Antiderivatives

1. Definition of an Antiderivative
2. Table of Antiderivatives
3. General Antiderivative Examples
4. Antiderivative Examples
5. Application Example

1. Definition of an Antiderivative

F(x) = x² F(x) is the antiderivative of f(x)

f(x) = 2x f(x) is the derivative of F(x)

An antiderivative of a continuous function f(x) is a differentiable function F(x)

whose derivative is equal to the original function f(x).

The process of finding an antiderivative is called antidifferentiation or integration.

Antidifferentiation is the reverse operation of differentiation.

Example: Given f(x) = 1, find F(x).

F(x) = an antiderivative of f(x)

F(x) + c = the most general antiderivative of f(x)

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2. Table of Antiderivatives

Function Antiderivative

A Ax + c
d xn+1 +c
x n (n = -1) xn+1 +c dx n+1
n+1 n+1-1 n
= (n + 1) x =x
x -1 or 1 ln |x| + c n+1
x

x x
e e +c
b
x bx + c
ln b

cos x sin x + c
sin x - cos x + c
sec² x tan x +c
sec x tan x sec x +c

1 sin -1 x + c
1 - x²
1 tan-1 x + c
1 + x²

cosh x sinh x
sinh x cosh x

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3. General Antiderivative Examples

Examples: Find the most general antiderivative of the function.

1. f(x) = 4 + x² - 5x³ Function Antiderivative

x n (n = -1) xn+1 +c
n+1

2. f(x) =⁴ x³ + ³ x⁵

3. f(x) = 5 - 4x³ + 2x⁶

x⁶

x 5. f(x) = 2sin x - sec²x

4. f(x) = 5e + 2
x

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4. Antiderivative Examples

Examples: Find the function f(x).

f″(x) = antiderivative of f‴(x)
1. f″(x) = 2 + x³ + x⁶ f′(x) = antiderivative of f″(x)
f(x) = antiderivative of f′(x)

2. f″(x) = 20x³ + 12x² + 4 Boundary value problem

f(0) = 8
f(1) = 5

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3. f‴(t) = sin t Initial value problem
f(0) = 1
f′(0) = 1
f″(0) = 1

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5. Application Example

A particle is moving with the given data. Find the position s(t) of the particle.
a(t) = 12 sin t + 3 cos t
s(0) = 0 v(t) = antiderivative of a(t)
s(2π) = 10 s(t) = antiderivative of v(t)

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 The Definite Integral

1. Riemann Sum Definition and an Example

2. Definite Integral Definition, Properties, and an Example
3. Evaluating Definite Integrals Using Limits and an Example
4. Evaluating Definite Integrals as Areas and Examples
5. Definite Integral Comparison Property and Examples

1. Riemann Sum Definition and an Example

A Riemann sum is an approximation of the area under a curve over a

closed interval.
y
y = f(x)

Δx
x
a b
xi - 1 xi xi
n
R n= f(x i*) Δx and Δx = b - a
i=1 n
x i* = x Left endpoints
i-1
or x i* = x = (x i - 1 + x i )/2 Midpoints
i
or x * = x Right endpoints
i i

If f(x) ≥ 0, as shown above, R n is the sum of the areas of the rectangles.

If f(x) is ≥ 0 and ≤ 0, as shown below, R n is the sum of the areas of the
rectangles that lie above the x-axis minus the sums of the areas that lie below
the x-axis. y

x
a b

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Example - Evaluate the Riemann sum for f(x) = 2x - 4, 0≤ x ≤ 3, with six
subintervals, taking the sample points to be (a) right endpoints and
(b) left endpoints.
y
n
2
y = f(x) R n= f(x i*) Δx
i=1
x
3 Δx = b - a
I

-4 -

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2. Definite Integral Definition, Properties, and an Example

Definite Integral Definition

For a continuous function f(x) on a closed interval [a,b], the definite integral
of f from a to b is defined as:
b n
∫a f(x) dx = lim f(x*i ) Δx A definite integral equals a number
n i=1

