Solutions to Linear Algebra Questions (Lectures 1 to 8)

Based on Linear Algebra Done Right (LADR)

August 11, 2026

1 Lecture 2
Question 1.1: Field Verifications
1. (R, +, ·, 0, 1)
Answer: Yes, (R, +, ·, 0, 1) is a field.
Proof / Verification:

1. Additive Commutativity: a + b = b + a for all a, b ∈ R.

2. Additive Associativity: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) for all a, b, c ∈ R.

3. Additive Identity: a + 0 = a for all a ∈ R.

4. Additive Inverse: For every a ∈ R, there exists −a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = 0.

5. Multiplicative Commutativity: a · b = b · a for all a, b ∈ R.

6. Multiplicative Associativity: (a · b) · c = a · (b · c) for all a, b, c ∈ R.

7. Multiplicative Identity: a · 1 = a for all a ∈ R, and 0 ̸= 1.

8. Multiplicative Inverse: For every a ∈ R \ {0}, there exists a−1 = 1

a ∈ R such that
a · a−1 = 1.

9. Distributive Property: a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c for all a, b, c ∈ R.

2. (R2 , ⊕, ⊙), where (x1 , y1 )⊕(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 +x2 , y1 +y2 ) and (x1 , y1 )⊙(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 , y1 y2 )
Answer: No, it is not a field.
Proof / Verification: The multiplicative identity for this operation would be (1, 1), since
(x, y) ⊙ (1, 1) = (x · 1, y · 1) = (x, y). However, consider non-zero elements such as (1, 0) ̸= (0, 0).
For (1, 0) to have a multiplicative inverse (a, b), we would require:

(1, 0) ⊙ (a, b) = (1 · a, 0 · b) = (a, 0) = (1, 1),

which implies 0 = 1, a contradiction. Thus, non-zero elements like (1, 0) lack a multiplicative
inverse. Furthermore, (1, 0) ⊙ (0, 1) = (0, 0), showing the presence of zero divisors. Hence, it is
not a field.

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3. (R2 , ⊕, ⊙), where (x1 , y1 )⊕(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 +x2 , y1 +y2 ) and (x1 , y1 )⊙(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 y2 , y1 x2 )
Answer: No, it is not a field.
Proof / Verification: Multiplication is not commutative. For instance, take α = (1, 2)
and β = (3, 4):
α ⊙ β = (1, 2) ⊙ (3, 4) = (1 · 4, 2 · 3) = (4, 6),
β ⊙ α = (3, 4) ⊙ (1, 2) = (3 · 2, 4 · 1) = (6, 4).
Since α ⊙ β ̸= β ⊙ α, commutativity of multiplication fails. Thus, it is not a field.
—

Question 1.2: Vector Space Verifications

1. (R, ⊕, ⊙, 0) over the real field R
Answer: Yes, it is a vector space.
Proof of Vector Space Axioms: Let u, v, w ∈ R and a, b ∈ R.
1. Closure under Addition: u ⊕ v = u + v ∈ R.

2. Commutativity of Addition: u ⊕ v = u + v = v + u = v ⊕ u.

3. Associativity of Addition: (u ⊕ v) ⊕ w = (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) = u ⊕ (v ⊕ w).

4. Additive Identity: 0 ∈ R satisfies v ⊕ 0 = v + 0 = v for all v ∈ R.

5. Additive Inverse: For every v ∈ R, −v ∈ R satisfies v ⊕ (−v) = v + (−v) = 0.

6. Closure under Scalar Multiplication: c ⊙ v = c · v ∈ R for c ∈ R.

7. Multiplicative Identity of Field: 1 ⊙ v = 1 · v = v.

8. Associativity of Scalar Multiplication: (ab) ⊙ v = (ab)v = a(bv) = a ⊙ (b ⊙ v).

9. Distributivity over Vector Addition: a⊙(u⊕v) = a(u+v) = au+av = (a⊙u)⊕(a⊙v).

10. Distributivity over Scalar Addition: (a+b)⊙v = (a+b)v = av +bv = (a⊙v)⊕(b⊙v).

2. (R2 , ⊕, ⊙, (0, 0)) over R with standard operations

Answer: Yes, it is a vector space.
Proof of Vector Space Axioms: Let u = (x1 , y1 ), v = (x2 , y2 ), w = (x3 , y3 ) ∈ R2 and
a, b ∈ R.
1. Closure under Addition: u ⊕ v = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ R2 .

