Four Important Laboratory Instruments
Oscilloscope • Signal Generator • Spectrometer • Ballistic Galvanometer
(Reference: Worsnop & Flint — Advanced Practical Physics for Students)
1. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
Principle
A narrow beam of electrons generated inside a cathode ray tube (CRT) is deflected by the electric field
between two pairs of mutually perpendicular deflecting plates (X-plates and Y-plates). The
instantaneous position of the spot on the fluorescent screen thus traces out the waveform of the applied
voltage signal with respect to time.
Construction — Main Parts
Electron Gun: consists of a heated cathode, a control grid and a set of accelerating anodes; it emits
electrons by thermionic emission, accelerates them and focuses them into a fine beam.
Deflecting System: two pairs of parallel plates —
Y-plates (vertical deflection) — the signal under test is applied here
X-plates (horizontal deflection) — a saw-tooth voltage from the time-base generator is applied
here
Fluorescent Screen: the inner surface is coated with phosphor; it emits a spot of light where the
electron beam strikes it.
Time-Base Generator: produces a linearly rising (saw-tooth) voltage which is fed to the X-plates so
that the spot sweeps at a uniform rate from left to right.
The whole tube is maintained under high vacuum so that the electrons do not collide with air
molecules.
Working
1. The heated cathode emits electrons (thermionic emission).
2. These electrons are accelerated by the high potential of the anodes and focused into a narrow beam.
3. The test signal applied to the Y-plates deflects the beam vertically, while the time-base voltage on
the X-plates moves the beam horizontally at a constant rate.
4. The combined motion traces the voltage-versus-time waveform of the signal on the screen.
Uses
Observing the waveform of any electrical signal
Measuring voltage, frequency, time period and phase difference
Determining the frequency ratio of two signals using Lissajous figures
Analysing sound signals, radio signals, etc.
Y-plates X-plates
Cathode
Grid Anodes
Fluorescent screen
Fig. 1: Simplified construction of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
2. Signal Generator
Principle
An electronic oscillator circuit is used to produce a periodic electrical signal (sine, square, triangular,
etc.) of accurately controllable frequency and amplitude, which can be fed into a circuit or instrument
under test.
Construction — Main Parts
Oscillator Circuit: usually an RC or LC oscillator that generates the basic waveform.
Frequency Control: a range selector together with a fine-tuning knob to set the desired frequency.
Amplitude Control / Attenuator: controls the output voltage level of the signal.
Waveform Selector: allows selection between sine, square and triangular waveforms.
Output Terminals: from which the signal is fed to the external circuit (e.g. a CRO or the apparatus
under test).
Frequency Counter/Display (in modern instruments): shows the output frequency directly.
Working
1. The oscillator circuit produces a periodic signal of a definite frequency, determined by the chosen
RC or LC values.
2. If required, wave-shaping circuits convert the sine wave into a square or triangular wave.
3. The attenuator reduces the amplitude of the signal to the desired level.
4. The signal is delivered through the output terminals to the circuit or instrument under test.
Uses
Testing and calibrating electronic circuits and instruments
Supplying standard signals to a CRO for observing various waveforms
Providing a source of known frequency in resonance experiments
Testing radio and audio equipment, and general laboratory investigations
Signal Generator (front panel)
Frequency display
Waveform selector
Frequency knob Amplitude knob
Output terminals
Fig. 2: Simplified front-panel layout of a Signal Generator
3. Spectrometer
Principle
Light is dispersed into its constituent wavelengths by refraction through a prism or diffraction through a
grating. By precisely measuring the angles involved (angle of the prism, angle of deviation, angle of
minimum deviation, or diffraction angles), quantities such as the refractive index of a material or the
wavelength of light can be determined.
Construction — Main Parts
Collimator: has a narrow slit at one end and a convex lens at the other; it converts the diverging
light from a source into a parallel beam.
Prism Table: a rotatable circular table on which the prism or grating is mounted, fitted with
levelling screws to adjust its height and inclination.
Telescope: consists of an objective lens and an eyepiece; used to observe the refracted or diffracted
rays.
Circular (Vernier) Scale: graduated in degrees, used with vernier scales to read angles precisely,
down to a fraction of a minute.
Verniers: usually two (V1 and V2), placed 180° apart, to eliminate errors due to eccentricity.
Base and Levelling Screws: keep the instrument level and stable during observation.
Working — General Procedure
1. The instrument is first levelled using the levelling screws, and the telescope and collimator are
adjusted (for parallel rays and a distinct image of the slit).
2. The prism or grating is mounted on the prism table, and a parallel beam of light from the collimator
is made to fall on it.
3. The refracted (or diffracted) rays are observed through the telescope; the telescope is rotated to
align with different rays, and the corresponding angular positions are read off the circular scale.
4. The difference between two such readings gives the required angle (angle of deviation, angle of the
prism, or diffraction angle), from which the refractive index of the prism material or the wavelength
of light can be calculated.
Uses
Determining the refractive index (μ) of a prism material
Measuring the angle of a prism and the angle of minimum deviation
Determining the wavelength of light using a diffraction grating
Observing and analysing the emission or absorption spectra of different sources
Telescope
Slit
Collimator
Prism
Prism table (circular scale)
Fig. 3: Plan (top) view of a Spectrometer with prism arrangement
4. Ballistic Galvanometer (BG)
Principle
A ballistic galvanometer is a special type of moving-coil galvanometer whose period of oscillation is
made very large compared with the (short) time during which a transient current or charge flows
through it. Consequently, the coil acquires an angular impulse before it has moved appreciably, and the
first (maximum) throw of the coil is directly proportional to the total charge that has flowed through it.
Construction — Main Parts
Permanent Magnet: a strong magnet with concave pole pieces that produce a radial magnetic
field.
Moving Coil: a rectangular coil of fine copper wire, suspended freely within the magnetic field.
Suspension (Phosphor-Bronze Fibre): supports the coil, carries current to it, and provides the
restoring torque for oscillation.
Mirror: a small mirror attached to the suspension, used with a lamp-and-scale arrangement to
measure the deflection.
Large Moment of Inertia: extra mass is added to the coil to increase its period of oscillation,
which is essential for ballistic behaviour.
Low Damping Arrangement: ensures the coil can oscillate freely without significant loss of
amplitude.
Working
1. A transient current (for example, the current induced in a coil due to a sudden change of magnetic
flux) is passed through the coil of the BG.
2. Because this current lasts for a very short time compared with the natural period of the coil, the coil
receives an initial angular impulse but remains almost stationary while the current flows.
3. After the current has ceased, the coil swings and reaches a maximum deflection (θ), known as the
"first throw."
4. This maximum deflection is proportional to the total charge (q) that has flowed through the coil: q =
k·sin(θ/2), where k is the ballistic constant of the galvanometer.
5. The lamp-and-scale (mirror) arrangement is used to measure this deflection with precision.
Uses
Measuring the total charge (Q) that has flowed through a circuit
Determining the capacitance of a capacitor
Measuring magnetic flux and the strength of a magnetic field (B), using a search coil
Determining the mutual inductance between two coils
Investigating the magnetic permeability of materials
Mirror
Suspension fibre
N S
Soft-iron core
Moving coil
Lower suspension / spring
Fig. 4: Construction of a Ballistic Galvanometer (front view)
— Reference notes, based on Worsnop & Flint: Advanced Practical Physics for Students —