∫ = the integral sign

a = the lower limit of integration
b = the upper limit of integration
f(x) = the integrand
dx = the differential
x i* = any sample point chosen within the ith subinterval

Definite Integral Properties

b a
1. ∫a f(x) dx = ∫b f(x) dx
a
2. ∫a f(x) dx = 0
c b
∫a f(x) dx = ∫a f(x) dx
b
3. ∫ f(x) dx , a ≤ c ≤ b
c

Example - Express the limit as a definite integral on the given interval.

n
lim x i* Δx , [2 , 5]
n i = 1 (x * )² + 4
i

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3. Evaluating Definite Integrals Using Limits and an Example

A definite integral can be evaluated using the following limit definition

and formulas.
b n
∫a f(x) dx = lim f(x i) Δx , x i = a + iΔx
n i=1

n n
c = cn i² = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
i=1 i=1
n n
6
i = n(n + 1) i³ = n(n + 1) 2
i=1
2 i=1
2

Example - Evaluate the integral using the limit definition.

3
∫1 (2x - x³) dx

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n n
c = cn i² = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
i=1 i=1
n n
6
i = n(n + 1) i³ = n(n + 1) 2
i=1
2 i=1
2

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4. Evaluating Definite Integrals as Areas and Examples

A definite integral can sometimes be solved by interpreting it as an area

or areas under a curve.

Examples - Evaluate the integral by interpreting it in terms of areas.

10
1. ∫0 | x - 5 | dx y

0
2. ∫-5 ( 1 + 25 - x² ) dx y

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5. Comparison Property for Definite Integrals and Examples

This property is used to estimate the value of a definite integral by finding its
upper and lower bound without solving it exactly.
y

M
y = f(x) M = absolute maximum value of f(x) on [a,b]
m m = absolute minimum value of f(x) on [a,b]
x
a b

y = f(x)

≤ M

b-a b-a

y = f(x)

≥ m
b-a
b-a

b
m(b - a) ≤ ∫a f(x) dx ≤ M(b - a) Comparison Property

Lower bound Upper bound

Steps to follow
1. Calculate f′(x) and find the critical numbers in the interval [a,b].
2. Compute f at the critical numbers and endpoints and compare the values.
Largest value = Absolute maximum = M
Smallest value = Absolute minimum = m
3. Use the comparison property to estimate the value of the integral.
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Examples - Estimate the value of the integral.
1 b
1. ∫0 x³ dx m(b - a) ≤ ∫a f(x) dx ≤ M(b - a)

2
2. ∫0 xe-x dx

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 The Area Problem

1. Area Under a Curve - Approximate and Exact

2. Example - Estimating the Area Under the Graph of a Function
3. General Formula for the Area Under a Curve
4. Example - Finding an Expression for Area as a Limit
5. Example - Finding a Region whose Area is a Limit

1. Area Under a Curve - Approximate and Exact

The Area Problem - Find the area under the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b.
y

y = f(x)

x
a b

Find an approximate area - Divide the region into small rectangles and find the
sum of all the areas of the rectangles.
Find the exact area - Divide the region into an infinite number of small rectangles
and use a limit to find the sum of all the areas of the
rectangles.

Three common ways to approximate the height of each rectangle

y y y
y = f(x) y = f(x) y = f(x)

x x x
a b a b a b
1. Right-hand endpoints 2. Left-hand endpoints 3. Midpoints

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2. Example - Estimating the Area Under the Graph of a Function

Estimate the area under the graph of y = 16 - x² from x = 0 to x = 4 using

four rectangles and (a) right endpoints, (b) left endpoints, and (c) midpoints.

