. Officials manually prepare global compliance certificates.
• Low Awareness: Technical and language barriers restrict community participation.
E.g. Regional-language ABS documents remain limited.
• No Unified Repository: Absence of a centralized database hinders monitoring and policy
research.
E.g. Historical ABS records remain fragmented.

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Way Ahead
• Digital Access and Benefit-sharing (ABS) Portal: Automate applications, approvals,
certificate issuance.
• Standardized Valuation: Develop scientific pricing methods ensuring fair community
benefits.
• Regional Language Access: Translate ABS rules, Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs),
templates.
• Digital Tracking: Require traders to maintain traceable digital records.
• Digital Sequence Information (DSI) Framework: Establish clear rules ensuring equitable
benefit-sharing from genetic data use.

Conclusion:
India’s first National Report on the Nagoya Protocol highlights global leadership in linking
biodiversity conservation with local livelihoods by channeling benefit-sharing revenues through
2.76 lakh Biodiversity Management Committees, promoting inclusive and sustainable
development.

32. Global Climate Governance

• Climate governance refers to the web of international treaties, domestic laws, and
institutional frameworks (like the UNFCCC) designed to coordinate global action to
mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate impacts.

Challenges Associated
• Implementation Disease: Ambitious climate pledges lack binding timelines and assured
financing, slowing execution.
E.g. India’s 500 gigawatt non-fossil target faces delays from unsigned Power Sale
Agreements and transmission gaps.
• Growth vs. Sustainability: Development priorities frequently override ecological
safeguards in emerging economies.
E.g. Great Nicobar Island clearance highlighted tensions between infrastructure expansion
and biodiversity protection.

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• Coal Dependency: Base-load coal reliance complicates rapid decarbonization pathways.
E.g. Approval of additional coal capacity until 2032 affects transition goals.
• Urban Climate Vulnerability: Unplanned urbanization intensifies Urban Heat Islands.
E.g. Delhi and Mumbai record higher temperatures due to concrete expansion.
• Short-termism in Politics: Immediate socio-economic concerns overshadow structural
climate reforms.
E.g. Wayanad landslides were treated mainly as disaster response issues.

Way Ahead
• Legally Binding Roadmaps: Establish time-bound fossil-fuel phase-down schedules for
major emitters instead of voluntary pledges.
• Reform of International Finance: Redesign global finance to deliver low-interest, long-
term climate loans for emerging economies.
• Subnational Governance: Empower states and cities to lead adaptation, reflecting
localized climate risks.
• Nature-Based Solutions: Integrate Blue-Green infrastructure, including mangroves and
urban forests, into planning to curb heatwaves and floods.
• Universal Insurance: Expand Climate Risk Insurance for smallholder farmers and coastal
communities.

Conclusion
Climate governance must shift from diplomatic symbolism to rapid financing, binding
commitments, and ecosystem protection.

33. Nature-based Solutions (NbS)

• Nature-based Solutions are defined by the IUCN as actions to protect, sustainably
manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems to address societal challenges (like
climate change, food security, or water safety) effectively and adaptively.
• They are unique because they provide simultaneous benefits for both human well-being
and biodiversity.

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Challenges to Nature-based Solutions
• Lack of Standardized Frameworks: Absence of uniform standards enables greenwashing
and flawed ecological design.
E.g. Afforestation in Central India faced criticism for monoculture Eucalyptus plantations
harming groundwater.
• Financing and Budgetary Constraints: Nature-based Solutions receive limited,
inconsistent funding compared to grey infrastructure.
E.g. Only a fraction of climate policies allocate explicit budgets for ecological components.
• Complex Governance and Land Tenure: Overlapping forest, water, and urban authorities
delay restoration initiatives.
E.g. Aravalli Green Wall efforts face multi-state land-right disputes.
• Disconnect from Urban Planning: Projects remain peripheral instead of central to city
design.
E.g. Bengaluru developers still prioritize concrete drainage.
• Knowledge and Expertise Gaps: Inadequate site-specific data undermines project
success.
E.g. Mangrove restoration in Tamil Nadu failed due to ignored hydrological changes.

Way Ahead
• Mainstreaming Nature-based Solutions: Embed Blue-Green infrastructure within Prime
Minister Gati Shakti planning.
E.g. Integrate rain gardens and bioswales under the Smart Cities Mission.
• Unlocking Green Finance: Launch Sovereign Forest Bonds and transparent carbon
markets.
E.g. Use Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 systems for carbon verification.
• Community-Led Governance: Empower Gram Sabhas and Indigenous groups.
E.g. Expand women-led committees under Jal Jeevan Mission.
• Science-Based Monitoring: Apply satellite and geospatial tracking.
E.g. Meri LiFE portal monitors sapling survival.
• Scaling Agroforestry: Promote tree-based farming transitions.
E.g. Follow South Asian Agroforestry Congress roadmap.

Conclusion
• Nature-based Solutions encourage partnership with ecosystems to address climate and
societal challenges effectively.
• Funding shortages and weak standardization restrict large-scale implementation.
• Strengthening finance and empowering communities can convert natural capital into
durable climate resilience nationwide sustainably.

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Disaster Management

34. Nalanda Temple Stampede

A tragic stampede at the Maa Sheetla Mandir in Nalanda, Bihar, resulted in the deaths of eight
women as massive crowds overwhelmed local barricades.

Factors Leading to Stampedes in India:

• Inadequate crowd control measures: Failure to regulate movement causes surges, as
seen in the January 2025 Kumbh Mela incident where rushed for a holy dip.
• Structural failure of barriers: Overcrowded perimeters collapse when visitor numbers
exceed capacity, as observed in Nalanda.
• Poor planning and coordination: Misjudging crowd size and logistics, during the
Bengaluru Premier League celebration, leads to dangerous congestion.
• Rumours and misinformation: False information, such as free pass rumours, can trigger
panic-driven movement.
• High crowd density and limited personal space: Cultural acceptance of tight packing
increases risk of compressive asphyxia.

Challenges Associated with Controlling Stampedes:

• Massive scale of events: Gatherings like Maha Kumbh exceed standards, complicating
management.
• Societal disregard for regulations: Ignoring rules weakens enforcement during religious
yatras.
• Late detection of danger: Individuals often recognize risk too late to escape.
• Rapid transmission of panic: Emotions and pressure spread quickly in dense crowds.
• Lack of institutional memory: Authorities struggle to learn from past incidents.

NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority) Guidelines on Stampedes:

• Crowd monitoring: Use technologies like Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) and drones for
real-time tracking of density and movement.
• Infrastructure design: Ensure dedicated entry and exit points, emergency lanes, and
strong barricading systems.
• Capacity mapping: Pre-calculate venue limits and strictly restrict entry beyond safe
capacity.
• Public address systems: Enable clear communication to counter rumours and guide
crowds effectively.

Way Ahead:
• Scientific crowd modelling: Apply Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based simulations for
predicting crowd behaviour.
• Strict entry regulation: Use electronic ticketing and turnstiles to control numbers
precisely.
• Non-verbal communication training: Equip staff to detect distress signals early.
• Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): Mandate safety protocols for large gatherings.
• Public awareness campaigns: Promote safety practices and calm behaviour.

Conclusion:
Nalanda tragedy highlights urgent need for scientific crowd management and strict safety
compliance. Despite hosting massive events, poor planning and rule violations continue turning
gatherings into dangerous, disaster-prone situations.

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35. The Legislative Vacuum in India's Heat Crisis

Researchers have highlighted a critical
legislative vacuum where 57% of Indian
districts are now heat-prone, yet outdoor
informal workers remain excluded from
national safety laws.
• Legislative vacuum denotes absence
of enforceable laws safeguarding
nearly 490 million informal workers
from extreme heat. Despite heatwaves
as a national crisis, existing labour and
disaster frameworks treat protection
as advisory, not a guaranteed Right to
Health under Article 21.

Reasons for Rising Heatwaves in India

• Global Climate Change: Rise overall in
mean temperatures increases heat
extremes frequency.
• Urban Heat Island Effect: Unplanned urbanization replaces greenery with concrete trapping
heat.
• Humidity-Heat Synergy: High temperature and humidity create lethal Wet Bulb temperature
limiting cooling.
• Altered Atmospheric Patterns: Jet stream shifts and weaker winds allow persistent heat
domes.
• Deforestation and Land Degradation: Loss of green cover reduces evapotranspiration cooling
increasing soil heating.

Existing Vacuum in Laws Respecting Heatwaves

• Factories Act 1948 Limitation: Protects only indoor workers, excluding outdoor workforce.
• Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code 2020 Omission: Removes outdoor
heat as mandatory safety concern.
• Discretionary Authority: Section 23 allows weather standards but does not mandate
enforcement.
• The '10% Trap': Absence in Nationally Notified Disaster list limits fund usage.
• Contractor Status Exclusion: Gig workers classified as contractors lack employer-mandated
protections.

NDMA Guidelines on Heatwaves

• Heat Action Plans (HAPs): National Disaster Management Authority promotes early warning
and coordinated medical response systems.
• Early Warning Systems: Alerts (Yellow, Orange, Red) shared through Short Message Service,
media, announcements.
• Public Cooling Spaces: Cool roofs, shelters, water kiosks in urban areas.
• Workplace Adjustment: Shift outdoor work beyond peak heat hours.
• Inter-Agency Coordination: Health departments, Urban Local Bodies collaborate improving
preparedness and reducing mortality.

Way Ahead
• National Disaster Notification: Include heatwaves in Notified National Disaster list to unlock
funding.
• Transition to Heat Index: Use Heat Index (temperature plus humidity) as legal safety trigger.

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• Binding Safety Standards: Under Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code
mandate work-rest cycles, Personal Protective Equipment.
• Constitutional Right to Cool: Recognize thermal safety under Article 21, ensure Urban Local
Bodies provide shelters.
• Financial Safeguards: Introduce parametric insurance compensating informal workers losses.

Conclusion:
India’s shift from seasonal hardship to systemic thermal injustice requires moving from advisories
to enforceable rights. Filling legislative gaps and redefining social contracts ensures thermal
safety, protecting vulnerable populations from climate-linked inequalities.

36. Mainstreaming Disaster Resilience into Infrastructure Project Report

India is mainstreaming disaster resilience to safeguard its 4.51 trillion infrastructure pipeline and
public finances from climate risks causing up to two percent of GDP annually. The report by
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) with Department of Economic Affairs (DEA)
and Finance Ministry integrates climate-risk assessments into NIP across roads power rail sectors
and strengthens long term stability.

Need for Disaster Resilience:

• Protecting Public
Finances: Reducing
fiscal shocks and post-
disaster borrowing,
exceeding 318 million
in Odisha.
• Asset Longevity:
Ensuring infrastructure
remains functional
throughout design life
despite extreme
weather.
• Investment Decision-
Making: Providing
Disaster Resilient
Investment tool to
quantify avoided
losses.
• Operational
Continuity: Minimizing
disruptions in power and transport during disasters
• Global Competitiveness: Meeting international best practices for climate funding.

Challenges Associated:
• Increased Upfront Costs: Resilience raises initial project costs by 10–20 percent across
sectors.
• Data Scarcity: Lack of standardized interoperable data on infrastructure losses
complicates risk pricing.
• Low Insurance Penetration: Property insurance coverage remains limited, leaving
protection gaps.
• Financing Mismatch: Global climate infrastructure gap of 1.4 trillion annually restricts
scaling efforts worldwide.
• Reactive Mindsets: Governments depend on post-disaster responses instead of proactive
financing mechanisms.

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Recommendations of the Report:
• Mandatory Risk Assessments: Use Resilience Cost-Benefit Analysis (RCBA) to assess Net
Present Value (NPV), break-even, cost-benefit ratios.
• Contractual Redesign: Embed resilience clauses in Model Concession Agreements (MCA)
and bids.
• Redefining Force Majeure: Link clauses to measurable hazard thresholds.
• Risk Pooling and Insurance: Establish infrastructure resilience fund and sovereign risk
pools.
• Development of Toolkits: Deploy Disaster Resilience Toolkit for ministries and bidders.

Conclusion:
Mainstreaming disaster resilience is essential for India’s economic stability. Shifting from reactive
management to proactive financing and enforceable resilient designs protects infrastructure
investments and ensures sustainable growth toward 2047 economic goals.

37. Early Summer and Heat-Wave Conditions

• A heat-wave is a period of
abnormally high temperatures,
more than the normal maximum
temperature, that occurs during
the summer season. In the
current context of North India,
early summer refers to the
sudden transition from winter to
summer-like heat in February
and March, effectively bypassing
the traditional spring transition.

