Network Lab Manual

V.B MICRO ELECTRONICS

NO.13 POSTAL COLONY 3RD STREET
WEST MAMBALAM,
CHENNAI-600 033.
INTRODUCTION:

RS232 is the most known serial port used in transmitting the data in
communication and interface. Even though serial port is harder to program than the
parallel port, this is the most effective method in which the data transmission requires
less wires that yields to the less cost. The RS232 is the communication line which enables
the data transmission by only using three wire links. The three links provides ‘transmit’,
‘receive’ and common ground...
The ‘transmit’ and ‘receive’ line on this connecter send and receive data between
the computers. As the name indicates, the data is transmitted serially. The two pins are
TXD & RXD. There are other lines on this port as RTS, CTS, DSR, DTR, and RTS, RI.
The ‘1’ and ‘0’ are the data which defines a voltage level of 3V to 25V and -3V to -25V
respectively.
The RS-232D has existed in two types. i.e., D-TYPE 25 pin connector and D-
TYPE 9 pin connector, which are male connectors on the back of the PC. You need a
female connector on your communication from Host to Guest computer. The pin outs of
both D-9 & D-25 are show below.
D-Type-9 D-Type- Pin outs Function
pin no. 25

Pin no.
3 2 RD Receive Data (Serial data input)
2 3 TD Transmit Data (Serial data output)
7 4 RTS Request to send (acknowledge to modem that
UART is ready to exchange data
8 5 CTS Clear to send (i.e.; modem is ready to exchange
data)
6 6 DSR Data ready state (UART establishes a link)
5 7 SG Signal ground
1 8 DCD Data Carrier detect (This line is active when
modem detects a carrier
4 20 DTR Data Terminal Ready.
9 22 RI Ring Indicator (Becomes active when modem
detects ringing signal from PSTN
EIA RS232C Serial Interface Standard

A “Space” (logic 0) will be between 3 and 25 volts.

A “ Mark” (logic 1) will be between -3 and -25 volts.
The region between 3 & -3 volts is undefined.
Maximum data rates may be up to 20 kbps.
Maximum serial cable length may be 15 meters.
The reason to study RS-232C is that the serial part (Com port) found in PC’S uses this
standard.
Above are the sufficient points to start implementation of the serial interfacing on PC.

Null Modems
A Null Modem is used to connect two DTE's together. This is commonly used as a cheap
way to network games or to transfer files between computers using Zmodem Protocol,
Xmodem Protocol [Link] can also be used with many Microprocessor Development
Systems.
It only requires 3 wires (TD, RD & SG) to be wired straight through thus is more cost
effective to use with long cable runs. The theory of operation is reasonably easy. The aim
is to make to computer think it is talking to a modem rather than another computer. Any
data transmitted from the first computer must be received by the second thus TD is
connected to RD. The second computer must have the same set-up thus RD is connected
to TD. Signal Ground (SG) must also be connected so both grounds are common to each
computer. The Data Terminal Ready is looped back to Data Set Ready and Carrier Detect
on both computers. When the Data Terminal Ready is asserted active, then the Data Set
Ready and Carrier Detect immediately become active. At this point the computer thinks
the Virtual Modem to which it is connected is ready and has detected the carrier of the
other modem.
All left to worry about now is the Request to Send and Clear To Send. As both computers
communicate together at the same speed, flow control is not needed thus these two lines
are also linked together on each computer. When the computer wishes to send data, it
asserts the Request to Send high and as it's hooked together with the Clear to Send, It
immediately gets a reply that it is ok to send and does so.
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect one end of the 9 pin D-type female to female connector to the serial port
of your PC(system1).
2. Connect other end to the 9 pin D-type female connector of the PC to PC
communication trainer kit.
3. Repeat step 1 and 2 with the other PC(system2).
4. Connect RXD pin of system1 to TXD pin of system2.
5. Connect RXD pin of system2 to TXD pin of system1.
6. Connect DTR pin of system1 to DSR pin of system2.
7. Connect DTR pin of system2 to DSR pin of system1.
8. Connect RTS pin of system1 to CTS pin of system2.
9. Connect RTS pin of system2 to CTS pin of system1.
10. Common the ground terminals.
11. Run [Link] in both PC’s.
12. Select the comm terminal and baud rate.
NOTE: baud rate selected should be same for both the PC’s.
13. Click “SET_SERIAL_PORT” button. “successfully changed” message appears.
14. The status of CTS pin will read “notok” in both receiver and transmitter.
15. The status of DSR pin will read “notok” in both receiver and transmitter.
16. Click “RTS” button in the transmitting PC and receiver PC.
17. The status of CTS pin will read “ok” in both receiver and transmitter.
18. Click “DTR” button in the transmitting PC and receiver PC.
19. The status of DSR pin will read “ok” in both receiver and transmitter.
20. Type the message to be transmitted in the text box.
21. Click “TRANSMIT” button to transmit the typed content.
22. Click “CLR SCREEN” button to clear the text box.
To transmit a file:
 23. Type the message in the text box.
24. Type the file path with file name to which the contents to be written.
25. Click “WRITE_SCREEN_TO_FILE” button to write the contents.
26. Click “CLR SCREEN” button to clear the text box.
27. Click “READ_FILE_TO_SCREEN” button to read the contents of the file.
28. Click “TRANSMIT_FILE” button to transmit the file content.
NOTE: the transmitted file content will be stored in the path given in the receiving
PC.
29. Click “CLR SCREEN” to repeat the process.
30. Click “STOP” button to exit.

Connection for null modem method:

To connect the systems using null modem method

1. Connect DTR of system1 to DSR of system1
2. Connect DTR of system2 to DSR of system2
3. Connect RTS of system1 to CTS of system1
4. Connect RTS of system2 to CTS of system2
 FILE TRANSFER USING PARALLEL PORT

DESCRIPTION:

The main aim of the experiment is to transfer a file from a PC to another PC

using parallel port. The interface between the PC’s is done through the parallel port(LPT)
in the PC,a male to male 25 pin D-type connector is used to connect together. The
parallel port is configured to run in bi-directional mode. The data lines D0-D8 (pins 2 to
9) are used to read/write a byte of data. The control line STROBE and status line ACK
make the handshaking signal. The digital data pins are connected directly to the 74LS244
bi-directional buffer. The output of the buffer is connected to the data lines of the parallel
port.
OPERATION:

1. The data byte to be transmitted is placed on the data register (0x378).

2. The control pin STROBE is made low to indicate a valid data on the data bus.
3. The receiver PC waits for status pin ACK(which is cross connected with the
STROBE pin of transmitter PC) to go high.
4. Once the ACK pin goes high the data in the data register is read.
5. The receiver PC then acknowledges by giving a pulse in its STROBE pin .The
width of the acknowledge pulse can be set by the user.
6. This handshaking sequence is repeated for every byte until end of file.
PROCEDURE:

31. Connect one end of the 25 pin D-type male to male connector to the parallel port
of your PC(LPT)(system1).
32. Connect other end to the 25 pin D-type female connector of the PC to PC
communication trainer kit.
33. Repeat step 1 and 2 with the other PC(system2).
34. Connect the STROBE pin of system1 to the ACK pin of system 2 in the trainer
kit.
35. Connect the STROBE pin of system2 to the ACK pin of system 1 in the trainer
kit.
36. Connect data pins D0 to D7 of system1 to pins D0 to D7 of system2.
37. Common the ground terminals.
38. Run [Link] in both the PC’s.
For transmitting system:
39. Select the file to be sent in the PC from which you want to transfer file (say
system1).
For receiving system:
40. Set the transmission rate. The user can choose the preset rate if “choose delay”
option is selected or can assign any rate from 1 to 100 ms if “user delay” option is
selected.
41. Select the path for the file to be stored.
NOTE: The “receive file” button is disabled until the file path for the receiving file is
selected.
42. Click “send file” button in the transmitting PC.
43. Click “receive file” button in the receiver PC.
44. “file transfer completed” message appears both in the transmitter and receiver PC
once the transfer is complete.
45. The file contents will be displayed on the text box in the receiver PC.
46. Click “clear” button to clear the contents in the text box.
 47. Repeat all the above steps to send a new file.