2. Commutativity of Addition:

u ⊕ v = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) = (x2 + x1 , y2 + y1 ) = v ⊕ u.

3. Associativity of Addition:

(u ⊕ v) ⊕ w = (x1 + x2 + x3 , y1 + y2 + y3 ) = u ⊕ (v ⊕ w).

4. Additive Identity: θ = (0, 0) ∈ R2 satisfies v ⊕ (0, 0) = (x2 + 0, y2 + 0) = v.

5. Additive Inverse: For v = (x, y), −v = (−x, −y) ∈ R2 satisfies v ⊕ (−v) = (0, 0).

6. Closure under Scalar Multiplication: c ⊙ v = (cx2 , cy2 ) ∈ R2 .

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 7. Multiplicative Identity: 1 ⊙ v = (1 · x2 , 1 · y2 ) = (x2 , y2 ) = v.

8. Associativity of Scalar Multiplication:

(ab) ⊙ v = ((ab)x2 , (ab)y2 ) = a ⊙ (bx2 , by2 ) = a ⊙ (b ⊙ v).

9. Distributivity over Vector Addition:

a⊙(u⊕v) = a⊙(x1 +x2 , y1 +y2 ) = (a(x1 +x2 ), a(y1 +y2 )) = (ax1 , ay1 )⊕(ax2 , ay2 ) = (a⊙u)⊕(a⊙v).

10. Distributivity over Scalar Addition:

(a + b) ⊙ v = ((a + b)x2 , (a + b)y2 ) = (ax2 + bx2 , ay2 + by2 ) = (a ⊙ v) ⊕ (b ⊙ v).

3. (Rn , ⊕, ⊙, (0, 0, . . . , 0)) over R with standard componentwise operations

Answer: Yes, it is a vector space.
Proof of Vector Space Axioms: Let x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ), z = (z1 , . . . , zn ) ∈
n
R and a, b ∈ R.
1. Closure under Addition: x ⊕ y = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn ) ∈ Rn .

2. Commutativity of Addition: x ⊕ y = (xk + yk )nk=1 = (yk + xk )nk=1 = y ⊕ x.

3. Associativity of Addition: (x ⊕ y) ⊕ z = ((xk + yk ) + zk )nk=1 = (xk + (yk + zk ))nk=1 =

x ⊕ (y ⊕ z).

4. Additive Identity: θ = (0, . . . , 0) satisfies x ⊕ θ = (xk + 0)nk=1 = x.

5. Additive Inverse: −x = (−x1 , . . . , −xn ) satisfies x ⊕ (−x) = θ.

6. Closure under Scalar Multiplication: a ⊙ x = (ax1 , . . . , axn ) ∈ Rn .

7. Multiplicative Identity: 1 ⊙ x = (1 · x1 , . . . , 1 · xn ) = x.

8. Associativity of Scalar Multiplication: (ab) ⊙ x = ((ab)xk )nk=1 = a ⊙ (bxk )nk=1 =

a ⊙ (b ⊙ x).

9. Distributivity over Vector Addition: a ⊙ (x ⊕ y) = (a(xk + yk ))nk=1 = (axk )nk=1 ⊕

(ayk )nk=1 = (a ⊙ x) ⊕ (a ⊙ y).