Factors Driving the Early Heatwave:

• Dry Winter Effect: Lack of rainfall
reduces soil moisture, increasing
surface heating.
• Weak Western Disturbances: Mediterranean-origin systems weakened, reducing cooling
precipitation.
• Lack of Wind Convergence: Absence of westerly–easterly interaction limits moisture inflow.
• Atmospheric Anticyclones: High-pressure systems cause sinking, warming air and clear skies.
• Climate Change Trends: Long-term warming shifts seasons, making early heatwaves frequent
and intense.

Challenges Associated:
• Rabi Crop Vulnerability: Sudden heat during grain filling reduces yields of wheat and mustard.
E.g. Farmers face terminal heat stress, needing frequent irrigation.
• Water Resource Depletion: Rising demand exhausts groundwater and reservoirs quickly.
E.g. Reduced snowfall lowers river discharge, threatening summer supply.
• Public Health Risk: Early heatwaves increase heat exhaustion and dehydration cases.
E.g. Unprepared regions see rising hospital visits during unusual temperatures.
• Power Demand Spikes: Cooling needs surge early, stressing electricity grids.
E.g. Peak demand rises months earlier, requiring advance power procurement.
• Economic Impact on Labour: Outdoor workers face reduced productivity and health risks.
E.g. Work hours shift to mornings to avoid extreme midday heat.

Way Ahead:

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• Climate-Resilient Crops: Promote heat-tolerant varieties of wheat and mustard for stability.
• Enhanced Micro-Irrigation: Encourage drip and sprinkler systems to conserve water
efficiently.
• Urban Heat Mitigation: Expand green cover and cool roofs to reduce heat islands.
• Predictive Health Surveillance: Use Artificial Intelligence-based models for early risk
detection.
• Water Harvesting: Implement winter rainwater harvesting to retain soil moisture.

Conclusion:
The early heatwave underscores urgent climate adaptation needs. Strengthening resilience in
agriculture, water management, and public health is essential to protect livelihoods and ensure
sustainable development amid increasing climatic uncertainties.

38. Melting Glaciers Greater Threat

• Glacier melting (deglaciation) refers to the reduction in the volume and mass of a glacier's
ice due to ablation (melting and sublimation) outstripping the accumulation of new snow.
As temperatures rise, the protective layer of seasonal snow and firn (intermediate ice)
thins, exposing older, unstable ice patches to the elements.

Factors Contributing to Glacier Melting:

• Rising Atmospheric Temperatures: Global warming reduces snow cover, exposing darker ice
and accelerating melt.
E.g. Srikanta Glacier experienced thinning due to record summer heat.
• Black Carbon Deposition: Pollutants absorb sunlight, increasing glacier melt rates.
E.g. Gangotri Glacier shows faster retreat due to high black carbon.
• Changes in Precipitation Patterns: Shift from snowfall to rainfall limits glacier recharge.
E.g. Ladakh glaciers shrink due to reduced winter snowfall.
• Infrastructural Development: Construction creates heat islands and destabilises fragile zones.
E.g. Char Dham project raises slope instability concerns.
• Nivation and Geomorphic Changes: Freeze-thaw cycles weaken ice structures, causing
collapses.
E.g. Dharali flood linked to collapsing ice hollows.

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Challenges Associated:
• Remote and Rugged Terrain: High-altitude conditions hinder installation and maintenance of
monitoring systems.
E.g. Accessing Srikanta peak is dangerous due to avalanches.
• Lack of Historical Data: Limited records restrict prediction of rare glacier hazards.
E.g. Ice-patch collapse risks were underestimated before Dharali event.
• Transboundary Management: Shared glaciers complicate coordination among countries.
E.g. Line of Actual Control tensions limit joint scientific studies.
• Socio-Economic Vulnerability: Settlements in valleys face high disaster risks.
E.g. Dharali village remains exposed to sudden glacial floods.
• Unpredictable Micro-Climates: Sudden weather shifts reduce forecasting accuracy.
E.g. Chamoli avalanche occurred without warning signals.

Way Ahead:
• Integrated Monitoring: Combine satellite and ground sensors to track small ice features
effectively.
• Community-Led Warning: Train locals to identify early warning signs like exposed dark
ice.
• Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Enforce strict environmental audits near glaciated
regions.
• Regional Cooperation: Promote real-time glacier data sharing through a Himalayan
Council.
• Nivation Mapping: Identify and monitor sensitive high-altitude geomorphic zones.

Conclusion:
Himalayan hazards are evolving rapidly. Strengthening monitoring, community awareness, and
regional cooperation is essential to manage emerging cryospheric risks and protect vulnerable
downstream populations.

39. 16th Finance Commission Recommends Heatwaves and Lightning as

National Disasters
The 16th Finance Commission has formally recommended the inclusion of heatwaves and
lightning in India's list of nationally notified disasters, a move triggered by record-breaking
temperatures and rising fatalities in 2024-25.

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Challenges Associated with Inclusion

• Attribution of Death: Proving heat as the primary cause remains medically complex.
E.g. During 2024 heatwaves, cases were recorded as fever, not heatstroke.
• Financial Strain on Centre: Annual compensation payouts could escalate significantly.
E.g. Thousands of lightning deaths would raise fiscal burdens sharply.
• Widespread Occurrence: Heatwaves span vast regions, complicating disaster-zone
identification.
E.g. Northwest India experiences prolonged temperatures above forty-five degrees
Celsius.
• Data Accuracy: Rural under-reporting distorts fund allocation.
E.g. Media figures understate actual rural fatalities.
• Incentive for Misreporting: Expanded categories may inflate compensation claims.
E.g. Disaster claims historically surge after new inclusions.

Way Ahead
• Dynamic Thresholds: Establish state-specific temperature and Wet Bulb limits for
declaring heatwaves.
• Parametric Insurance: Design insurance models protecting farmers and outdoor workers
from wage losses.
• Last-Mile Connectivity: Deploy Aapda Mitra volunteers for real-time lightning alerts in
fields.
• Urban Cooling: Integrate Cool Roof policies and Green Corridors under the Smart Cities
Mission.
• Scientific Death Audits: Form medical boards to certify heat-related fatalities
transparently.

Conclusion
• Recognition of heatwaves and lightning strengthens climate-responsive disaster
governance.

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• Structured fiscal backing and transparent certification can safeguard vulnerable
communities and shift policy from reactive relief toward proactive resilience.

