EEF 212E - Electromagnetic

Theory I
ASST. PROF. CEMANUR AYDINALP
Magnetic force
• Stationary charges produce static electric fields. These fields exert forces on other charges placed
near them.
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 (Coulomb’s Law (Electric Force))
The direction of F​ is parallel to the electric field for positive charges, and opposite for negative
charges.
• Steady currents or moving charges create magnetic fields. The force exerted by a magnetic field
on a moving charge is called the magnetic force. Magnetic force acts on a charged particle moving
with a velocity of u. Magnetic force is defined in terms of magnetic flux density B (T).
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞𝑢 𝑥 𝐵 𝑁
• 𝑞: Charge (Coulomb)
• u : Velocity vector of the charge (m/s)
• B : Magnetic flux density (Tesla, T)
Magnetic force

• Direction of Fm is in compliance with the right hand rule.

• The magnetic force is always perpendicular both to the velocity (u) of the particle and to the
magnetic flux density (B). The magnitude of Fm is,
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞𝑢𝐵 sin(𝜃)
• If the particle moves parallel to the magnetic field (𝜃=0), 𝐹𝑚=0; No magnetic force.
• If the particle moves perpendicular to the field (𝜃=90), 𝐹𝑚=𝑞𝑢𝐵; Maximum magnetic force.
• Example: Magnetic force is the principle behind cyclotrons. Cyclotrons are used in medical
isotope production, such as generating Fluorine-18 for PET imaging by accelerating protons to
produce radioactive tracers.
Lorentz force
• When a charged particle is exposed to both an electric field (E) and a magnetic
flux density (B) at the same time, it experiences a combined force known as the
Lorentz force.
• Total Force:
Ftotal= Fe + Fm = qE+qu x B = q(E+u x B)
• Direction:
• Electric force is along E (or opposite for negative charges).
• Magnetic force is perpendicular to both u and B (right-hand rule).
• The electric field acts on a charged particle whereas the magnetic force acts
on a moving particle.
Lorentz force
• No work can be done via magnetic force by displacing a charge.
• The magnetic force can change the trajectory (direction) of a particle, but it cannot change
its kinetic energy because it always acts perpendicular to the velocity.

dW= Fm . dl dl = u dt
dW= Fm . u dt
Since the force is perpendicular to the velocity Fm . u = 0 Thus, dW=0.
• Result: Magnetic field alone cannot speed up or slow down a charged particle, it only curves
its path.
Magnetic Force Acting on a Current Carrying
Wire •When an electric current flows through a wire placed in a magnetic field, the wire
experiences a magnetic force.
•The magnitude and direction of this force depend on the current, the length and
orientation of the wire, the magnetic field strength, and the angle between the
current and the field.

(a) Experimental Setup

•A wire is suspended vertically between the poles of a magnet so that it is within a
uniform magnetic field.
•When no current flows through the wire, it simply hangs straight down—no
magnetic force acts.

(b) Magnetic Field Direction

•The circles with “×” symbols show that the magnetic flux density (B) points into the
page (or screen). With no current, the wire remains vertical.
Magnetic Force Acting on a Current Carrying
Wire
(c) Current Upwards (I↑), Wire Deflects Left
•When current flows upward in the wire, the wire deflects to the left.
•This deflection is due to the magnetic force generated by the
interaction of the current and the magnetic field.
(d) Current Downwards (I↓), Wire Deflects Right
•When the current flows downward, the wire deflects to the right.
•The direction of the force reverses because the current direction is
reversed.
 Magnetic Force Acting on a Current Carrying
Wire
Formula for Magnetic Force
The force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field:

Where:
•I: Current through the wire (Amperes)
•L: Length vector of the wire (direction of current, meters)
•B: Magnetic flux density(Tesla)
F=ILBsinθ
•θ: Angle between the direction of current and the magnetic flux density

•Right-Hand Rule:
• Point your fingers in the direction of the current (I).
• Point your palm in the direction of the magnetic flux density (B), so that your fingers curl from current to
magnetic field.
• Your thumb points in the direction of the force (F).
 Magnetic Torque
• The figure shows a current-
carrying rectangular loop.
• Area Vector (𝐴) represents the
area vector of the loop.
• The red arrow labeled 𝜇 shows
the magnetic moment vector of
the loop.
• The magnetic moment is given
If the wire forms a loop, by: 𝜇=𝐼⋅𝐴 where 𝐼 is the current
• When a magnetic field the forces on opposite and 𝐴 is the area vector.
acts on a current- sides create a torque
carrying wire, it exerts a (rotational force) rather
force. than moving the loop in
one direction.
Magnetic Torque
• Torque is a force that causes an object to rotate around a
fixed axis.
• In a current loop placed in a magnetic field, this torque
tends to rotate the loop to align it with the magnetic field.
• This principle is the basis of electric motors and
galvanometers.
• The magnitude of the torque depends on:
• The current flowing through the loop
• The strength of the magnetic field
• The area of the loop
• The orientation of the loop relative to the magnetic field
Magnetic Torque
• Every current loop has an associated “normal vector”
• The normal vector is perpendicular to the plane of the
loop.
• Its direction is given by the right-hand rule: if your right
fingers curl in the direction of current, your thumb points
in the direction of the normal vector (μ​).
• The magnetic field exerts a torque that tries to align the
loop’s normal vector with the magnetic field direction.
• The mathematical expression for torque (T) on a
current loop is:
T= d x F
where:
d = position vector (distance from the axis to where the
force acts)
F = magnetic force
 •The Biot–Savart Law describes how a steady current or
Biot-Savart Law moving charge creates a magnetic field at any point in
space.
𝐽Ԧv=ρ 𝑣Ԧ Ԧ Current Element
𝐽dv •The law expresses the differential magnetic field (dB)
Q generated by a current element as a function of its
𝑅𝑠𝑝 position and direction.
P(x,y,z)
B 𝜇0 𝐽𝑣𝑑𝑣×𝑅𝑠𝑝
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑅𝑠𝑝 3