10. Distributivity over Scalar Addition: (a + b) ⊙ x = ((a + b)xk )nk=1 = (axk + bxk )nk=1 =
(a ⊙ x) ⊕ (b ⊙ x).

4. (F S , ⊕, ⊙, θF S ) over field F
Answer: Yes, it is a vector space.
Proof of Vector Space Axioms: Let f, g, h ∈ F S and a, b ∈ F .
1. Closure under Addition: For all x ∈ S, (f ⊕ g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) ∈ F , so f ⊕ g ∈ F S .

2. Commutativity of Addition: (f ⊕ g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = g(x) + f (x) = (g ⊕ f )(x) for

all x ∈ S. Thus, f ⊕ g = g ⊕ f .

3. Associativity of Addition: ((f ⊕ g) ⊕ h)(x) = (f (x) + g(x)) + h(x) = f (x) + (g(x) +

h(x)) = (f ⊕ (g ⊕ h))(x) for all x ∈ S.

4. Additive Identity: θF S (x) = 0F for all x ∈ S. Then (f ⊕ θF S )(x) = f (x) + 0F = f (x),

so f ⊕ θF S = f .

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 5. Additive Inverse: Define (−f )(x) = −f (x). Then (f ⊕ (−f ))(x) = f (x) + (−f (x)) =
0F = θF S (x), so f ⊕ (−f ) = θF S .
6. Closure under Scalar Multiplication: (a ⊙ f )(x) = a · f (x) ∈ F , so a ⊙ f ∈ F S .
7. Multiplicative Identity: (1 ⊙ f )(x) = 1 · f (x) = f (x), so 1 ⊙ f = f .
8. Associativity of Scalar Multiplication: ((ab) ⊙ f )(x) = (ab)f (x) = a(bf (x)) = (a ⊙
(b ⊙ f ))(x).
9. Distributivity over Vector Addition:
(a ⊙ (f ⊕ g))(x) = a(f (x) + g(x)) = af (x) + ag(x) = ((a ⊙ f ) ⊕ (a ⊙ g))(x).

10. Distributivity over Scalar Addition:

((a + b) ⊙ f )(x) = (a + b)f (x) = af (x) + bf (x) = ((a ⊙ f ) ⊕ (b ⊙ f ))(x).

2 Lecture 3
Question 2.1: Basic Vector Space Properties
Let (V, ⊕, ⊙, θ) be a vector space over R.

1. Uniqueness of the additive identity

Proof: Suppose θ1 and θ2 are both additive identities in V . Using the identity property of θ2 :
θ1 ⊕ θ2 = θ1 .
Using the identity property of θ1 and commutativity:
θ1 ⊕ θ2 = θ2 ⊕ θ1 = θ2 .
Therefore, θ1 = θ2 .

2. Uniqueness of the additive inverse of every element

Proof: Let v ∈ V . Suppose w1 and w2 are both additive inverses of v, so v ⊕ w1 = θ and
v ⊕ w2 = θ. Then:
w1 = w1 ⊕ θ = w1 ⊕ (v ⊕ w2 ) = (w1 ⊕ v) ⊕ w2 = (v ⊕ w1 ) ⊕ w2 = θ ⊕ w2 = w2 .
Thus, w1 = w2 .

3. 0 ⊙ v = θ for all v ∈ V
Proof: By field properties, 0 = 0 + 0. By distributivity over scalar addition:
0 ⊙ v = (0 + 0) ⊙ v = (0 ⊙ v) ⊕ (0 ⊙ v).
Adding the additive inverse of 0 ⊙ v (denoted −(0 ⊙ v)) to both sides:
(0 ⊙ v) ⊕ (−(0 ⊙ v)) = ((0 ⊙ v) ⊕ (0 ⊙ v)) ⊕ (−(0 ⊙ v)).
Using associativity and definition of inverse:
θ = (0 ⊙ v) ⊕ ((0 ⊙ v) ⊕ (−(0 ⊙ v))) = (0 ⊙ v) ⊕ θ = 0 ⊙ v.
Thus, 0 ⊙ v = θ.