40. Forest Fires in North East India

• Forest fires in the North East are primarily surface fires that feed on dry leaf litter, grass,
and forest debris. Unlike the crown fires seen in the West, these spread rapidly across
steep slopes during the dry winter months (December–March).
• The region is a global biodiversity hotspot, and such fires threaten rare species,
indigenous livelihoods, and the stability of the mountain soil.

Reasons for Forest Fires

• Dry Weather and Climate Variability: Prolonged dry spells and weak Western
Disturbances dry forest floors, increasing ignition risk.
E.g. Severe moisture deficit in Lohit Valley intensified wildfire spread.
• Shifting Cultivation (Jhum): Slash-and-burn practices can escape control and engulf
nearby forests.
E.g. Unchecked Jhum fires reportedly triggered the Walong blaze.
• Accumulation of Fuel Load: Dry bamboo, pine needles, and grasses act as inflammable
material.
E.g. Dzukou Valley vegetation fueled flames toward Japfu Peak.
• Accidental Human Ignition: Negligence by visitors or locals sparks fires.
E.g. Trekkers’ carelessness worsened Dzukou Valley fire.
• Topographic Wind Patterns: Steep slopes and valley winds accelerate uphill spread.
E.g. Strong winds near Japfu Peak intensified flames.

Challenges Associated with Elimination

• Inaccessible Terrain: Rugged Himalayan ridges prevent fire engines from reaching
hotspots quickly.
E.g. In Anjaw, teams required days to access remote fire locations.

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• Rarefied Air and Poor Visibility: Thin air and dense smoke restrict aerial firefighting
efficiency.
E.g. Indian Air Force helicopters faced lift constraints near Padumpokhiri Lake.
• Shortage of Water Sources: Limited nearby water bodies delay repeated water drops.
E.g. Dzukou operations required long trips to Dimapur lakes.
• Communication Gaps: Delays between satellite alerts and field response escalate fire
intensity.
E.g. Surface fires in Nagaland evolved into slope fires before intervention.
• Socio-Cultural Factors: Regulating Jhum cultivation involves sensitive livelihood
considerations.
E.g. Traditional practices persist in Arunachal Pradesh.

Way Ahead
• Community-Led Fire Brigades: Empower village councils as first responders under Joint
Forest Management frameworks.
• Technology Integration: Deploy drones and Artificial Intelligence-based fire spread
modelling for prediction and night surveillance.
• Infrastructure Development: Build high-altitude static water tanks to support helicopter
bucket operations.
• Fuel Management: Encourage commercial collection of dry biomass like pine needles for
bio-fuel use.
• Inter-State Coordination: Create a North-East Fire Task Force for coordinated response.

Conclusion
• Strengthening community participation and modern technology is essential for
sustainable wildfire management.
• Protecting fragile North-Eastern ecosystems safeguards climate stability, biodiversity
conservation, and long-term regional environmental security.

41. India’s Disaster Response: Centralisation Concerns and the Road Ahead
Context: The Wayanad landslides (Kerala, 2024) and the Centre–State mismatch in relief have
raised concerns that disaster funds are becoming more centralised and conditional.

About India’s Disaster Response: Centralisation Concerns and the Road Ahead
• It is a national, multi-level system created under the Disaster Management Act, 2005 to
manage prevention, preparedness, response, relief, and recovery.
• It brings together Union, State, district, local bodies and specialised forces to reduce
disaster risk and support affected communities.

Existing Disaster Response Models:

• Relief-Centric Model (Traditional):
o Historically focused on post-disaster relief and compensation, not on prevention
or resilience.
o States depended heavily on central grants after each major calamity.
• Risk Reduction & Preparedness Model (Current Policy Direction): NPDM 2009 and NDMP
2016/2019 shift emphasis to prevention, mitigation and preparedness.
• Institutional Multi-Tier Model:
o NDMA leads at national level, with SDMAs and DDMAs implementing at State and
district levels.
o This creates vertical coordination from Delhi to Gram Panchayat.
• Multi-Hazard Vulnerability Approach: Recognises that India faces earthquakes, floods,
cyclones, landslides, droughts, industrial accidents, etc.
• Sendai Framework–Aligned Model:

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o Aligns Indian policy with Sendai Framework 2015–2030 on risk reduction and
resilience.
o Stresses “build back better”, inclusive response and risk-informed development.

Successes So Far:
• Robust Institutions (NDMA, NDRF, SDMAs, DDMAs): India now has a full legal–
institutional chain from national to district level for disaster governance.
• Reduced Cyclone Mortality: Odisha and Andhra Pradesh are often cited as global best
practices for cyclone response.
• Improved Forecast & Early Warning:
o IMD now offers more accurate track and intensity forecasts for cyclones and
extreme weather.
o Use of satellites, Doppler radars and SMS alerts has strengthened last-mile
communication.
• Mock Drills & DMEx Culture: Large-scale exercises like Suraksha Chakra in Delhi-NCR test
responses to major earthquakes.
• Volunteer Involvement: Programs like Aapda Mitra train community volunteers for first
response. Civil society and local NGOs are increasingly embedded in planning and drills.

Challenges Associated with India’s Disaster Response:

• Centralisation & Fiscal Asymmetry:
o Centre often releases much less than assessed losses, forcing States to borrow or
cut other spending.
o Negotiated, delayed NDRF support weakens trust in cooperative federalism.
• Outdated Relief Norms & Inadequate Compensation: Fixed amounts for death and house
damage do not match present-day costs of rebuilding.
• Ambiguity and Discretion in ‘Severe Disaster’ Tag: “Severe” disaster is not clearly
defined, enabling subjective decisions on NDRF eligibility.
• Procedural Delays & Bureaucratic Layers: Relief depends on memorandums, central
teams, high-level approvals and file movement. This delays fund release at a time when
speed is most critical.
• Weak Risk-Based Allocation Criteria: Finance Commission uses population and area
rather than hazard maps and exposure indices. Vulnerability is approximated by poverty,
not by scientific risk assessment.
• Capacity and Implementation Gaps at Local Level: DDMA/ULB capacities in planning, GIS,
and enforcement remain uneven across states.

Way Ahead:
• Rules-Based, Trigger-Linked Financing:
o Use objective indicators (rainfall thresholds, per capita loss, loss–GSDP ratio) to
trigger aid.
o This reduces political discretion and ensures predictable, timely relief.