(a)
y

16
12
8
4
x
1 2 3 4

(b)
y

16
12
8
4
x
1 2 3 4

(c)
y

16
12
8
4
x
1 2 3 4

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3. General Formula for the Area Under a Curve

Find the area under the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b.

y
y = f(x)

Δx
x
a x1 x2 xi x n-2 x n-1 b
x0 xn

n = the number of rectangles x0 = a

Δx = the width of each rectangle x 1 = a + Δx
x 2 = a + 2Δx
Δx = b - a
n
xi = a + i Δx

A ≈ sum of all the rectangles

A ≈ R n = f(x 1 ) Δx + f(x2 )Δx + . . . + f(x n-1 )Δx + f(x n )Δx
= [f(x1 ) + f(x2 ) + . . . + f(xn-1 ) + f(xn )] Δx

Approximate Area Exact Area

n n
A ≈ Rn= f(x i ) Δx A = lim f(x i ) Δx
i=1 n i=1

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4. Example - Finding an Expression for Area as a Limit

Find an expression for the area under the graph of f as a limit.

f(x) = 5x , 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
x² - 1

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5. Example - Finding a Region whose Area is a Limit

Determine a region whose area is equal to the given limit. Do not evaluate
the limit.
n
4 5 + 4i 10
lim
n i=1 n n

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 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

1. Introduction to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

2. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1
3. Examples Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1
4. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2
5. Examples Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

1. Introduction to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is the bridge that connects the two
fundamental pillars of calculus.
1. Differentiation: The study of rates of change
2. Integration: The study of total accumulation or area

Differentiation is the study of rates of change – how fast something is changing

at a specific moment.
A car’s speedometer shows the instantaneous speed, which is the derivative
of the distance function.

Integration is the study of total accumulation - the overall amount of change

over an interval.
How much total distance a car has traveled.

This theorem shows that these two concepts are inverse operations.

It’s what allows us to compute definite integrals efficiently without having to

approximate area using Riemann sums.

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2. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1 provides a formal statement of the

inverse relationship between differentiation and integration.

The Accumulation Function

y

x
y = f(t) g(x) = ∫ f(t) dt
a

The “Area So Far” Function

g(x)
t
a x b

g(x) represents the area under f(t) starting from a fixed point “a” up to a
variable point “x”.
It tells you how much total area, distance, volume, or quantity has accumulated
up to that point.

Question - How fast is this accumulated area g(x) increasing as x increases?

y = f(t)
New area = f(x) . dx

g(x)
t
a x b

Rate of change of area g(x) = g′(x) = New area = f(x) . dx = f(x)

dx dx
The accumulation function g(x) is an antiderivative of f(x) because its rate
of change equals f(x).
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The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, formalizes this connection
between accumulation and rate of change, showing how derivatives and
integrals are related.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1

If f is continuous on [a,b], then the function g defined by

x
g(x) = ∫ f(t) dt a≤x≤b
a

is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b) and g′(x) = f(x).

x
g(x) = ∫ f(t) dt g′(x) = f(x)
a

The derivative of a definite integral with respect to its upper limit equals the
value of the integrand evaluated at that upper limit.

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Example - Evaluating g(x) for different values of x.
x
Let g(x) = ∫a f(t) dt , where f is the function whose graph is shown.
Evaluate g(x) for x = 1, 3, and 6.

3
y = f(t)
2
1
t
-1 1 3 5 7

This example illustrates how g(x) represents the accumulated area under
f(t) from 0 to x.

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3. Examples Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1

Use Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find the derivative

of the function.
x x
1. g(x) =∫ (2 + t⁴)⁵ dt g(x) = ∫ f(t) dt dg or g′(x) = f(x)
1 a
dx

4
2. g(x) =∫ t²sin t dt
x

1 - 3x
3. g(x) =∫ t³ dt
1
1 + t²

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4. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 provides a direct method for

evaluating a definite integral using antiderivatives.

x
g(x) = ∫ f(t) dt dg or g′(x) = f(x) The Fundamental Theorem
a
dx of Calculus, Part 1

Since g′(x) = f(x), g(x) = an antiderivative of f(x)