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4. c ⊙ θ = θ for all c ∈ R
Proof: Since θ = θ ⊕ θ, by distributivity over vector addition:

c ⊙ θ = c ⊙ (θ ⊕ θ) = (c ⊙ θ) ⊕ (c ⊙ θ).

Adding −(c ⊙ θ) to both sides gives:

θ = c ⊙ θ.

5. (−1) ⊙ v = −v for all v ∈ V

Proof: Using distributivity over scalar addition and property (3):

v ⊕ ((−1) ⊙ v) = (1 ⊙ v) ⊕ ((−1) ⊙ v) = (1 + (−1)) ⊙ v = 0 ⊙ v = θ.

Since v ⊕ ((−1) ⊙ v) = θ, by uniqueness of the additive inverse, (−1) ⊙ v = −v.

—

3 Lecture 4
Question 3.1: Subspace Verifications in R3
A subset U ⊆ R3 is a subspace if and only if: 1. θ = (0, 0, 0) ∈ U . 2. Closed under addition:
u, v ∈ U =⇒ u ⊕ v ∈ U . 3. Closed under scalar multiplication: c ∈ R, u ∈ U =⇒ c ⊙ u ∈ U .

1. S = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : y = z = 0}
Answer: S is a vector subspace.
Proof: 1. Zero vector: (0, 0, 0) satisfies y = 0, z = 0, so (0, 0, 0) ∈ S. 2. Closure under
addition: Let u = (x1 , 0, 0), v = (x2 , 0, 0) ∈ S. Then u ⊕ v = (x1 + x2 , 0, 0) ∈ S. 3. Closure
under scalar multiplication: Let c ∈ R. c ⊙ u = (cx1 , 0, 0) ∈ S.

2. T = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : x = z = 0}
Answer: T is a vector subspace.
Proof: 1. Zero vector: (0, 0, 0) ∈ T . 2. Closure under addition: Let u = (0, y1 , 0), v =
(0, y2 , 0) ∈ T . Then u ⊕ v = (0, y1 + y2 , 0) ∈ T . 3. Closure under scalar multiplication:
c ⊙ u = (0, cy1 , 0) ∈ T .

3. U = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : x2 + y 2 = z 2 }
Answer: U is NOT a vector subspace.
Proof / Counterexample: Consider u = (1, 0, 1) and v = (0, 1, 1). For u: 12 + 02 =
1 =⇒ u ∈ U . For v: 02 + 12 = 12 =⇒ v ∈ U . However, u ⊕ v = (1, 1, 2). For u ⊕ v:
2

x2 + y 2 = 12 + 12 = 2, but z 2 = 22 = 4. Since 2 ̸= 4, u ⊕ v ∈
/ U . Thus, U is not closed under
addition.

4. W = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : x + y + z = 1}
Answer: W is NOT a vector subspace.
Proof: The zero vector θ = (0, 0, 0) gives 0 + 0 + 0 = 0 ̸= 1. Since (0, 0, 0) ∈
/ W , W cannot
be a subspace.
—

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4 Lecture 5
Question 4.1: Intersection and Union of Subspaces
1. W1 ∩ W2
Answer: W1 ∩ W2 is always a subspace of V .
Proof: 1. Zero vector: Since W1 , W2 are subspaces, θ ∈ W1 and θ ∈ W2 . Thus θ ∈ W1 ∩W2 .
2. Closure under addition: Let u, v ∈ W1 ∩ W2 . Then u, v ∈ W1 =⇒ u ⊕ v ∈ W1 (since W1
is a subspace). Similarly, u, v ∈ W2 =⇒ u ⊕ v ∈ W2 . Hence u ⊕ v ∈ W1 ∩ W2 . 3. Closure
under scalar multiplication: Let c ∈ F and u ∈ W1 ∩ W2 . Then u ∈ W1 =⇒ c ⊙ u ∈ W1 , and
u ∈ W2 =⇒ c ⊙ u ∈ W2 . Thus c ⊙ u ∈ W1 ∩ W2 .