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• Revise Norms & Expand Eligible Uses of Funds:
o Periodically revise compensation norms to reflect real reconstruction costs.
o Allow SDRF/NDRF to also support livelihood restoration and basic rebuilding, not
just immediate relief.
• Empower States, Districts and Local Bodies:
o Give SDMAs and DDMAs greater operational control over funds and planning.
o Strengthen ULBs and panchayats with training, EOCs and clear local response
protocols.
• Develop a National Disaster Vulnerability Index:
o Combine hazard, exposure, population density, ecology and socio-economic
vulnerability.
o Use this index to prioritise funds and mitigation projects transparently.
• Mainstream Risk Reduction into Development:
o Enforce building codes, zoning laws, CRZ norms and floodplain regulation strictly.
o Make all major infrastructure climate and disaster resilient by design.
• Strengthen Cooperative Federalism & Trust:
o Institutionalise Centre–State consultation on criteria, triggers and norms.
o Keep Union’s role as supportive and rules-based, not ad hoc and discretionary.

Conclusion:
India has built a strong legal and institutional base for disaster management, but its financing and
federal practices lag behind its ambitions. As climate shocks intensify, disaster response must shift
from negotiated, discretionary relief to a transparent, rules-based partnership. Only then can
India’s federal system protect both lives and the constitutional spirit of cooperative, resilient
governance in times of crisis.

42. The UN ESCAP Asia-Pacific Disaster Report 2025

Context: The UN ESCAP Asia-Pacific Disaster Report 2025 warns that Asian megacities—Delhi,
Karachi, Dhaka, Manila, Shanghai, Seoul—could face 2–7°C extra heat due to the urban heat
island effect, pushing temperatures far beyond global warming averages.

Key Findings in Report:

• Urban Heat Amplification (UHI Effect):
o Even if global warming stabilises at 1.5–2°C, cities may heat by +7°C due to dense
concrete, limited green cover, and high waste heat from vehicles and ACs.
o Megacities like Delhi, Karachi, Dhaka are projected to experience high localised
heat stress far beyond rural surroundings.
• Chronic Heat Exposure in South Asia:
o India, Pakistan, Bangladesh: 300+ days with heat index >35°C; over 200 days
above 41°C in several regions.
o Heat index includes humidity, making it a better indicator of felt temperature.
• Rapid Rise in Extreme Heat Events:
o 2024 was the hottest year on record, with Bangladesh’s April–May heatwave
affecting 33 million people.
o India’s long heatwave in 2024 caused ~700 deaths, the second deadliest event in
the region.
• Population Exposure Trends:
o Over 40% of South Asia’s population will face heat index >35°C and 41°C in both
medium- and long-term scenarios.
o Exposure will worsen regardless of climate policy due to continued urbanisation.
• Compounding Threat: Heat + Pollution
o High heat intensifies wildfires, droughts, PM10/PM2.5 load, and releases VOCs.

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o Heat and pollution amplify cardiovascular and respiratory risks in a dangerous
feedback loop.
• Sectoral and Economic Impacts:
o Heat-related working-hour losses in Asia projected to rise from 3.75 million to 8.1
million full-time job equivalents by 2030.
o Annual climate-related economic loss may rise to $498 billion under high-
emissions scenarios.

Why South Asia Is Most at Risk?

• High Humidity + High Temperature: Humid conditions amplify “felt heat,” pushing heat
index above 35–41°C for 300+ days a year.
• Dense Urbanisation: Fast-growing megacities like Delhi, Dhaka and Karachi trap heat
through concrete, vehicles and limited green cover.
• Large Outdoor Workforce: Millions rely on labour-intensive sectors—agriculture,
construction—where exposure to heat is unavoidable.
• Low Adaptation Capacity: Limited access to cooling, reliable electricity, clean water and
heat shelters heightens vulnerability.
• High Population Density: Even moderate heatwaves impact tens of millions due to
crowded settlements and poor housing.
• Poverty & Inequality: Heat amplifies socio-economic disadvantages, making the poor
disproportionately exposed and unprotected.

Challenges in Reducing Heat Risk:

• Weak Heat Action Plans: Many state and city heat plans lack funding, scientific grounding
and legal backing for enforcement.
• Poor Urban Planning: Concrete-dominated cities leave little room for trees, ventilation
corridors or blue-green infrastructure.
• Digital & Monitoring Gaps: Only half of global meteorological systems issue heat
warnings; localised forecasts remain limited.
• Insufficient Healthcare Systems: Heat emergency units, hydration centres and rapid-
response teams are inadequate in many districts.
• Labour Protection Weakness: Outdoor workers lack mandatory shade breaks, adjusted
hours, or employer accountability during heatwaves.
• Electricity & Water Stress: Power outages and water shortages increase risk when cooling
becomes essential for survival.

Way Forward:
• National Heat-Health Warning Network: Ensure district-level forecasts, heat alerts, and
last-mile communication in local languages.
• Heat-Sensitive Urban Design: Promote cool roofs, reflective surfaces, urban forests,
shaded corridors and permeable pavements.
• Protect Workers Legally: Mandate heat safety protocols—rest breaks, water access, shift
changes—during extreme heat days.
• Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Adopt heat-tolerant crop varieties, micro-irrigation,
agroforestry and weather-indexed insurance.
• Strengthen Local Health Systems: Establish cooling shelters, mobile clinics, hydration
kiosks, and emergency heat-response teams.
• Expand Social Safety Nets: Provide subsidised cooling appliances, water access, and
targeted support for vulnerable households

Conclusion:
Extreme heat is emerging as the fastest-growing climate threat in Asia, with South Asia at the
epicentre due to its demographic, ecological and socio-economic vulnerabilities. Without urgent

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adaptation measures—urban redesign, labour protection, and robust warning systems—
heatwaves will become chronic humanitarian crises. A proactive, science-driven, equity-focused
strategy is essential to protect lives, livelihoods and long-term climate resilience.

43. India’s Direction for Disaster Resilience

Context: India is strengthening its disaster resilience framework using science-based, nature-
driven, and finance-linked strategies, guided by the Prime Minister’s 10-Point Agenda on Disaster
Risk Reduction (2016) and the 15th Finance Commission’s ₹2.28-lakh-crore allocation for disaster
management (2021-26).