PARALLEL PORT DETAILS:

Pinouts

Register DB-25 I/O

 Signal Name Bit Pin Direction
=========== ======== ===== =========
-Strobe ¬C0 1 Output
+Data Bit 0 D0 2 Output
+Data Bit 1 D1 3 Output
+Data Bit 2 D2 4 Output
+Data Bit 3 D3 5 Output
+Data Bit 4 D4 6 Output
+Data Bit 5 D5 7 Output
+Data Bit 6 D6 8 Output
+Data Bit 7 D7 9 Output
-Acknowledge S6 10 Input
+Busy ¬S7 11 Input
+Paper End S5 12 Input
+Select In S4 13 Input
-Auto Feed ¬C1 14 Output
-Error S3 15 Input
-Initialize C2 16 Output
-Select ¬C3 17 Output
Ground - 18-25 -
(Note again that the S7, C0, C1 & C3 signals are inverted)

IBM-PC Parallel Printer Port Female DB-25 Socket external Pin layout

___________________________________________________
/ \
\ 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 /
\ /
\ 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 /
\_______________________________________________/

The used pins for this experiment are as follows.

Pin signals purpose
1 -strobe
2 +data bit 0 D0
3 +data bit 1 D1
4 +data bit 2 D2
5 +data bit 3 D3
6 +data bit 4 D4
7 +data bit 5 D5
8 +data bit 6 D6
9 +data bit 7 D7
10 Ack
18 ground
VB Micro Electronics Chennai Net Linc Simulator – User Manual

Network Simulator

To use the software, the computer system should have the following.

1. Windows XP or Windows 2000 OS

2. Dot Net environment
3. The display should be in 1024 x 768 resolution

At the time of data entry, tab is to be used for next data

The Network Simulator consists of experiments in the following topics.

1. Network Topologies
2. Data Transfer Protocols
3. Routing Protocols
4. Encryption and Decryption
5. Network Sockets

From the main screen of the Network Simulator, different experiments can be chosen.

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LAN TOPOLOGIES

LAN Topologies consist of the following experiments

1. Ethernet
2. Token Ring
3. Token Bus
4. Wireless LAN

From this LAN Topology screen, different topology experiments can be chosen.

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Expt.1. Ethernet

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Input Parameters

No. of Nodes - 2 to 4
Frame Interval - 250 milliseconds. to 1000 milliseconds.
Frame Size - 64 Bytes to 1,500 Bytes
Maximum Back-off-time - 4 to 32
Error Generation - 10-9, 10-6 and 10-3

Transferring a data file from one node to another

There are four nodes in the topology numbered 1 through 4. Each node has a unique IP
address. At the time of input of simulator parameters such IP address, Bandwidth,
etc tab is to be used to enter next field information. Files can be selected for
transmission from a sender node to the receive node. All four nodes can act as senders or
receivers or both for a single file transmission.
A monitoring window shows up during file transmission displaying the instantaneous
status of the data transmission. The progress bar in these windows shows the amount of
data transferred and received. The monitoring window also contains trace information for
data sent or received and other network events for the associated node.

Storing of transferred files, results and traces

For the Ethernet topology operation, a directory named Ethernet is created in the
Simulator Directory in C drive. The “Ethernet” directory contains four sub-directories
corresponding to the four nodes in the topology.

The destination node of a file transmission stores the received file in the directory
corresponding to the node. Four separate directories Node1, Node2, Node3 and Node4
are created. In the sender node directory, 4 files are stored. Performance results are stored
as “[Link]”, the Trace is stored as “[Link]”, the graph Frame sent Vs Time and the
corresponding data derived from [Link] file is stored as “[Link]” and the
graph collision Vs Time and the corresponding data is stored as “[Link]”.

Connect and Disconnect facility

The simulator supports the feature of connection or disconnecting specific nodes at any
time during, before or after simulation test runs.

Pause and reset facility

There is a feature for pausing any simulation run and continuing the test at a later point in
time. The simulator also supports resetting a specific test and restarting it again.

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Result:
Result gives the following performance parameters

1. Payload: Amount of data delivered from sender to receiver

2. Overhead: Amount of control information used to send the data from the sender
to the receiver
3. Queuing time: Total amount of time spent by packets in the sender queue
4. Medium Access Time: Total amount of time spent by the head-of-line packet
before transmission
5. Dropped frames: Number of frames dropped due to buffer overflow
6. Frame error: Number of frames lost in the network due to bit errors
7. Checksum error: Number of frames dropped by receiver due to checksum error
8. Mean delay: The average time taken to transmit a packet successfully
9. Average attempts: Average number of attempts taken for a successful
transmission of a packet
10. Simulation time: Total duration of the simulation
11. Throughput: The rate of transmission of data during the simulation
12. Goodput: The rate of transmission of user data during the simulation
13. Data frames generated: Total number of data frames generated and delivered
during the simulation
14. Frame transmission probability: The probability of successfully transmitting a
frame.
15. Collision count: Total number of packet collisions during the simulation
16. Defer count: Total number of back offs by all sending nodes during the
simulation

Calculations:
1. Goodput = (Total bytes – Overhead) / Transmission time

2. Frame Probability = (Successful attempts / Total attempts)

3. Total Attempts = Successful attempts + failed attempts

4. failed attempts = Collisions + errors

5. Mean delay = Total file transmission time / number of transmissions

6. Efficiency = Actual rate / Ideal rate whereas Ideal rate = Rate when only one
node is transmitting

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Experiments to be carried out

1a) Select 2 Nodes and perform data transfer from Node 1 to Node 2 with one set of input
parameters and one fixed file.

Viewing the graphs and printing the graphs

In order to view the Frame sent Vs Time graph and Collision Vs Time graph, first, we
have to close the Simulator software. In C drive, inside the Simulator directory, in the
Ethernet directory, in Node 1, the graphs are stored as Excel file. In the computer
system, Microsoft Excel software should be available to view the graph by opening the
file “[Link]”. The graph can be seen and the data derived from the Trace can be
seen. The graph can be printed in Excel software.
Similarly, by opening the file “[Link]”, the collision Vs Time graph can be viewed.
It can also be stored.

Note: Before conducting another simulation experiment, the graphs and performance
must be printed or stored in some other place in the local disk. Otherwise, the new
experiment will overwrite all the Excel files in the corresponding node.

1b) The Simulation Software is opened. The Ethernet option is chosen. Select 2 Nodes
and carry out data transfer between 2 nodes simultaneously keeping the same set of input
parameters and with the same file from the Node 1 and analyze the results.

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Model Calculation

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1. Goodput = (Total bytes – Overhead) / Transmission time

Payload = Total bytes – Overhead

= 35.328 Kbytes
Transmission time = Simulation time = 65531 ms.