2. W1 ∪ W2
Answer: W1 ∪ W2 is NOT a subspace in general (it is a subspace if and only if W1 ⊆ W2 or
W2 ⊆ W1 ).
Counterexample: Let V = R2 , W1 = {(x, 0) : x ∈ R}, W2 = {(0, y) : y ∈ R}. Then
(1, 0) ∈ W1 ⊆ W1 ∪ W2 and (0, 1) ∈ W2 ⊆ W1 ∪ W2 . However, (1, 0) ⊕ (0, 1) = (1, 1) ∈
/ W1 ∪ W2 .
—

Question 4.2: Sum of Subspaces

Show W1 + W2 = {w1 ⊕ w2 | w1 ∈ W1 , w2 ∈ W2 } is a subspace of V .
Proof: 1. Zero vector: Since θ ∈ W1 and θ ∈ W2 , θ = θ ⊕ θ ∈ W1 + W2 . 2. Closure
under addition: Let u, v ∈ W1 + W2 . Then u = u1 ⊕ u2 and v = v1 ⊕ v2 for u1 , v1 ∈ W1 and
u2 , v2 ∈ W2 .
u ⊕ v = (u1 ⊕ u2 ) ⊕ (v1 ⊕ v2 ) = (u1 ⊕ v1 ) ⊕ (u2 ⊕ v2 ).
Since W1 , W2 are closed under addition, u1 ⊕ v1 ∈ W1 and u2 ⊕ v2 ∈ W2 . Thus u ⊕ v ∈ W1 + W2 .
3. Closure under scalar multiplication: For c ∈ F :

c ⊙ u = c ⊙ (u1 ⊕ u2 ) = (c ⊙ u1 ) ⊕ (c ⊙ u2 ).

Since c ⊙ u1 ∈ W1 and c ⊙ u2 ∈ W2 , c ⊙ u ∈ W1 + W2 .
—

Question 4.3: Sum of Specific Subspaces in R3

Let S = {(x, 0, 0) ∈ R3 | x ∈ R} and T = {(0, y, 0) ∈ R3 | y ∈ R}.
Proof: By definition, S + T = {s ⊕ t | s ∈ S, t ∈ T }. Any s ∈ S is of the form (x, 0, 0) for
x ∈ R, and t ∈ T is of the form (0, y, 0) for y ∈ R. Thus, s ⊕ t = (x, 0, 0) ⊕ (0, y, 0) = (x, y, 0).
Hence, S + T = {(x, y, 0) ∈ R3 | x, y ∈ R}.
—

Question 4.4: Sum of Subspaces in R4

Let U = {(x, x, y, y) ∈ R4 | x, y ∈ R} and W = {(w1 , w1 , w1 , w2 ) ∈ R4 | w1 , w2 ∈ R}.
Proof: An element of U + W has the form:

(x, x, y, y) ⊕ (w1 , w1 , w1 , w2 ) = (x + w1 , x + w1 , y + w1 , y + w2 ).

Let a = x + w1 , b = y + w1 , and c = y + w2 . Note that the first two coordinates are both equal
to a. For any given a, b, c ∈ R, we can choose w1 = 0, x = a, y = b, and w2 = c − b. Then
(x, x, y, y)⊕(w1 , w1 , w1 , w2 ) = (a, a, b, c). Thus, every vector of the form (a, a, b, c) can be written

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as a sum of a vector in U and a vector in W . Therefore, U + W = {(a, a, b, c) ∈ R4 | a, b, c ∈ R}.

5 Lecture 6
Question 5.1
Determine whether (17, −4, 2) is a linear combination of (2, 1, −3) and (1, −2, 4).
Solution: We set up the equation:

c1 ⊙ (2, 1, −3) ⊕ c2 ⊙ (1, −2, 4) = (17, −4, 2).