Institutional and Policy Framework

• Home Ministry & NDMA – Oversee pre- and post-disaster management through multi-
hazard planning and state coordination.
Eg: NDMA’s National Guidelines for Landslides (2023) and Urban Flood Management
Framework (2024).
• 15th Finance Commission (2021–26) – Allocated ₹2.28 lakh crore to strengthen disaster
risk reduction (DRR) capacities:
o Preparedness & capacity-building: 10%
o Mitigation: 20%
o Response: 40%
o Reconstruction: 30%
• Prime Minister’s 10-Point Agenda (2016) – Mainstream disaster risk reduction into
development planning, use technology, and strengthen local capacities.

Key Features of the New Disaster Resilience Model

• Financial Innovation
o Integrates public finance with scientific hazard modelling.
o Moves beyond relief to risk prevention and climate adaptation.
o Multilateral debt dependence replaced by domestic budget-linked funding.
o Eg: ₹5,000 crore reconstruction packages in 2025 for Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh, Assam, Sikkim, and Kerala.
• Nature-based and Technological Solutions
o NDMA promotes bio-engineering for slope stabilization, revival of wetlands
(beels) to mitigate floods, and forest-fire fuel breaks.
o Encourages remote sensing and automated weather stations for glacial-lake
monitoring.
o Eg: National Cyclone Mitigation Programme (2011-22) built 700 cyclone shelters
and early-warning systems across 8 states.
• Capacity Building
o Establishment of geo-spatial training labs and expansion of National Institute of
Disaster Management (NIDM) courses across 36 disciplines.
o Creation of Apda Mitra and Yuva Apda Mitra volunteer corps (2.5 lakh trained).
Eg: Fire safety modernisation received ₹5,000 crore allocation.
• Community-Centric Preparedness
o Panchayat-level disaster plans being mainstreamed into local development.
o School safety programmes and mock drills promote behavioural readiness.

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Challenges in India’s Disaster Resilience Framework:
• Fragmented Implementation – Disaster management responsibilities are divided among
multiple ministries and state agencies, often leading to duplication, coordination delays,
and inconsistent policy execution during crises.
• Urban Vulnerability – Rapid urbanisation, weak zoning laws, and encroachments on
wetlands and floodplains have increased exposure to heatwaves, flash floods, and
infrastructure collapse in cities.
• Funding Absorption – Many states lack technical capacity and trained personnel to
design, execute, and monitor projects under DRR funds, leading to underutilisation of
central allocations.
• Data Integration – Absence of a unified, real-time disaster database linking IMD, NDMA,
ISRO, and state units hampers accurate risk mapping, forecasting, and timely decision-
making.
• Climate Uncertainty – Erratic monsoons, retreating glaciers, and extreme weather events
make hazard prediction complex, challenging traditional planning and long-term
adaptation strategies.

Way forward:
• Local Governance: Strengthen panchayats with real-time early-warning systems and
micro-insurance schemes to enable faster local response and quick recovery after
disasters.
• Green Infrastructure: Restore mangroves, rivers, and urban green corridors to naturally
absorb shocks from floods, heatwaves, and cyclones, promoting eco-based resilience.
• Data-Driven DRR: Build an integrated risk-mapping platform linking NDMA, IMD, and
ISRO data for real-time monitoring, early warnings, and predictive disaster analytics.
• Private Sector Role: Encourage corporate investment in disaster insurance, resilient
infrastructure, and CSR-led preparedness projects to expand national resilience capacity.
• Education & Ethics: Integrate climate ethics and disaster awareness in curricula to foster
responsible, informed citizens who value sustainability and preparedness.

Conclusion:

India’s disaster resilience journey reflects a shift from reactive recovery to anticipatory
governance, blending finance, technology, and community stewardship. By integrating nature-
based solutions with ethical climate responsibility and global cooperation, India is poised to
become a model for sustainable disaster management by 2047 — Viksit Bharat’s centenary
vision.

44. Himalayan Fragility and Unsustainable Development

Context: Recent floods and landslides in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Kashmir
have exposed the cost of rampant construction and deforestation in the Himalayas.
• Experts and the Supreme Court have warned that unregulated “development” is pushing
the fragile mountains to the brink of collapse.

About Himalayan Fragility and Unsustainable Development:

• The Himalayas are the youngest and highest fold mountains in the world.
• They stretch for about 2,400 km across India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Pakistan.
• Average width: 150–400 km; Average elevation: 6,000 m+.
• They form the northern boundary of the Indian subcontinent and act as a climatic,
cultural, and ecological divide.
• Home to the world’s highest peaks including Mount Everest (8,849 m) and Kanchenjunga
(8,586 m).

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Formation of the Himalayas:
• Ancient Landmasses:
o Around 200 million years ago, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up.
o Two major landmasses relevant to the Himalayas:
1. Laurasia (north) – included Eurasia.
2. Gondwana (south) – included India, Africa, Australia, etc.
• Tethys Sea:
o Between Laurasia and Gondwana lay a shallow sea called the Tethys Sea.
o Over millions of years, sediments from rivers accumulated in this sea bed.
• Indian Plate Movement:
o About 140 million years ago, the Indian Plate broke away from Gondwana.
o It drifted northwards at a fast rate (~15 cm/year).
• Collision with Eurasian Plate:
o Around 50 million years ago, the Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate.
o The sediments of the Tethys Sea were compressed and uplifted due to plate
convergence.
• Orogeny (Mountain Building):
o The collision gave rise to fold mountains – the Himalayas.
o The process is still active: the Himalayas are rising by ~5 mm per year due to
ongoing plate movement.

Himalayan Fragility:
• Young Mountains – Himalayas are geologically young and unstable, making them
naturally prone to landslides and seismic activity.
• Climate Sensitivity – Warming rates are higher than global averages, leading to glacier
melt and erratic rainfall patterns.
• High-Energy Environment – Steep slopes and fast-flowing rivers amplify disaster risks like
floods and soil erosion.
• Glacial Lakes – Over 25,000 glacial lakes increase risks of sudden glacial lake outburst
floods (GLOFs).
• Biodiversity Hotspot – Home to unique species and ecosystems, their destruction
undermines both ecology and livelihoods.

Drivers of Himalayan Degradation:

• Unregulated Infrastructure – Highways, tunnels, and hydro projects destabilise slopes
using heavy blasting and excavation.
• Deforestation – Native trees like deodar, which bind the soil, are cleared for tourism and
urban expansion.
• Hydropower Expansion – Excessive damming alters river courses and increases disaster
potential.
• Weak Impact Assessments – Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) are often bypassed
or diluted for quick approvals.
• Tourism Pressure – Surging demand for hotels and roads strains land resources and
accelerates ecological erosion.