Goodput = 35.328 * 8 / 65.531 Kbps

= 4.3128 Kbps

2. failed attempts = Collisions + errors

failed attempts = 9 +0 = 9

3. Total attempts = Successful attempts + failed attempts

Total attempts = Data frames generated + failed attempts

= 35 + 9 = 44

4. Frame Probability = (Successful attempts / Total attempts)

Frame Probability = (35 / 44) * 100 = 79.55 %

5. Mean delay = Total file transmission time / number of transmissions

Total file transmission time = Simulation time

Mean delay = 65.531 / 35 = 1.872.31 sec. = 1872 ms.

6. Efficiency = Actual rate / Ideal rate whereas Ideal rate = Rate when only one
node is transmitting

The Throughput of 1a is used as Ideal rate and the Throughput of 1b is taken as Actual
rate and then the efficiency is calculated by using the formula

1c) Repeat the experiment for different packet sizes, different maximum back off time
and different error generation and analyze the results.

1d) Select 3 nodes and carry out data transfer between the nodes simultaneously and
analyze the results. Repeat the experiment by changing the input parameters

1e) Select 4 nodes and do the data transfer and analyze the results. When the data
transfer is going on, disconnect one node and observe and record the effect.

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Expt.2. Token Ring

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Input Parameters
Number of Nodes - 2 to 4
Frame Interval - 250 milliseconds by default
Frame Size - 512 Bytes to 2,048 Bytes
Error Generation - 10-9, 10-6 and 10-3

Transferring a data file from one node to another

There are four nodes in the topology number from 1 through 4. Each node has a unique
IP address. Files can be selected for transmission from a sender node to the receive node.
All four nodes can act as senders or receivers or both for a single file transmission.
A monitoring window shows up during file transmission showing the current status of the
transmission. The progress bar in these windows shows the amount of data transferred
and received. The monitoring window also contains trace information for data sent or
received and other network events for the associated node. The nodes have to connect to
the Token ring before they can communicate with other nodes.

Token Hold on Time and Token Priority

The default frame interval is 250 milliseconds. In order to send many data packets
sequentially, the token hold on time can be changed to higher value. Using this facility,
the token can be retained in particular node for long time. The minimum hold on time is
500 msec. And the maximum hold on time is 5000 msec. The priority of the node also
can be stated.

Connect and Disconnect facility

The simulator supports the feature of connecting or disconnecting specific nodes at any
time during, before or after simulation test runs.

Pause and reset facility

There is a feature for pausing any simulation run and continuing the test at a later point in
time. The simulator also supports resetting a specific test and restarting it again.

Token ring operation

Initially, the IP addresses of the nodes are given and nodes are connected to the ring
network. Now, token is passed between the nodes connected. 2 to 4 nodes can be
connected in the ring. As per the priority of the nodes, the token will pass. The priority
of the node can be changed and then the token passing will take route as per the priority
allotment.

The token hold on time can also be changed. When the data is transferred, the number of
frames that are transferred from the node depends upon the token hold on time of the
node. After the token hold on time, the token is passed on to the next priority node.

During the file transfer, suppose one node in the ring is disconnected, and then a message
window appears prompting for ring reconfiguration disconnecting the node. If the
answer is yes, the particular node is disconnected and other nodes form a ring and
activities continue. If the answer is no, then all the nodes are disconnected. In this case,
all the nodes are to be reconnected using connect switch.

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Storing of transferred files, results and traces

The token ring component creates a directory named “Token_Ring” in the Simulator
Directory in C drive. The “Token_Ring” directory contains four sub-directories
corresponding to the four nodes in the topology.

The destination node of a file transmission stores the received file in the directory
corresponding to the node. Four separate directories Node1, Node2, Node3 and Node4
are created. In the sender node directory, 3 files are stored. Performance results are stored
as “[Link]”, the Trace is stored as “[Link]”, the graph Frame sent Vs Time and the
corresponding data derived from [Link] file is stored as “[Link]”.

Experiments to be carried out

2a) Select 2 Nodes and carryout data transfer from node to another node.

Viewing the graphs and printing the graphs

In order to view the Frame sent Vs Time graph, the Simulator software should be closed.
In C drive, inside the Simulator directory, in the Token_Ring directory, in Node 1, the
graphs are stored as Excel file. In the computer system, Excel Software should be
available to view the graph by opening the file “[Link]”. The graph can be seen
and the data derived from the Trace can be seen. The graph can be printed in Excel
software.

Note: Before conducting another simulation experiment, the graph and performance
must be printed or stored in some other place in the local disk. Otherwise, the new
experiment will overwrite all the Excel files in the corresponding node.

2b) Open the Simulator Software and Token Ring option is chosen. Select 2 Nodes and
carry out data transfer between 2 nodes simultaneously with the same input parameters
and with same file from Node 1 and analyze. Carry out the calculations as we did in
Ethernet experiment. Repeat the experiment for different packet sizes and different error
generation and analyze.

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2c) Repeat the experiment for different packet sizes, different maximum back off time
and different error generation and analyze the results.

2d) Select 3 nodes and carry out data transfer between the nodes simultaneously and
analyze. Repeat the experiment changing the input parameters. Disconnect one node and
answer to the question yes and observe the operation and record it. Disconnect one node
and answer to the question no and observe the operation and record it.

2e) Select 4 nodes and do the data transfer. When the data transfer is going on,
disconnect one node and observe and record the effect.

Calculations:
1. Goodput = (Total bytes – Overhead) / Transmission time

2. Frame Probability = (Successful attempts / Total attempts)

3. Total Attempts = Successful attempts + failed attempts

4. failed attempts = defers due to token capture + errors

5. Mean delay = Total file transmission time / number of transmissions

6. Efficiency = Actual rate / Ideal rate whereas Ideal rate = Rate calculated from
simulation time and time slot period
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Expt. 3. Token Bus

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Input Parameters

Number of Nodes - 2 to 4
Frame Interval - 250 milliseconds to 1000 milliseconds
Frame Size - 512 Bytes to 2,048 Bytes
Error Generation - 10-9, 10-6 and 10-3

Transferring a data file from one node to another

There are four nodes in the topology number from 1 through 4. Each node has a unique
IP address. Files can be selected for transmission from a sender node to the receive node.
All four nodes can act as senders or receivers or both for a single file transmission.
A monitoring window shows up during file transmission showing the current status of the
transmission. The progress bar in these windows shows the amount of data transferred
and received. The monitoring window also contains trace information for data sent or
received and other network events for the associated node. The nodes have to connect to
the Token bus before they can communicate with other nodes.

Token Priority

Using this option, the priority of the node can be changed.

Connect and Disconnect facility

The simulator supports the feature of connecting or disconnecting specific nodes at any
time during, before or after simulation test runs.

Pause and reset facility

There is a feature for pausing any simulation run and continuing the test at a later point in
time. The simulator also supports resetting a specific test and restarting it again.

Token Bus operation

Initially, the IP addresses of the nodes and priority are given and nodes are connected to
the Token Bus network. Now, token is passed between the nodes connected. 2 to 4 nodes
can be connected in the Bus. As per the priority of the nodes, the token will pass. The
priority of the node can be changed and then the token passing will take route as per the
priority allotment.

During the file transfer, suppose one node in the ring is disconnected, then that node is
automatically disconnected and the token bus is reconfigured leaving that node
automatically. No question is asked. The node can be reconnected using connect switch.

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Storing of transferred files, results and traces

The token bus simulator creates a directory named “Token_Bus” in the Simulator
Directory in C drive. The “Token_Bus” directory contains four sub-directories
corresponding to the four nodes in the topology.

The destination node of a file transmission stores the received file in the directory
corresponding to the node. Four separate directories Node1, Node2, Node3 and Node4
are created. In the sender node directory, 3 files are stored. Performance results are stored
as “[Link]”, the Trace is stored as “[Link]”, the graph Frame sent Vs Time and the
corresponding data derived from [Link] file is stored as “[Link]”.