This yields the system of equations:

2c1 + c2 = 17 (1)
c1 − 2c2 = −4 (2)
−3c1 + 4c2 = 2 (3)

From (2), c1 = 2c2 − 4. Substituting into (1):

2(2c2 − 4) + c2 = 17 =⇒ 5c2 − 8 = 17 =⇒ 5c2 = 25 =⇒ c2 = 5.

Then c1 = 2(5) − 4 = 6.
Now check equation (3):
−3(6) + 4(5) = −18 + 20 = 2.
Since all three equations are satisfied by c1 = 6 and c2 = 5, (17, −4, 2) is a linear combination:

(17, −4, 2) = 6 ⊙ (2, 1, −3) ⊕ 5 ⊙ (1, −2, 4).

Question 5.2
Determine whether (17, 4, 5) is a linear combination of (2, 1, −3) and (1, −2, 4).
Solution: We set up the system:

2c1 + c2 = 17 (1)
c1 − 2c2 = 4 (2)
−3c1 + 4c2 = 5 (3)

From (2), c1 = 2c2 + 4. Substitute into (1):

9
2(2c2 + 4) + c2 = 17 =⇒ 5c2 + 8 = 17 =⇒ 5c2 = 9 =⇒ c2 = .
5
Then c1 = 2 95 + 4 = 38


5 .
Now check equation (3):
   
38 9 −114 + 36 −78
−3 +4 = = ̸= 5.
5 5 5 5

Thus, the system is inconsistent. Hence, (17, 4, 5) is not a linear combination of (2, 1, −3) and
(1, −2, 4).
—

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Question 5.3
Let α = (4, 3, 5), β = (0, 1, 3), γ = (2, 1, 1), δ = (4, 1, 2).

1. Is α a linear combination of β and γ?

Set α = c1 ⊙ β ⊕ c2 ⊙ γ:
c1 (0, 1, 3) + c2 (2, 1, 1) = (4, 3, 5).
System:

2c2 = 4 =⇒ c2 = 2
c1 + c2 = 3 =⇒ c1 + 2 = 3 =⇒ c1 = 1
3c1 + c2 = 5 =⇒ 3(1) + 2 = 5 (Satisfied)

Yes, α = 1 ⊙ β ⊕ 2 ⊙ γ.

2. Is δ a linear combination of γ and β?

Set δ = c1 ⊙ γ ⊕ c2 ⊙ β:
c1 (2, 1, 1) + c2 (0, 1, 3) = (4, 1, 2).
System:

2c1 = 4 =⇒ c1 = 2
c1 + c2 = 1 =⇒ 2 + c2 = 1 =⇒ c2 = −1
c1 + 3c2 = 2 =⇒ 2 + 3(−1) = −1 ̸= 2 (Inconsistent)

No, δ is not a linear combination of γ and β.

—

Question 5.4
Let S = {(1, 2, 3), (3, 1, 0)}. Determine L(S) = span(S).
Solution: L(S) = {a⊙(1, 2, 3)⊕b⊙(3, 1, 0) | a, b ∈ R} = {(a+3b, 2a+b, 3a) ∈ R3 | a, b ∈ R}.
—

Question 5.5
Determine whether r = (2, 1, 3) ∈ L(S) where S = {(1, 2, 3), (3, 1, 0)}.
Solution: Set (a + 3b, 2a + b, 3a) = (2, 1, 3). From 3a = 3 =⇒ a = 1. From a + 3b =
2 =⇒ 1 + 3b = 2 =⇒ b = 1/3. Check second component: 2a + b = 2(1) + 1/3 = 7/3 ̸= 1.
Thus, r ∈
/ L(S).
—