Consequences of Unsustainable Development:

• Human Loss – Disasters like Kedarnath 2013 and Chamoli 2021 cause large-scale deaths
and displacement.
• Ecological Damage – Soil erosion, biodiversity loss, and degradation of forests worsen
long-term resilience.
• Disaster Multiplication – Development without safeguards converts heavy rainfall into
catastrophic floods and landslides.

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• Economic Setbacks – Infrastructure collapses, farms destroyed, and tourism disrupted
reduce state revenues.
• Social Stress – Communities lose trust in governance when projects endanger lives
without consultation.

Way Ahead:
• Mountain-Specific Policies – Draft distinct development models considering carrying
capacity of fragile zones.
• Strengthen EIAs – Ensure strict, independent ecological and disaster impact assessments
before approvals.
• Promote Nature-Based Solutions – Afforestation, slope stabilisation, and watershed
management can reduce risks.
• Community-Led Development – Build climate literacy, eco-tourism, and empower local
governance for resilience.
• Sustainable Energy Mix – Shift focus from hydropower dominance to solar, wind, and
decentralised energy.

Conclusion:
The Himalayas are at a tipping point where reckless development is colliding with climate change.
Sustainable models that respect ecology, empower communities, and balance growth are
essential. Only then can these “living mountains” remain resilient for future generations.

45. Maldives & Lakshadweep Sea-Level Rise

Context: A study on coral microatolls in Maldives shows sea levels in the central Indian Ocean
have been rising since the late 1950s.

Data Highlights:
• Sea level rose by ~0.3 m from 1930–2019, proving long-term acceleration.
• Rise rates: 1–1.8 mm/yr (1930–59), 2.7–4.1 mm/yr (1960–92), 3.9–4.8 mm/yr (1990–
2019).
• Since 1959, average rise has been 3.2 mm/yr, climbing to ~4 mm/yr in the last 20–30
years.
• Over 50 years, Maldives–Lakshadweep region has faced a 30–40 cm increase in sea level.

Key Findings:
• Sea-level acceleration began in the 1950s, not the 1990s as widely believed.
• Coral growth bands and uranium dating gave precise long-term records of sea levels.
• Coral interruptions linked to El Niño, IOD events, and lunar cycles affecting tides.
• Central Indian Ocean showed earlier and faster rise than coastal areas due to unique
regional factors.

Causes of Sea-Level Rise:

• Thermal expansion: As oceans absorb heat, seawater expands, adding volume and
steadily raising global sea levels.
• Glacial and ice-sheet melting: Melting from the Himalayas, Arctic, and Antarctica releases
vast freshwater directly into oceans.
• Indian Ocean warming: Above-average heating here intensifies currents and circulation,
causing higher local sea-level rise.
• Climate variability: Events like El Niño, Indian Ocean Dipole, and wind shifts amplify
regional sea-level fluctuations.

Implications:

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• Ecological: Rising seas reduce sunlight for corals, cause bleaching, erode coasts, and
disrupt fragile reef ecosystems.
• Social: Communities on low-lying islands like Maldives and Lakshadweep risk forced
migration and loss of homes.
• Economic: Fisheries, tourism, and infrastructure — the lifeline of island economies — face
massive long-term losses.
• Geopolitical: Displacement may lead to climate refugees, straining governance and
regional security frameworks.

Way Forward:
• Monitoring: Use coral microatolls with tide gauges and satellites to create long-term,
precise sea-level datasets.
• Coastal resilience: Restore mangroves, build seawalls, and adopt climate-resilient
infrastructure for shoreline protection.
• Regional cooperation: Indian Ocean Rim nations must share data and coordinate
adaptation strategies collectively.
• Global climate action: Meet Paris Agreement targets to cut emissions and slow ocean
warming.
• For India: Prioritise Lakshadweep by conserving ecosystems, preparing for disasters, and
investing in adaptation.

Conclusion:
Sea-level rise in the Indian Ocean is earlier and sharper than assumed, endangering islands and
coastal lives. Coral microatolls provide vital historical evidence for improving future projections.
Urgent steps in adaptation, cooperation, and emission reduction are critical to safeguard the
region.

46. Technology-Driven Disaster Management Strategy

Context: 2025 Himalayan floods in J&K, Himachal, Punjab, and Uttarakhand caused heavy loss of
life and property, exposing disaster preparedness gaps.
• Experts urge a technology-driven disaster management approach for a future-ready
Himalayan strategy.

Himalayan Disaster Profile:

• Geologically Fragile: Himalayas are young fold mountains, still rising, making them prone
to earthquakes, landslides, and slope instability.
• Hydro-Meteorological Hazards: Frequent cloudbursts, flash floods, and glacial lake
outburst floods (GLOFs) occur during monsoon due to steep slopes and heavy rainfall.
• Anthropogenic Stress: Road widening, tunneling for hydropower, deforestation, and
unregulated tourism further destabilise fragile slopes.
• Climate Change Multiplier: Rising temperatures intensify rainfall variability, melting
glaciers faster, increasing frequency of floods and landslides.
• High Exposure: Pilgrimage routes and towns on river floodplains and unstable hillsides
put large populations and critical infrastructure at risk.

Current Disaster Management Strength:

• Institutional Setup: NDMA at national level and SDMAs, NDRF, SDRFs in states provide a
structured, multi-tier disaster management mechanism.
• Rapid Response: Army, Air Force, and BRO quickly deploy rescue teams, helicopters, and
bridges to restore connectivity and save lives.
• Technology Use: Drones, Doppler radars, IMD’s nowcasting, and satellite links help in
real-time monitoring and quick dissemination of alerts.

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• Inter-Agency Coordination: Civil administration, armed forces, paramilitary, and disaster
forces conduct joint operations ensuring efficiency.
• Community Participation: Local volunteers, panchayats, and NGOs help in evacuation,
relief distribution, and first response before formal teams arrive.