Let F(x) = any antiderivative of f(x)
Since any two antiderivatives differ by a constant c,
F(x) - g(x) = c
F(x) = g(x) + c

F(a) = g(a) + c F(b) = g(b) + c

x
F(b) = g(b) + F(a)
g(x) = ∫ f(t) dt
a b
a
g(b) = ∫a f(t) dt
g(a) = ∫ f(t) dt = 0
a b b
F(b) = ∫ f(t) dt + F(a) ∫a f(t) dt = F(b) - F(a)
a
F(a) = c

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

If f is continuous on [a,b], then

b
∫a f(t) dt = F(b) - F(a)

where F is any antiderivative of f, (i.e. a function such that F′ = f).

The definite integral of a function equals the antiderivative evaluated at the

upper limit minus the antiderivative evaluated at the lower limit.
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5. Examples Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

1. Evaluate the integral. If f is continuous on [a,b]

b
3 ∫a f(t) dt = F(b) - F(a)
(a) ∫1 (x² - x + 4) dx

9
(b) ∫3 dx
x

π
(c) ∫π/3 sin θ dθ

2. What is wrong with the following calculation?

2
∫-1 1 dx = x 1 2
= - 3/2
x² 1 -1

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 Indefinite Integrals and the Net Change Theorem

1. Indefinite Integral Definition and Formulas

2. Integral Examples
3. The Net Change Theorem and Examples
4. Particle Motion Example

1. Indefinite Integral Definition and Formulas

An indefinite integral is essentially the same as the antiderivative of a function.

The Indefinite Integral

∫ f(x) dx = F(x) + C where F′(x) = f(x)

F(x) + C is the indefinite integral of f(x)

F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x)
F(x) + C is the general antiderivative of f(x)

General Integral Formulas

∫ k f(x) dx = k ∫f(x) dx + C

∫ [f(x) ± g(x)] dx = ∫ f(x) dx ± ∫ g(x) dx

∫ f(x) dx
∫ f(x)g(x) dx = ∫ f(x) dx ∫g(x) dx ∫ f(x) dx =
g(x) ∫ g(x) dx

Algebraic Integral Formulas

∫ k dx = kx + C

∫ x n dx = x n + 1 + C (n = -1) ∫1 dx = ln |x| + C
x
n+1

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Exponential Integral Formulas

∫ex x ∫bx x
dx = e +C dx = b +C
ln b

Trigonometric Integral Formulas

∫ sin x dx = -cos x + C ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C

∫ sec² x dx = tan x + C ∫ csc² x dx = -cot x + C

∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C ∫ csc x cot x dx = -csc x + C

Inverse Trigonometric Integral Formulas

∫ 1
1 - x²
dx = sin -1 x + C

∫ 1 +1 x² dx = tan-1 x + C

∫ |x|1 x² - 1 dx = sec-1 x + C

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2. Integral Examples

3 Techniques for Evaluating Simple Integrals

1. Multiply algebraic functions.
2. Divide algebraic functions when the denominator has one term.
3. Simplify with a trigonometric formula.

Examples - Evaluate the indefinite integral.

1. ∫ (4 + 2x² + 5e x ) dx

2. ∫ x (1 + 2x⁴) dx

3. ∫ 3xx- 2 dx

4. ∫ sin 2x dx
sin x

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Examples - Evaluate the definite integral.
2
1. ∫0 (2x + 5)(3x - 1) dx

∫1
3 x - 3 dx
2.
3 x

π/4
3. ∫0 1 + cos²θ dθ
cos²θ

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1/2
4. ∫0 1 dx
1 - x²

3π/2
5. ∫0 | sin x | dx

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3. The Net Change Theorem and Example

The net change theorem says that the total change in a quantity over an interval
can be found by integrating its rate of change over that same interval.