Experiments to be carried out

3a) Select 2 Nodes and carryout data transfer from one node to another node.

Viewing the graphs and printing the graphs

In order to view the Frame sent Vs Time graph, the Simulator software should be closed.

In C drive, inside the Simulator directory, in the Token_Bus directory, in Node 1, the
graphs are stored as Excel file. In the computer system, Excel Software should be
available to view the graph by opening the file “[Link]”. The graph can be seen
and the data derived from the Trace can be seen. The graph can be printed in Excel
software.

Note: Before conducting another simulation experiment, the graph and performance
must be printed or stored in some other place in the local disk. Otherwise, the new
experiment will overwrite all the Excel files in the corresponding node.

3b) Open the Simulator Software and Token Bus option is chosen. Select 2 Nodes and
carry out data transfer between 2 nodes simultaneously with the same input parameters
and with same file from Node 1 and analyze. Carry out the calculations as we did in
Ethernet experiment. Repeat the experiment for different packet sizes and different error
generation and analyze.

3c) Repeat the experiment for different packet sizes, different maximum back off time
and different error generation and analyze the results.

3d) Select 3 nodes and carry out data transfer between the nodes simultaneously and
analyze. Repeat the experiment changing the input parameters. Disconnect one node and
see the effect and record it.

3e) Select 4 nodes and do the data transfer. When the data transfer is going on,
disconnect one node and observe and record the effect.

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Calculations:

1. Goodput = (Total bytes – Overhead) / Transmission time

2. Frame Probability = (Successful attempts / Total attempts)

3. Total Attempts = Successful attempts + failed attempts

4. failed attempts = defers due to token capture + errors

5. Mean delay = Total file transmission time / number of transmissions

6. Efficiency = Actual rate / Ideal rate whereas Ideal rate = Rate calculated from
simulation time and time slot period

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Expt. 4. Wireless LAN

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Input Parameters

Number of Nodes - 2 to 4
Frame Interval - 250 milliseconds to 1000 milliseconds
Frame Size - 64 Bytes to 1,500 Bytes
Maximum Back-off-time - 4 to 32
Error Generation - 10-9, 10-6 and 10-3

Transferring a data file from one node to another

There are four nodes in the topology number from 1 through 4. Each node has a unique
IP address. Files can be selected for transmission from a sender node to the receive node.
All four nodes can act as senders or receivers or both for a single file transmission.
A monitoring window shows up during file transmission showing the current status of the
transmission. The progress bar in these windows shows the amount of data transferred
and received. The monitoring window also contains trace information for data sent or
received and other network events for the associated node.

Connect and Disconnect facility

The simulator supports the feature of connecting or disconnecting specific nodes at any
time during, before or after simulation test runs.

Pause and reset facility

There is a feature for pausing any simulation run and continuing the test at a later point in
time. The simulator also supports resetting a specific test and restarting it again.

Wireless operation

Media Access

When many users are located in the same area, performance becomes an issue. To
address this issue, wireless LANs use the Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
algorithm with a Collision Avoidance (CA) mechanism in which each unit senses the
media before it starts to transmit. If the media is free for several microseconds, the unit
can transmit for a limited time. If the media is busy, the unit will back off for a random
time before it senses again.

Collision Avoidance

To avoid collisions with other incoming calls, each station transmits a short RTS
(Request-To-Send) frame before the data frame. The Access Point sends back a CTS
(Clear-To-Send) frame with permission to start the data transmission. This frame includes
the time and information that the particular station is going to transmit. All the stations in
the cell are informed that another unit will transmit, so they cannot transmit even if the
media seems to be free. In this way, collision is avoided. Whenever access point is
possible to transmit, it will transmit the received from the source to the destination.

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Storing of transferred files, results and traces

The Wireless simulator module creates a directory named “Wireless” in the Simulator
Directory in C drive. The “Wireless” directory contains four sub-directories
corresponding to the four nodes in the topology.

The destination node of a file transmission stores the received file in the directory
corresponding to the node. Four separate directories Node1, Node2, Node3 and Node4
are created. In the sender node directory, 4 files are stored. Performance results are stored
as “[Link]”, the Trace is stored as “[Link]”, the graph Frame sent Vs Time and the
corresponding data derived from [Link] file is stored as “[Link]” and the
graph collision Vs Time and the corresponding data is stored as “[Link]”.

Experiments to be carried out

4a) Select 2 Nodes and carryout data transfer from Node 1 to Node 2.

Viewing the graphs and printing the graphs

In order to view the Frame sent Vs Time graph and Collision Vs Time graph, first, we
have to close the Simulator software.
In C drive, inside the Simulator directory, in the Wireless directory, in Node 1, the graphs
are stored as Excel file. In the computer system, Excel Software should be available to
view the graph by opening the file “[Link]”. The graph can be seen and the
data derived from the Trace can be seen. The graph can be printed in Excel software.
Similarly, by opening the file “[Link]”, the collision Vs Time graph can be viewed.
It can also be stored.

Note: Before conducting another simulation experiment, the graphs and performance
must be printed or stored in some other place in the Local disk. Otherwise, the new
experiment will overwrite all the Excel files in the corresponding node.

4b) The Simulation Software is opened. Wireless option is chosen. Select 2 Nodes and
carry out data transfer between 2 nodes simultaneously keeping the same set of input
parameters and with the same file from the Node 1. and analyze the results.

4c) Select 2 Nodes and carry out data transfer between 2 nodes simultaneously and
analyze. Repeat the experiment for different packet sizes, different maximum back off
time and different error generation.

4d) Select 3 nodes and carry out data transfer between the nodes simultaneously and
analyze. Repeat the experiment changing the input parameters

4e) Select 4 nodes and do the data transfer. When the data transfer is going on,
disconnect one node and observe and record the effect.

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Calculations:

1. Goodput = (Total bytes – Overhead) / Transmission time

2. Frame Probability = (Successful attempts / Total attempts)

3. Total Attempts = Successful attempts + failed attempts

4. Failed attempts = Collisions + errors

5. Mean delay = Total file transmission time / number of transmissions

6. Efficiency = Actual rate / Ideal rate whereas Ideal rate = Rate when only one
node is transmitting.

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DATA TRANSFER PROTOCOLS

Data Transfer Protocols consist of the following experiments

1. Stop and wait

2. Go back n
5. Selective repeat

From the above illustrated “Data Transfer Protocols” screen, different experiments can be
chosen.

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Expt. 5. Stop and Wait ARQ Protocol

Input Parameters
Packet Size - 512 Bytes to 2,048 Bytes
Round Trip Time (RTT) - 50 msec. to 150 msec.
Loss Rate - 0% to 50%
Retransmit Time out - 100 msec. to 1000 msec.

Note: At the time of giving input parameters, it is to be noted that the input value given
for Retransmit Time out parameter should be more than the RTT

Transferring a data file from one system to another system mainly in WAN

In this experiment, there is one sender and one receiver.

From the sender, file from the system can be opened for transmission
This file can be sent to the receiver by using Start Button. In between there is a network
of networks.
There are trace windows in Sender, Network and Receiver and the data transfer
information with time stamp appears continuously. In Network, the error information is
displayed.
At the end of the data transfer, result appears with performance parameters in the bottom
of the page, namely, Payload, Transfer time, Throughput and Losses.
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Storing of transferred files, results and traces

The Stop and Wait simulator creates a directory named “Stop_And_Wait” in the
Simulator Directory in C drive. The transmitted file is stored in this directory. The
performance results are also stored as Excel file “[Link]” . Using Store switch, the trace
of sender window is stored as “Send_Trace.xls” and trace of receiver window is stored as
“Recv_Trace.xls”. In addition to this, another file “[Link]”is also stored. This
file has Frame Sent Vs Time graph and the data for the graph collected from the Sender
trace window.