Gaps & Challenges:

• Predictive Weakness: Current forecasting cannot provide hyper-local warnings for
cloudbursts or GLOFs with high accuracy, reducing lead time.
• Infrastructure Stress: Unplanned construction, road cutting, and encroachments increase
hazard exposure and amplify disaster impacts.
• Public Awareness Deficit: Many people ignore SMS alerts or do not know evacuation
routes, leading to preventable casualties.
• Institutional Limitations: State Disaster Management Authorities often lack trained
manpower, updated plans, and adequate funding.
• Post-Disaster Recovery Issues: Roads and bridges are rebuilt without slope stabilisation,
and compensation delays prolong rehabilitation.

Role of Technology in Reducing Disasters:

• GIS & Remote Sensing: Map hazard-prone areas to guide land-use planning, zoning, and
infrastructure development.
• AI-Based Forecasting: Use machine learning to analyse rainfall patterns and predict flash
floods or debris flow events in advance.
• 24×7 Monitoring: Install continuous sensors for glacial lakes, soil moisture, and Doppler
radar to give early warnings of slope failure.
• Drone Surveillance: Monitor vulnerable slopes, deliver supplies, and provide live imagery
for decision-makers during disasters.
• Digital Communication: Mass alerts through mobile apps, SMS, sirens, and public
announcement systems ensure timely evacuation.

Community & Governance Role:

• Aapda Mitra Training: Build a trained pool of community volunteers who act as first
responders in villages and towns.
• Strict Regulation: Enforce construction bans in ecologically sensitive areas and ensure
compliance with seismic and safety codes.
• Mock Drills: Conduct regular drills on pilgrim routes and schools to familiarise people with
evacuation procedures.
• Decentralised Plans: Strengthen District Disaster Management Authorities with resources
and autonomy for localised action.

Way Ahead:
• Preventive Focus: Integrate hazard mapping into urban planning, hydropower projects,
and tourism development to avoid high-risk zones.
• Tech Upgrade: Adopt IoT-based sensors, AI prediction models, and blockchain-enabled
transparent relief tracking systems.
• Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Build bio-engineered retaining walls, climate-proof
roads, and slope stabilisation structures.
• Capacity Building: Train disaster professionals, allocate dedicated funds to SDMAs, and
promote local disaster literacy.
• Public Engagement: Make disaster preparedness part of civic education and encourage
citizens to treat readiness as a duty.

Conclusion:

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NOTES
The Himalayan floods of 2025 are a wake-up call. Disaster management must move from reactive
relief to proactive risk reduction, powered by technology and local participation. A resilient, tech-
enabled, citizen-aware system is key to safeguarding lives and livelihoods in India’s fragile
mountain ecosystems.

47. Setting Up an Early Warning System (EWS) for the Himalayas

Context: The Himalayas are witnessing an alarming rise in climate-induced disasters—from floods
and landslides to glacial lake bursts—prompting scientists to call for robust early warning systems
(EWS) across the fragile mountain range to reduce loss of life and property.

Rising Disaster Trend in the Himalayas:

• Between 1900–2022, India faced 687 disasters, of which 240 occurred in the Himalayan
belt (DTE 2024).
• The number of disasters rose sharply—only 5 incidents before 1962, but 68 between
2013–2022, accounting for 44% of India’s total disasters.
• NASA data (2007–2017) recorded 1,121 landslide events, reflecting growing instability.
• The region is warming at 0.15°C–0.60°C per decade, faster than the global average,
intensifying snowmelt and flash floods.
• Extreme weather events—including cloudbursts, avalanches, and GLOFs—are increasing
in both frequency and scale.

Cruciality of Early Warning Systems (EWS):

• Life-saving Mechanism: Early alerts allow timely evacuation and response, preventing
large-scale loss of life in flood and landslide-prone Himalayan valleys.
• Disaster Preparedness: EWS facilitates real-time detection and forecasting of hazards like
GLOFs, cloudbursts, and avalanches for rapid action.
• Scientific Data Backbone: Creates a continuous, data-driven record for risk modelling,
helping design safer infrastructure and mitigation plans.
• Community Resilience: Engaging locals in EWS operations builds awareness,
accountability, and faster ground-level response during crises.
• Proven Success: Successes in Switzerland and China show that early warning and
community coordination can avert glacier-related disasters.

Successful International and Domestic Examples:

• Switzerland: Local early alerts and community coordination averted glacier-collapse
disasters.
• China (Cirenmaco Lake): EWS based on satellite-fed glacial lake monitoring using
unmanned boats.
• India: Environment Ministry-funded project to develop AI-based hailstorm EWS for apple
farmers in the Himalayas.

Role of Artificial Intelligence and Technology:

• AI-aided models can process live data into predictive warnings with sub-kilometre
accuracy.
• Satellite links and unmanned monitoring boats can track lake levels and glacier
movement (as used by Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2022).
• Drone surveillance helps in localized assessments but remains limited by scale, weather,
and cost.
• AI-integrated EWS prototypes are being tested for hailstorm and cloudburst predictions
in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.

Challenges to Installing EWS in the Himalayas:

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NOTES
• Rugged Terrain: The Himalayas’ steep, remote landscapes make sensor installation,
calibration, and year-round maintenance difficult.
• Poor Connectivity: Many valleys lack telecom and internet access, hindering the real-time
transmission of hazard data to control centres.
• High Cost and Technology Gaps: The absence of affordable, weather-proof indigenous
EWS technology limits large-scale deployment.
• Fragmented Governance: Weak inter-agency coordination and overlapping mandates
delay decision-making and operational execution.
• Lack of Community Involvement: Without local training and ownership, systems remain
underused and fail to trigger timely evacuation.

Way Ahead:
• Develop Indigenous Systems: Create AI-integrated, solar-powered, and low-cost EWS
prototypes designed for Himalayan geography.
• Valley-Level Coverage: Deploy EWS networks in every major Himalayan valley, ensuring
coordination across borders and watersheds.
• Integrate AI and Satellite Data: Use AI forecasting models and satellite imaging to
enhance real-time hazard mapping and accuracy.
• Empower Local Communities: Train village task forces and youth groups to manage and
act on EWS signals independently.
• Institutional Reform: Establish a National Himalayan Early Warning Mission (NDMA) to
unify research, deployment, and response under one command.

Conclusion:
The Himalayas stand at the frontline of the climate crisis, yet remain poorly equipped with
disaster alert systems. Building an integrated, community-driven, and technology-powered early
warning network is vital for saving lives and ecosystems.
Safeguarding the “third pole” must now be treated as a national climate-security priority.

[Link] 68 InsightsIAS