Question 5.6
Determine whether s = (−1, 3, 6) ∈ L(S) where S = {(1, 2, 3), (3, 1, 0)}.
Solution: Set (a + 3b, 2a + b, 3a) = (−1, 3, 6). From 3a = 6 =⇒ a = 2. From a +
3b = −1 =⇒ 2 + 3b = −1 =⇒ 3b = −3 =⇒ b = −1. Check second component:
2a + b = 2(2) + (−1) = 3. Since all components match, s ∈ L(S) with a = 2, b = −1.
—

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Question 5.7
Let S = {α, β, γ} and T = {α, β, α + β, β + γ}. Show L(S) = L(T ).
Proof: 1. Show L(T ) ⊆ L(S): Every vector in T is a linear combination of vectors in S:
α ∈ L(S), β ∈ L(S), α + β = 1 ⊙ α ⊕ 1 ⊙ β ∈ L(S), and β + γ = 1 ⊙ β ⊕ 1 ⊙ γ ∈ L(S). Thus
T ⊆ L(S) =⇒ L(T ) ⊆ L(S).
2. Show L(S) ⊆ L(T ): Vectors in S are α, β, γ. α ∈ T ⊆ L(T ), β ∈ T ⊆ L(T ). For γ:
γ = (β + γ) − β = 1 ⊙ (β + γ) ⊕ (−1) ⊙ β ∈ L(T ). Thus S ⊆ L(T ) =⇒ L(S) ⊆ L(T ).
Hence, L(S) = L(T ).
—

6 Lecture 7
Question 6.1: Linear Independence Verification
A set {v1 , v2 , v3 } is linearly independent if c1 ⊙ v1 ⊕ c2 ⊙ v2 ⊕ c3 ⊙ v3 = θ =⇒ c1 = c2 = c3 = 0.

1. {(2, 1, 1), (1, 2, 2), (1, 1, 1)}

Set c1 (2, 1, 1) + c2 (1, 2, 2) + c3 (1, 1, 1) = (0, 0, 0):

2c1 + c2 + c3 = 0 (1)
c1 + 2c2 + c3 = 0 (2)
c1 + 2c2 + c3 = 0 (3)

Equations (2) and (3) are identical. Subtracting (2) from (1): c1 − c2 = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 .
Substituting c1 = c2 into (2): 3c1 + c3 = 0 =⇒ c3 = −3c1 . Taking c1 = 1, c2 = 1, c3 = −3, we
get a non-trivial solution:

1 ⊙ (2, 1, 1) ⊕ 1 ⊙ (1, 2, 2) ⊕ (−3) ⊙ (1, 1, 1) = (0, 0, 0).

Hence, the set is linearly dependent.

2. {(1, 2, 2), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1)}

Set c1 (1, 2, 2) + c2 (2, 1, 2) + c3 (2, 2, 1) = (0, 0, 0):

c1 + 2c2 + 2c3 = 0 (1)

2c1 + c2 + 2c3 = 0 (2)
2c1 + 2c2 + c3 = 0 (3)

Subtracting (1) from (2): c1 − c2 = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 . Subtracting (1) from (3): c1 − c3 = 0 =⇒

c1 = c3 . Thus c1 = c2 = c3 . Substituting into (1): 5c1 = 0 =⇒ c1 = 0. Hence c1 = c2 = c3 = 0.
The set is linearly independent.

3. {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}

Set c1 (1, 0, 0) + c2 (0, 1, 0) + c3 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0) =⇒ (c1 , c2 , c3 ) = (0, 0, 0). Hence c1 = c2 =
c3 = 0. The set is linearly independent.
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7 Lecture 8
Question 7.1: Basis and Dimension
1. W1 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x + 2y + z = 0, 2x + y + 3z = 0}
Solution: Subtract 2× (Eq 1) from (Eq 2):

(2x + y + 3z) − 2(x + 2y + z) = 0 =⇒ −3y + z = 0 =⇒ z = 3y.

Substitute z = 3y back into x + 2y + z = 0:

x + 2y + 3y = 0 =⇒ x = −5y.