Pause and reset facility

At any time, the simulation can be stopped and can be continued. Reset can be used to
start from the beginning.

Experiments to be carried out

5a) Select a file from the system and transfer the file from sender to receiver. Assign the
following input parameters. The data flow follows Stop and Wait algorithm in sending
the packets (frames) in the network.

Packet size: 1024 Bytes

RTT : 100 msec.
Loss Rate: 10%
Retransmit Time out: 200 msec.

Choose a file and send.

Note down the results. Note down from the trace, when the packet error has occurred and
when the time out has happened and what the next action was. Check whether Stop and
wait algorithm is followed.

5b) Change the Packet size to 2048 bytes.

Send the same file.
Note down the results
Compare the results.

5c) Similarly, Change the loss rate and compare the results

Viewing the graphs and printing the graphs

In order to view the Frame sent Vs Time graph, first, we have to close the Simulator
software.
In C drive, inside the Simulator directory, in the Stop_And_Wait directory, the graph is
stored as Excel file. In the computer system, Excel Software should be available to view
the graph by opening the file “[Link]”. The graph can be seen and the data
derived from the Trace can be seen. The graph can be printed in Excel software. During
the time out, the packet is resent. It can be clearly viewed in the graph.

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Expt. 6. Go back n ARQ Protocol

Input Parameters

Window Size - 1 to 10 packets

Bandwidth - 500 Kbps to 5 Mbps
Packet Size - 512 Bytes to 2,048 Bytes
Round Trip Time (RTT) - 50 mSec. To 500 mSec.
Loss Rate - 0% to 50%
Retransmit Time out - 100 mSec. To 1000 mSec.

Note: At the time of giving input parameters, it is to be noted that the input value given
for Retransmit Time out parameter should be more than the RTT

Transferring a data file from one system to another system mainly in WAN

In this experiment, there is one sender and one receiver.

From the sender, file from the system can be opened for transmission
This file can be sent to the receiver. In between there is a network of networks.
At the time of sending, sender window and receiver window are opened. The progress bar
in these windows shows the amount of data transferred and received.
There are trace windows in Sender, Network and Receiver and the data transfer
information with time stamp appears continuously.
At the end of the data transfer, result appears with performance parameters
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Storing of transferred files, results and traces

The Go back n simulator creates a directory named “Go_Back_N” in the Simulator
Directory in C drive. The transmitted file is stored in this directory. The performance
results are also stored as Excel file “[Link]”. Using Store switch, the trace of sender
window is stored as “Send_Trace.xls” and trace of receiver window is stored as
“Recv_Trace.xls”. In addition to this, another file “[Link]”is also stored. This
file has Frame Sent Vs Time graph and the data for the graph collected from the Sender
trace window.

Pause and reset facility

At any time, the simulation can be stopped and can be continued. Reset can be used to
start from the beginning.

Experiments to be carried out

6a) Select a file from the system and transfer the file from sender to receiver. Assign the
following input parameters. The data flow follows Go back n Wait algorithm in sending
the packets (frames) in the network.

Packet size: 1024 Bytes

RTT : 100 msec.
Loss Rate: 10%
Retransmit Time out: 200 msec.
Bandwidth : 2000 Kbps
Window size : 5 packets

Choose a file and send.

Note down the results. Note down from the trace, when the packet error has occurred and
when the time out has happened and what the next action was. Check whether it follows
the Go back n algorithm.

6b) Change the Packet size to 2048 bytes.

Send the same file.
Note down the results
Compare the results.

6c) Similarly, Change the loss rate, bandwidth and compare the results
Give reason for congestion packet drop.

Viewing the graphs and printing the graphs

In order to view the Frame sent Vs Time graph, first, we have to close the Simulator
software.
In C drive, inside the Simulator directory, in the Go_Back_N directory, the graph is
stored as Excel file. In the computer system, Excel Software should be available to view
the graph by opening the file “[Link]”. The graph can be seen and the data
derived from the Trace can be seen. The graph can be printed in Excel software. During
the time out, the packets are resent according to the Go back n algorithm. It can be
clearly viewed in the graph.

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Note: Before conducting another simulation experiment, the graphs and performance
must be printed or stored in some other place in the Local disk. Otherwise, the new
experiment will overwrite the Excel files in the directory.

6d) By reducing the bandwidth and by increasing the window size, we will be able to see
congestion packet drop also in the network.

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Expt.7. Selective Repeat ARQ Protocol

Input Parameters
Window Size - 1 to 10 packets
Bandwidth - 500 Kbps to 5000 Kbps
Frame Size - 512 Bytes to 2,048 Bytes
Round Trip Time (RTT) - 50 mSec. To 500 mSec.
Loss Rate - 0% to 50%
Retransmit Time out - 100 mSec. To 1000 mSec.

Note: At the time of giving input parameters, it is to be noted that the input value given
for Retransmit Time out parameter should be more than the RTT

Transferring a data file from one node to another

In this experiment, there is one sender and one receiver.

From the sender, file from the system can be opened for transmission
This file can be sent to the receiver. In between there is a network of networks.
There are trace windows in Sender, Network and Receiver and the data transfer
information with time stamp appears continuously.
At the end of the data transfer, result appears with performance parameters

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Storing of transferred files, results and traces

The Selective repeat simulator creates a directory named “Selective_repeat” in the
Simulator Directory in C drive. The transmitted file is stored in this directory. The
performance results are also stored as Excel file “[Link]” . Using Store switch, the trace
of sender window is stored as “Send_Trace.xls” and trace of receiver window is stored as
“Recv_Trace.xls”. In addition to this, another file “[Link]”is also stored. This
file has Frame Sent Vs Time graph and the data for the graph collected from the Sender
trace window.

Pause and reset facility

At any time, the simulation can be stopped and can be continued. Reset can be used to
start from the beginning.

Experiments to be carried out

7a) Select a file from the system and transfer the file from sender to receiver. Assign the
following input parameters. The data flow follows Selective repeat algorithm in sending
the packets (frames) in the network.

Packet size: 1024 Bytes

RTT : 100 msec.
Loss Rate: 10%
Retransmit Time out: 200 msec.
Bandwidth : 2000 Kbps
Window size : 5 packets

Choose a file and send.

Note down the results. Note down from the trace, when the packet error has occurred and
when the time out has happened and what was the next action. Check whether it follows
the Selective repeat algorithm.

7b) Change the Packet size to 2048 bytes.

Send the same file.
Note down the results
Compare the results.

7c) Similarly, Change the loss rate, bandwidth and compare the results
Give reason for congestion packet drop.

Viewing the graphs and printing the graphs

In order to view the Frame sent Vs Time graph, first, we have to close the Simulator
software.
In C drive, inside the Simulator directory, in the Selective_repeat directory, the graph is
stored as Excel file. In the computer system, Excel Software should be available to view
the graph by opening the file “[Link]”. The graph can be seen and the data
derived from the Trace can be seen. The graph can be printed in Excel software. During
the time out, the packets are resent according to the Go back n algorithm. It can be
clearly viewed in the graph.

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Note: Before conducting another simulation experiment, the graphs and performance
must be printed or stored in some other place in the Local disk. Otherwise, the new
experiment will overwrite the Excel files in the directory.