The Net Change Theorem F(x) = the quantity that is changing

F′(x) = the rate of change of F(x)
b
∫a F′(x) dx = F(b) - F(a) F(b) - F(a) = the total change in F(x)

Example
An oil storage tank initially holds 4000 gallons of oil. The oil is leaking out
at a rate of 100 + 4t² gallons per hour. How much oil is in the tank
after 3 hours?

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4. Particle Motion Example

The acceleration function (in m/s²) and the initial velocity are given for a
particle moving along the line. Find (a) the velocity at time t and (b) the
distance traveled during the given time interval.

a(t) = 2t + 3, v(0) = -4, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3 s(t) = position

v(t) = s′(t) = velocity
a(t) = v′(t) = acceleration
v(t) = ∫ a(t) dt
s(t) = ∫ v(t) dt

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 The Substitution Rule

1. How Substitution Works and Choosing U

2. Indefinite Integral Examples Using U-Substitution
3. Definite Integral Examples Using U-Substitution

1. How Substitution Works and Choosing U

The substitution rule or u-substitution is a technique used to evaluate integrals

that cannot be solved directly using basic integration formulas.

Main Idea - Replace a complicated integral with a simpler integral by

introducing a new variable u.

Method
1st choice - Choose u to be the function whose derivative occurs in the integrand.
2nd choice - Choose u to be the more complicated function in the integrand.

Examples

1. ∫ 2x 1 + x² dx u = 1 + x²

2. ∫ (1 + tan θ)⁵ sec²θ dθ u = tan θ

3. ∫ ³ x³ + 1 x⁵ dx u = x³ + 1

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2. Indefinite Integral Examples Using U-Substitution

U-Substitution Steps to Follow

1. Choose u.
2. Calculate du and solve for dx.
3. Substitute dx into the integral and rewrite the integral in terms of u.
4. Integrate the new integral.
5. Rewrite the answer in terms of x.

1. ∫ 2x 1 + x² dx

2. ∫ x² (x³ + 5)⁶ dx

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3. ∫ ³ x³ + 1 x⁵ dx

4. ∫ e 2x dx

5. ∫ (1 + tan θ)⁵ sec²θ dθ

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6. ∫ sec⁵x tan x dx

7. ∫ tan x dx

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3. Definite Integral Examples Using U-Substitution

U-Substitution Steps to Follow

1. Choose u.
2. Calculate du and solve for dx.
3. Substitute dx into the integral and rewrite the integral in terms of u.
4. Find the limits of integration in terms of u.
5. Integrate the new integral.
7
1. ∫0 3x + 4 dx

π/2
2. ∫0 cos x (sin(sin x)) dx

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 Areas Between Curves

1. Formulas and Steps to Follow

2. Examples

1. Formulas and Steps to Follow

y
y T = f(x) Area Between the Two Curves
b b
A = ∫ (y T - y B ) dx = ∫ (f(x) - g(x)) dx
y B = g(x) dx a a
x
a b

d
Area Between the Two Curves
x L = g(y) x R = f(y)
d d
A = ∫ (xR - x L ) dy = ∫ (f(y) - g(y)) dy
c c
dy
c

Steps to follow to find the area between two curves

1. Find the points where the two curves intersect.

2. Graph the region.
3. Choose a formula. (dx or dy)
4. Evaluate the definite integral.

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2. Examples

1. Find the area of the region enclosed by the following curves.

y=x+2
y = -x² + 4

1. Find the points where the two curves intersect.

2. Graph the region.

y

3. Choose a formula. (dx or dy)

4. Evaluate the definite integral.

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2. Find the area of the region enclosed by the following curves.
x = y²
x=y+2

1. Find the points where the two curves intersect.

2. Graph the region.

y

3. Choose a formula. (dx or dy)

4. Evaluate the definite integral.

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3. Find the area of the region enclosed by the following curves.
y = x²
y= x

1. Find the points where the two curves intersect.

2. Graph the region.

y

3. Choose a formula. (dx or dy)

4. Evaluate the definite integral.

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4. Find the area of the region enclosed by the following curves.
y = x³ - 2x² + 1
y = x² - 2x + 1