𝜇0 : Permeability of free space (4π 10-7 (H/m))

𝐽𝑣 = 𝜌v Current density (A/m2 ), where 𝜌 is the charge density and v is the velocity vector
𝑑𝜈: Differential volume element
Rsp​ : Vector from the source point (Q) to the field point (P)
The direction of dB is determined by the right-hand rule (cross product).
Biot-Savart Law Integrates the contributions from every current
element in the volume.
𝐽Ԧv=ρ 𝑣Ԧ Ԧ Current Element
𝐽dv
Ԧ 𝑠𝑝
𝜇0 𝐽𝑥𝑅
Q 𝐵= ඲ 3
dv
𝑅𝑠𝑝
4𝜋 𝑅𝑠𝑝
𝐵
P(x,y,z)
The magnetic field at point P is a vector sum of all
B
current elements, each contributing according to its
distance and orientation relative to P.
Both laws describe how sources Biot–Savart law is analogous to Coulomb’s law for the
(charge or current) generate electric field, but involves a vector cross product due to
fields at a distance, but Biot– the nature of magnetic interactions.
Savart includes a vector cross
product due to the nature of
magnetic interactions, while
Coulomb’s law is a direct (radial)
relationship.
Biot-Savart Law • The law is often used to find the magnetic field
generated by a wire carrying a steady current 𝐼.
• Current Element (𝐼𝑑𝑙) replaces the general current
density:
I
where dl is the differential length vector along the
wire.

d << 1
𝜇0 𝐽𝑣 𝑑𝑣×𝑅𝑠𝑝
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑅𝑠𝑝 3

Ԧ 𝑠𝑝
𝜇0 𝐽𝑥𝑅
𝐵= ඲ dv
4𝜋 𝑅𝑠𝑝3
𝐵
Biot-Savart Application Steps
• Define the coordinate system and the origin
• Write the vector from origin to source
• Write the vector from origin to observation point
• Write the vector from source to observation point
• Write the unit vector from source to observation point
• Define the direction of current/current density
• Apply the biot savart law and integrate RHS of the equation
Vector Magnetic Potential and Field Equation
P (x, y, z) • The Biot–Savart law gives the magnetic field B at a point P in
𝑅𝑠𝑝 space due to a current distribution.
S (x’, y’, z’)
• The magnetic field produced by a tiny current element (J dv) is:
μ0 𝐽Ԧ d𝑣 𝑥 𝑅𝑠𝑝
V 𝑑𝐵 =
4π 𝑅 3
sp

𝜇0 : Permeability of free space

𝐽Ԧ ∶ Current density at source point S (x’, y’, z’)
𝑑𝜈: Differential volume at source point
Rsp : Distance between S and P
Vector Magnetic Potential and Field Equation
P (x, y, z) μ0 𝐽Ԧ d𝑣 𝑥 𝑅𝑠𝑝
𝑑𝐵 =
𝑅𝑠𝑝 4π 𝑅 3
S (x’, y’, z’) sp

𝑅𝑠𝑝 =(x-x’) 𝑒𝑥+(y-y’) 𝑒𝑦+(z−z’) 𝑒𝑧

V
𝑅sp =[(x-x’)2 +(y-y’)2 +(z−z’)2]1/2
dv=dvs= dx’dy’dz’ (Small volume at the source)
𝑅𝑠𝑝
3 can be rewritten as the gradient of −1/Rsp:
𝑅sp
𝑅𝑠𝑝 1
3 = 𝛻(− )
𝑅sp 𝑅𝑠𝑝
This allows us to write the field as:
μ0 1 μ0 1
𝐵= ම 𝐽Ԧ 𝑑𝑣𝑠 𝑥 𝛻(− ) 𝐵= ම 𝛻( ) 𝑥𝐽Ԧ 𝑑𝑣𝑠
4π 𝑅𝑠𝑝 4π 𝑅𝑠𝑝
Vector Magnetic Potential and Field Equation
P (x, y, z) • Let f be a scalar function and A -vector function
𝑅𝑠𝑝 Ԧ Ԧ (𝛻f x 𝐴)
Ԧ
S (x’, y’, z’)
𝛻x(f𝐴)=f(𝛻x 𝐴)+
μ0 1
𝐵= ම 𝛻( ) 𝑥 𝐽Ԧ 𝑑𝑣𝑠
V 4π 𝑅𝑠𝑝