7d) By reducing the bandwidth and by increasing the window size, we will be able to see
congestion packet drop also in the network.

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ROUTING ALGORITHMS

Routing Algorithms consist of the following experiments

1. Distance Vector Algorithm

2. Link-State Algorithm

From this Routing Algorithms screen, different experiments can be chosen.

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Expt. 8. Distance Vector Algorithm

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Input Parameters

Routers – 3 to 7
Connectivity between the Routers - to be given
Weightage or Cost or Distance between the routers – number 1-10
Source Router – to be selected

Process

The Distance vector algorithm is executed.

Initially, in iteration 1, the source router creates the router table with the distance
information of the neighbouring routers. It also gathers distance information of the other
routers connected to the neighbouring routers.

By using Next switch, second iteration is done.

In the second iteration, it calculates the shortest distance to the unconnected nodes from
the information gathered in the first iteration and refines the routing table. If there are n
routers, then n-1 iterations are required to get shortest distance for all the routers.

The routing table gives the shortest distance for all the routers from the source router and
also information to which router the packet should go next.

Experiments to be carried out

8a) Select say 5 routers and draw the connectivity. Input the distance between the
routers. Select Source router. Study the iteration and routing table for each iteration.
Check finally, whether the short distance is calculated and correct next best hop.

8b) Keep the layout as it is. Change the distance between the routers. Do the iterations
and for each iterations, study and check. Verify the result at the end.

8C) Keep the layout as it is. Change the Source router and do the experiment. Verify the
result at the end.

8d) Do different configuration and do the iterations and verify the result.

Storing of transferred files, results and traces

The Distance Vector simulator creates a directory named “Distance_Vector” in the
Simulator Directory in C drive. All the iterations are stored in “[Link]” file. It can be
printed for analysis.

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Expt. 9. Link State Algorithm

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Input Parameters

Routers – 3 to 7
Connectivity between the Routers - to be given
Weight or Cost or Distance between the routers – number 1-10
Source Router – to be selected

Process

The Link State algorithm is executed.

There are parent group and transitive group. Initially, in iteration 1, the source router is in
parent group and all the directly connected routers are in transitive group and router table
is created.

By using Next switch, second iteration is done.

In next iteration, the short distance neighboring router is taken into parent group and the
routers associated with the particular router are placed in the transitive group and routing
table is constructed. In this way, if there are n routers available, then n number of
iterations is required to find the shortest distance in this method.

Finally, the routing table gives the shortest distance for all the routers from the source
router and also information to which router the packet should go next.

Experiments to be carried out

9a) Select say 6 routers and draw the connectivity. Input the distance between the
routers. Select Source router. Study the iteration and the routing table every time
created. Check finally, whether the short distance is calculated and correct next best hop.

9b) Keep the layout as it is. Change the distance between the routers. Do the iterations
and for each iterations, study and check. Verify the result at the end.

9C) Keep the layout as it is. Change the Source router and do the experiment. Verify the
result at the end.

9d) Do different configuration and do the iterations and verify the result.

Storing of transferred files, results and traces

The Link-State simulator creates a directory named “Link_State” in the Simulator

Directory in C drive. All the iterations are stored in “[Link]” file. It can be printed
for analysis.

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ENCRYPTION and DECRYPTION

Encryption and Decryption consist of the following experiments

1. Shifting Algorithm
2. RSA Algorithm

From this Encryption and Decryption screen, different experiments can be chosen.

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Expt. 10. Shifting Algorithm

Input Parameters

Input Text – to be given

Shift – number is to be given

Process

The Shifting algorithm is executed at the time of encryption.

At the time of decryption, again shifting algorithm is executed.

Experiment to be carried out

Enter some text in the text box available.

Give the shifting index and use Shift key.
Encrypted message appears in the window.
When re-shift key is used, re- shift algorithm is used with the encrypted message and the
re shifted message is displayed.

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Expt. 11 RSA Algorithm

In this experiment, the process of RSA Algorithm is explained with an example.

Input Parameters

Initially, a plain text of 10 characters (max) is given.

Process

The RSA algorithm is used for encryption and decryption

Experiment to be carried out

Encryption
Encryption key is used in the menu bar. Then again Encryption key below the text
window is used to encrypt the message. RSA Algorithm procedure is stage by stage
executed and the steps are shown in the output window. Secret Key and Public Key are
generated and displayed.

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Decryption
Decryption key is used in the menu bar. Then again Decryption key below the text
window is used to decrypt the message. Decrypting stage is executed and the steps are
shown in the output window. The decrypted text is displayed.

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NETWORK SOCKETS

Network Sockets consist of the following experiments

1. HTTP Application
2. FTP Application
3. E-mail Application

From this Network Sockets screen, different experiments can be chosen.

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Expt. 12. Http – Web Browsing

The function port ID is 80 for web browsing. In this experiment, the user can access one
html file from a web server.

Input parameters
Client ID - IP address
Server ID - IP address

Process
In the experiment, at the time of connecting the client to the server, communication pipe
namely socket is created. The socket is characterized by 4 parameters.
- Server ID
- Client ID
- Local Port number 80
- Remote Port number
When the client sends the connect request to the server, it generates a 16 bit random
number which lies between 1024 and 65,536 and sends it as port number. As for as the
Server is concerned, this port number is the Remote Port number. Once the socket is
created, the client can send the request to the server and get the file. Log is created in the
server.

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Experiment to be carried out

1. The client id – IP address is entered.

2. Then the Server address is entered and activated

3. Then in the client side, to connect to the server, server address is entered and the
Connect switch is used to connect the client to the server.

4. Now the socket is created and the connection is made and log is given in the
server

5. Then the user can send the request to the server by typing
[Link] and press go button.

6. Now, the request goes to server and the server responds. It accesses the file
namely “[Link]” and transfers it to the client. Then the client converts the
HTML file into normal text file and displays in a window.

7. There is an interaction between the server and the client. The server sends the file
to the client and in the client window, the content of the file is displayed.

8. The user can disconnect the client and server also. In the server side, log is
generated for every activity

9. The simulator is closed. In the Simulator directory in C drive, the html file is
opened in notepad and the content is altered and saved.

10. Again the same application is run

11. It is to be verified that the modified content is appearing in the client window.

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Expt. 13. FTP – File Transfer

The function port ID is 21 for file transfer.

In this experiment, the user can do the file transfer from a ftp server.

Input parameters

Client ID - IP address
Server ID - IP address

Process

In the experiment, at the time of connecting the client to the server, communication pipe
namely socket is created. The socket is characterized by 4 parameters.
- Server ID
- Client ID
- Local Port number 21
- Remote Port number
When the client sends the connect request to the server, it generates a 16 bit random
number which lies between 1024 and 65,536 and sends it as port number
As for as the Server is concerned, this port number is the Remote Port number
In ftp operation, 2 sockets are generated. They are control socket and data socket.
Once the socket is created, the client can send the request to the server and get the file.
Log is created in the server.

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Experiment to be carried out

1. The client id – IP address is entered.

2. Then the Server address is entered and activated

3. Then in the client side, to connect to the server, server address is entered and the
Connect switch is used to connect the client to the server.

4. Now the socket is created and the connection is made and log is given in the
server

5. Then the user can send the request to the server by typing
[Link] and press go button.

6. Now, the request goes to server and the server responds. It accesses the file
namely [Link] file and transfer it to the client. Then the client displays the
file.

7. The user can disconnect the client and server also. In the server side, log is
generated for every activity

8. The simulator is closed. In the Simulator directory in C drive, the [Link] file is
opened in notepad and the content is altered and saved.