So any element (x, y, z) ∈ W1 is of the form:

(−5y, y, 3y) = y ⊙ (−5, 1, 3).

Therefore, W1 = span({(−5, 1, 3)}). Since (−5, 1, 3) ̸= (0, 0, 0), the set {(−5, 1, 3)} is linearly
independent and spans W1 . - Basis of W1 : {(−5, 1, 3)} - Dimension: dim(W1 ) = 1.

2. W2 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x + y + z = 0}
Solution: x = −y − z. So any (x, y, z) ∈ W2 can be written as:

(−y − z, y, z) = y ⊙ (−1, 1, 0) ⊕ z ⊙ (−1, 0, 1).

The vectors (−1, 1, 0) and (−1, 0, 1) span W2 . Checking linear independence:

c1 (−1, 1, 0) + c2 (−1, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0) =⇒ (−c1 − c2 , c1 , c2 ) = (0, 0, 0) =⇒ c1 = 0, c2 = 0.

- Basis of W2 : {(−1, 1, 0), (−1, 0, 1)} - Dimension: dim(W2 ) = 2.

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Question 7.2: Standard Bases

1. Show {1} is a basis of R
Proof: 1. {1} spans R: Every x ∈ R can be written as x · 1. 2. {1} is linearly independent:
c · 1 = 0 =⇒ c = 0. Thus, {1} is a basis of R.

2. Show {(0, 1), (1, 0)} is a basis of R2

Proof: 1. Spanning: Any (x, y) ∈ R2 can be written as y ⊙ (0, 1) ⊕ x ⊙ (1, 0). 2. Linear
Independence: c1 ⊙(0, 1)⊕c2 ⊙(1, 0) = (c2 , c1 ) = (0, 0) =⇒ c1 = 0, c2 = 0. Thus, {(0, 1), (1, 0)}
is a basis of R2 .
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Question 7.3: Basis Transformations

Given {α, β, γ} is a basis of V . Since dim(V ) = 3, any list of 3 vectors is a basis if and only if
it is linearly independent.

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1. {α + β + γ, β + γ, γ}
Set c1 (α + β + γ) + c2 (β + γ) + c3 γ = θ:

c1 α + (c1 + c2 )β + (c1 + c2 + c3 )γ = θ.

Since {α, β, γ} is linearly independent:

c1 = 0, c1 + c2 = 0 =⇒ c2 = 0, c1 + c2 + c3 = 0 =⇒ c3 = 0.

All coefficients are zero. Hence, the set **is a basis** of V .

2. {cα, cβ, cγ}

- If c ̸= 0: It is linearly independent, hence it **is a basis**. - If c = 0: The set is {θ, θ, θ},
which is dependent, so it **is not a basis**.

3. {α + cβ, β, γ}
Set c1 (α + cβ) + c2 β + c3 γ = θ:

c1 α + (c1 c + c2 )β + c3 γ = θ.

By independence of {α, β, γ}:

c1 = 0, c1 c + c2 = 0 =⇒ c2 = 0, c3 = 0.

All ci = 0. Hence, it **is a basis** of V for any scalar c.

4. {α + cβ, β + cγ, γ + cα}

Set c1 (α + cβ) + c2 (β + cγ) + c3 (γ + cα) = θ:

(c1 + c3 c)α + (c1 c + c2 )β + (c2 c + c3 )γ = θ.

By independence of {α, β, γ}, we get the matrix system:

    
1 0 c c1 0
c 1 0   c2 = 0 .
 
0 c 1 c3 0

The determinant of this coefficient matrix is 1 · (1 − 0) + c · (c2 − 0) = 1 + c3 . - If 1 + c3 ̸= 0

(i.e., c ̸= −1 over R): The system has only the trivial solution c1 = c2 = c3 = 0, so the set **is
a basis**. - If c = −1: 1 + c3 = 0, the set is linearly dependent, so it **is not a basis**.

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