1. Find the points where the two curves intersect.

2. Graph the region.

y

3. Choose a formula. (dx or dy)

4. Evaluate the definite integral.

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5. Find the area of the region enclosed by the following curves.
y = x³
y=x

1. Find the points where the two curves intersect.

2. Graph the region.

y

3. Choose a formula. (dx or dy)

4. Evaluate the definite integral.

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 Volumes By Disks and Washers

Formulas and Steps to Follow

Examples - Revolving a region about the x-axis, line y=b, y-axis, line x=a

Formulas and Steps to Follow

A solid of revolution is a solid obtained by rotating a region in the plane about

an axis or a line.

About the x-axis

y y
y = f(x)
Region on
x-axis x
b
V = π∫ y² dx
Gi x a
a b a b
b
V = ∫ A dx A = Disk = πr² = πy²
y a y
y = f(x)
Gap between y = g(x)
region and
Gi x x V = π ∫ b (yout
² - y in²)dx
a
x-axis a b a b
b
V = ∫ A dx A = Washer = πrout² - πrin² = πy out
² - πy in²
a
y y
About the line y = b

G y=b y
Any r
b x
region V = π ∫ b (r out
² - r ²)dx
in
y
x
a r
b -b
a
a b G y=b
r= b-y r=b-y r=y-b

Line above the region Line below the region

y = distance from the x-axis to the curve
r = distance from the curve to the revolving line
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About the y-axis
y y

d d V = π∫ x² dy
d
Region on x = f(y) c
y-axis c c
x x

V = ∫ d A dy A = Disk = πr² = πx²

c

y y

Gap between d d
region and x = g(y) d
V = π ∫c (xout
² - xin²)dy
y-axis x = f(y)

c c
x x

V = ∫ d A dy A = Washer = πrout² - πrin² = πxout

² - πxin²
c

About the line x = a

y y
x=a
Any d x=a d x
x r
region r

c a -a c
x x

r=a-x r=x-a
Line to the right of the region Line to the left of the region

V = π ∫ d (r out
² - r ²)dy
in
r= a-x
c
x = distance from the y-axis to the curve
r = distance from the curve to the revolving line
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Steps to follow to find the volume of a solid revolution
1. Graph the given curves.
2. Find the points of intersection.
3. From the graph determine the value for the radius or radii.
4. Choose the correct volume formula.
5. Evaluate the definite integral.

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Examples - Revolving a region about the x-axis

Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the
given curves about the x-axis.

1. y = x - 1 y x=2 x=5
x=2
x=5 y= x-1
b
y=0 V = π∫ y² dx
a
G x

y=0

2. y = x² y
x = y² y = x²
x = y² V = π ∫ b (yout
² - y in²)dx
a

G x

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Examples - Revolving a region about a line y=b

Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the
given curves about the given line.

1. y = x y
y= x y=x
Line y = 1 y= x V = π ∫ b (r out
² - r ²)dx
in
G a
y=1
x

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 6
2. y = 1/x² y
x=1 x=3
y=0
x=1 V = π ∫ b (r out
² - r ²)dx
in
a
x=3 y = 1/x²
Line y = -1 -

x
y=0
G y = -1

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Examples - Revolving a region about the y-axis

Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the
given curves about the y-axis.

1. y = x² y
y=4
y=4
x=0 d
V = π∫ x² dy
y≥0 y = x² c

x=0
x

y
2. y² = x d
y = x² V = π ∫c (xout
² - xin²)dy
x = 2y
x = 2y
x

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 8
Examples - Revolving a region about a line x=a

Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the
given curves about the given line.

1. x = y² y x=1
x= 1 V = π ∫ d (r out
² - r ²)dy
in
c
y≥0 x = y²
Line x = 1 x

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 9
x= y
2. y = x² x = -1 y
x = y² x = y²
d
Line x = -1 V = π ∫ (rout
² - r in²)dy
c

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