9. Again the same application is run

10. It is to be verified that the modified content is appearing in the client window.

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Expt. 14 SMTP - e-mail

The function port ID is 25 for file transfer.

In this experiment, the user can send e-mail to another address.

Input parameters
Client ID - IP address
Server ID - IP address

In the experiment, at the time of connecting the client to the server, communication pipe
namely socket is created. The socket is characterized by 4 parameters.
- Server ID
- Client ID
- Local Port number 25
- Remote Port number

When the client sends the connect request to the server, it generates a 16 bit random
number which lies between 1024 and 65,536 and sends it as port number As for as the
Server is concerned, this port number is the Remote Port number

In e-mail operation, 2 sockets are generated. They are control socket and data socket.

Once the sockets created, the client can send the request to the server and get the file.

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Experiment to be carried out

1. The user is supposed to give the Client IP address and the Server address in Server.
Then in the Client configuration window, the server address is to be given and connect
button has to be used.

2. Now, the control socket and data socket are created.

3. Then the user can send the request to the server by typing admin@[Link]
press go button.

4. The content in the client window is taken as the message for the mail.

5. The mail reaches the mail box of the user.

6. The user (IP address [Link].) can check e-mail using check mail key.

7. Then the user system interacts with the server and if there is any mail, it gives a
message that the user has got a mail.

8. The content of the mail is also displayed in the user window.

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 OSI Reference Model

The OSI reference model is a hierarchical structure of seven layers that defines the requirements
for communications between two computers. This model was defined by International Standards
Organization. The model allows all network elements to operate together, regardless of who built
them. By the late 1970’s, ISO was recommending the implementation of the OSI model as a
networking standard, but TCP/IP had been in use for years. TCP/IP was fundamental to
ARPANET and the other networks that evolved into Internet. Only a subset of the whole OSI
model is used today.

Functions of the Layers

As data passes from an application and moves down the stack, each layer adds a header
according to the protocol that exists at that layer. This is known as encapsulation. The only
exception is that data link layer, a header and trailer is added. After the data has been
transmitted across whatever media in use, the process of de-encapsulation begins in the
receiver. Each layer of the stack, at the destination, removes the header (or header and trailer in
the case of the data link layer) that was placed by its corresponding source layer. The physical
and data link layers exists in hardware, all other layers are software driven.

Layer 7 – Application
This layer has protocols that support user applications, but it does not include applications
themselves. Strictly speaking, this layer deals with file access and management

Layer 6 – Presentation
The presentation layer protocols deals with data syntax during transfer between two application
process. If the client and server are using different file formats, this layer has conversion
protocols. Therefore, computers using different file formats can still communicate with each
other. Data encryption and decryption protocols also exist at the presentation layer.

Layer5 – Session
Protocols at this layer are necessary for establishing, maintaining and ending sessions between
user applications

Layer4 – Transport
Transport layer protocols are responsible for the reliability of end to end connections. These
protocols assemble multiple network layer packets into coherent message. This layer also
provides flow control and error recovery.

Layer3 – Network
The network layer protocols route packets across the network(s) between two computers.

Layer2 – Data link

Data link protocols provide logical link control and medium access control. These protocols
provide reliability to the physical layer transmission by arranging the data into frames and adding
error checking and addressing information. The Network Interface Card (NIC) assembles the
data link layer frames.

Layer1 – Physical
Protocols at the physical layer are responsible for establishing, maintaining and ending physical
connections (point to point) between computers. These protocols are manifested in the media
across which transmission occurs. These protocols do not specify the various cables and
connectors.
 Ethernet

In early 1970s, the Xerox Company developed an experimental version of coaxial Ethernet. In
1980s, Xerox published “The Ethernet” in collaboration with Digital and Intel. It outlined
methodology, physical topology and constraints. The IEEE became responsible for Ethernet
specification. The IEEE published standard 802.3 to establish Ethernet’s position in OSI model.
Ethernet was defined as existing across the data link and physical layers.

Medium Access Control (MAC)

In terms of non-switched Ethernet, medium access control is an effective methodology that allows
devices on a LAN to share their interconnecting media.

Due to shared nature of the media, it is obvious that more than one device might send data at the
same time, therefore Ethernet MAC has to be able to
- decide when to send data
- what to do if its data collides with another device’s data
- how long to wait after a collision before retransmission

The Ethernet MAC sublayer

The MAC sublayer has two primary responsibilities:
- Data encapsulation, including frame assembly before transmission, and frame parsing /
error detection during and after reception
- Media access control, including initiation of frame transmission and recovery from
transmission failure.

The Basic Ethernet Frame Format

The IEEE 802.3 standard defines a basic data frame format. The basic data frame format
contains the seven fields as shown.

IEEE 802.3 MAC Data Frame Format

Preamble(PRE) – Consists of 7 bytes. The PRE is an alternating pattern of ones and zeros that
tells receiving stations that a frame is coming, and that provides a means to synchronize the
frame-reception portions of receiving physical layers with the incoming bit stream.

Start-of frame delimiter (SOF) – Consists of 1 byte. The SOF is an alternating pattern of ones
and zeros, ending with two consecutive 1- bits indicating that the next bit is the left-most bit in the
left-most byte of the destination address.
Destination addresses (DA) – Consists of 6 bytes. The DA field identifies which station(s)
should receive the frame. The left-most bit in the DA field indicates whether the address is an
individual address (indicated by a 0) or a group address (indicated by a 1). The remaining 46 bits
are a uniquely assigned value that identifies a single station, a defined group of stations, or all
stations on the network.

Source addresses (SA) – Consists of 6 bytes. The SA field identifies the sending station. The
SA is always an individual address and the left-most bit in the SA field is always 0

Length/Type – consists of 2 bytes. The data is 1500 bytes maximum. To represent the value, 2
bytes allotted.

Data – is a sequence of n bytes of any value, where n is less than or equal to 1500. If the length
of the data field is less than 46, the data field must be extended by adding a filler (a pad)
sufficient to bring the data field length to 46 bytes

Frame check sequence (FCS) – Consists of 4 bytes. This sequence contains a 32-bit cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) value, which is created by sending MAC and is recalculated by the
receiving MAC to check for damaged frames. The FCS is generated over the DA, SA,
Length/Type, and Data fields.

Frame Transmission:
Whenever MAC receives a transmit-frame request with the accompanying address and data
information from the LLC sublayer, the MAC begins the transmission sequence by transferring
the LLC information into the MAC frame buffer.
- The preamble and start-of-frame delimiter are inserted in the PRE and SOF fields.
- The destination and source addresses are inserted into the address fields.
- The LLC data bytes are inserted into the Data field. If the number of LLC data bytes is
less than 46, a pad is added to bring the data field length up to 46.
- An FCS value is generated over the DA, SA, Length/Type, and Data fields and appended
to the end of the Data field.
After the frame is assembled, actual frame transmission starts. The IEEE 802.3 standard
currently requires that all Ethernet MACs support half-duplex operation, in which the MAC can be
either transmitting or receiving a frame, but it cannot be doing both simultaneously.

Half-Duplex Transmission – The CSMA/CD Access Method

The CSMA/CD protocol was originally developed as means by which two or more stations could
share a common media in a switch-less environment when the protocol does not require central
arbitration, access tokens, or assigned time slots to indicate when a station will be allowed to
transmit. Each Ethernet MAC determines for itself when it will be allowed to send a frame.

The CSMA/CD access rules are summarized by the protocol’s acronym:

Carrier Sense – Each station continuously listens for traffic on the medium to determine when
gaps between frame transmissions occur.

Multiple access – Stations may begin transmitting any time they detect that the network is quiet
(there is no traffic)

Collision detect – If two or more stations in the same CSMA/CD network (collision domain)
begin transmitting at approximately the same time, the bit streams from the transmitting stations
will interfere (collide) with each other, and both transmissions will be unreadable. If that happens,
each transmitting station must be capable of detecting that a collision has occurred before it has
finished sending its frame. Each must stop transmitting as soon as it has detected the collision
and then must wait a quasirandom length of time (determined by a back-off algorithm) before
attempting to retransmit the frame.
 Token Ring

IBM originally developed the Token Ring network in the 1970s. The IEEE 802.5 specification for
Token Ring was modeled after IBM Token Ring.

Token Ring Operation

In Token Ring network, a small frame, called a token is passed around the network. Possession
of the token grants the right to transmit. If a node receiving the token has no information to send,
it passes the token to the next end station. Each station can hold the token for a maximum period
of time.

If a station possessing the token does have information to transmit, it seizes the token, alters 1 bit
of the token (which turns the token into a start-of frame sequence), appends the information that it
wants to transmit, and sends this information to the next station on the ring. While the information
frame is circling the ring, no token is on the network, which means that other stations wanting to
transmit must wait. Therefore, collisions cannot occur in Token Ring Networks. If early token
release is supported, a new token can be released when frame transmission is complete.

The information frame circulates the ring until it reaches the intended destination station, which
copies the information for further processing. The information frame continues to circle the ring
and is finally removed when it reaches the sending station. The sending station can check the
returning frame to see whether the frame was seen and subsequently copied by the destination.

Unlike CSMA/CD networks (such as Ethernet), token-passing networks are deterministic which
means all the systems will have opportunity to transmit.

Priority System
Token Ring networks use a sophisticated priority system that permits certain use-designated,
high-priority stations to use the network more frequently. Token Ring frames have two fields that
control priority: the priority field and the reservation field.

Only stations with a priority equal to or higher than the priority value contained in a token can
seize that token. After the token is seized and changed to an information frame, only stations with
a priority value higher than that of the transmitting station can reserve the token for the next pass
around the network. When the next token is generated, it includes the higher priority of the
reserving station. Stations that raise a token’s priority level must reinstate the previous priority
after their transmission is complete.

Fault-Management Mechanisms
Token Ring networks employ several mechanisms for detecting and compensating for network
faults. For example, one station in the Token Ring network is selected to be active monitor. This
station, which potentially can be any station on the network, acts as a centralized source of timing
information for other ring stations and performs a variety of ring-maintenance functions. One of
these functions is the removal of continuously circulating frames from the ring. When sending
station fails, its frame may continue to circle the ring. This can prevent other stations from
transmitting their own frames and essentially can lock up the network. The active monitor can
detect such frames, remove them from the ring, and generate a new token.

Frame Format
Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 support two basic frame types: tokens and data/command frames.
Tokens are 3 bytes in length and consist of a start delimiter, an access control byte, and an end
delimiter. Data/command frames vary in size, depending on the size of the information field. Data
frames carry information for upper-layer protocols, while command frames contain control
information and have no data for upper-layer protocols.
IEEE 802.5 and Token Ring specify Tokens and Data/Command Frames

Token frame fields

Start delimiter – Alerts each station of the arrival of a token (or data/command frame).

Access-control byte – contains the Priority field (the most significant 3 bits) and the Reservation
field (the least significant 3 bits), as well as a token bit (used to differentiate a token from a
data/command frame) and a monitor bit (used by the active monitor to determine whether a frame
is circling the ring endlessly)

End delimiter – Signals the end of the token or data/command frame. This field also contains
bits to indicate a damaged frame and identify the frame that is the last in a logical sequence.

Data/command frame fields

Frame – control bytes – indicates whether the frame contains data or control information. In
control frames, this byte specifies the type of control information.

Destination and source addresses – consists of two 6 byte address fields that identify the
destination and source station addresses.

Data – Indicates that the length of field is limited by the ring token holding time, which defines the
maximum time a station can hold the token.

Frame-check sequence (FCS) – is filed by the source station with a calculated value dependent
on the frame contents. The destination station recalculates the value to determine whether the
frame was damaged in transit. If so, the frame is discarded.

Frame status – is a 1 byte field terminating a command/data frame. The Frame status field
includes the address-recognized indicator and frame-copied indicator.
 Wireless LAN Topology

Wireless LAN allow workstations to communicate and to access the network using radio
propagation as transmission medium. The wireless LAN can be connected to an existing wired
LAN as an extension, or can form the basis of a new network while adoptable to both indoor and
outdoor environments, wireless LANs are especially suited to indoor locations such as office
buildings, manufacturing floors, hospitals and Universities.

The basic building block of the wireless is the cell. This is the area in which the wireless
communication takes place. The coverage area of a cell depends on the strength of the
propagated radio signal and the type and construction of walls, partitions and other physical
characteristics of the indoor environment.

Each wireless LAN cell requires some communications and traffic management. This is
coordinated by an Access Point (AP) which communicates with wireless station in its converge
area.

Stations communicate with each other via Access Point.

Media Access
When many users are located in the same area, performance becomes an issue. To address this
issue, wireless LANs use the Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) algorithm with a Collision
Avoidance (CA) mechanism in which each unit senses the media before it starts to transmit. If
the media is free for several microseconds, the unit can transmit for a limited time. If the media is
busy, the unit will back off for a random time before it senses again. Since transmitting units
compete for airtime, the protocol should ensure equal fairness between the stations.

Collision Avoidance
To avoid collisions with other incoming calls, each station transmits a short RTS (Request-To-
Send) frame before the data frame. The Access Point sends back a CTS (Clear-To-Send) frame
with permission to start the data transmission. This frame includes the time and information that
the particular station is going to transmit. All the stations in the cell are informed that another unit
will transmit, so they cannot transmit even if the media seems to be free. In this way, collision is
avoided.

The Standards Committee

The IEEE 802 Standards Committee formed the 802.11 Wireless Local Area Networks standards
working group in 1990. The 802.11 working group took on the task of developing a global
standard for radio equipment and networks operating in the 2.4GHz unlicensed frequency band
for data rates of 1 to 2 Mbps.

Physical layer implementation choice

The physical layer in any network defines the modulation and signaling characteristics for the
transmission of data. At the physical layer, two RF transmission methods are used. Operation of
the WLAN in unlicensed RF bands requires Spread Spectrum Modulation. The RF transmission
techniques in the standard are Frequency Hopping (FH) and Direct Sequence (DS) Spread
Spectrum.

Both architectures are defined for operation in the 2.4 GHz (ISM) frequency band. Each occupies
83 MHz of bandwidth ranging from 2.4GHz to 2.483 GHz. Differential BPSK and DQPSK is the
modulation for Direct Sequence. Frequency Hopping uses 2-4 level Gaussian FSK as the
modulation signaling method.

The physical layer data rate is 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps

The DSSS Physical layer uses 11 bit Barker sequence to spread the data before it is transmitted.
Each bit transmitted is modulated by the 11 bit sequency. This process spreads the RF energy
across a wider bandwidth than would the required to transmit the raw data.

The frequency hop physical layer has 22 hop patterns to choose from. The frequency hop
physical layer is required to hop across the 2.4 GHz ISM band covering 79 channels.

Each channel occupies 1 MHz of bandwidth and must hop at the minimum rate specified. Each
of the physical layers uses their own unique header to synchronize the receiver and determine
signal modulation format and data packet length.