• Curl of 𝐽Ԧ with respect to P (𝛻px 𝐽)=0

Ԧ

μ0 1 μ0 𝐽Ԧ
𝐵= ම 𝛻px( Ԧ 𝑑𝑣𝑠
𝐽) 𝐵 = 𝛻px ම 𝑑𝑣𝑠
4π 𝑅𝑠𝑝 4π 𝑅𝑠𝑝
 Vector Magnetic Potential and Field Equation
• The expression inside the brackets is defined as the vector magnetic potential 𝐀:
μ0 𝐽Ԧ
𝐴Ԧ = ‫( 𝑣𝑑 𝑅 ׮‬Wb/m)
4π 𝑠𝑝

• The magnetic field is then given by the curl of the vector potential:
𝐵 = 𝛻x𝐴Ԧ
𝛻 ∙ 𝐵 = 𝛻 ∙ 𝛻x𝐴Ԧ
• According to vector calculus, the divergence of the curl of any vector field is always
zero:
𝛻 ∙ (𝛻 × A)=0
𝛻∙ 𝐵=0
This is a fundamental property of magnetic fields: magnetic field lines are always closed
loops—there are no magnetic monopoles.
MAGNETİC FLUX
• Magnetic flux (Φ) quantifies the total magnetic field passing through a given surface. It
represents how much magnetic “flow” penetrates a surface.
• The basic definition is: Φ=‫( 𝑠𝑑 ∙ 𝐵 𝑆׬‬Weber Wb)
B : Magnetic flux density (Tesla, T)
ds: An small vector area element, normal to the surface 𝑆
The dot product means only the component of 𝐵 perpendicular to the surface counts.
• If the magnetic field is uniform and perpendicular to a flat surface Φ=B⋅S where 𝑆 is the
surface area.
MAGNETİC FLUX
From vector calculus, the magnetic field can be written as the curl of
the vector potential:
𝐵=𝛻x𝐴Ԧ
Plugging into the flux formula Φ=‫( 𝑠𝑑 ∙ 𝐵 𝑆׬‬Wb)
Φ=‫𝛻( ׬‬x𝐴) Ԧ ∙ 𝑑𝑠
𝑆
Stokes' Theorem allows us to convert the surface integral of a curl into
a line integral around the boundary curve 𝐶 of the surface:
Φ=‫𝐴 ׬‬Ԧ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 (Wb)
𝐶
dl: small vector element along the closed curve C (the perimeter of the
surface)
Summary
• Magnetic flux through a surface can also be computed by integrating
the vector potential along the surface’s boundary.
• This connection is central to electromagnetic theory (e.g., Faraday’s
Law).
Vector Poisson’s Equation
• Let’s recall the second Maxwell equation: Ampère’s Law in differential
form:
𝛻×𝐻 =𝐽
• Where H is the magnetic field strength and J is the current density
• For linear materials B=μH substituting,
𝛻 × B = μ𝐽
In terms of vector potential A:
B= 𝛻 × A
So, Ampère’s Law becomes:
𝛻 × (𝛻 × A ) = μ𝐽
Vector Poisson’s Equation
𝛻 × (𝛻 × A ) = μ𝐽
• Now we can relate the magnetic vector potential with the current density. Lets
remember Del Operator Identity from vector properties:

So, the equation becomes:

𝛻2A= 𝛻(𝛻 ∙ A ) − 𝛻 × (𝛻 × A )
𝛻2A= 𝛻(𝛻 ∙ A ) −μ𝐽
𝛻2A − 𝛻(𝛻 ∙ A ) =−μ𝐽
• By choosing the Coulomb gauge (∇⋅ A =0), we set the divergence of the vector
potential to zero and further simplify the vector Poisson equation.
𝛻 ∙ A= 0
• We obtain the vector Poisson’s equation
𝛻2A =−μ𝐽
Vector Poisson’s Equation
• This is known as the Vector Poisson’s Equation for the magnetic
vector potential:
𝛻 2A =−μ𝐽
• In Cartesian coordinates, this expands to three separate equations:
𝛻 2Ax =−μ𝐽x, 𝛻 2Ay =−μ𝐽y, 𝛻2Az =−μ𝐽z

This equation allows us to compute the magnetic vector potential 𝐴 in

space if the current density 𝐽 is known.
Solving for 𝐴 , we can then find the magnetic field B =∇× A .
Ampere’s Law
• In electrostatics, the electric field is conservative, meaning there is no “curl” (rotation) in the field
(∇ × E = 0).
• The magnetic analogue is Ampere’s Law, which states the curl of the magnetic field strength H is
equal to the current density.
𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽𝑠
• Electric currents (moving charges) create magnetic fields that circulate around the current.
• If we apply the Stokes Theorem to the equation above,
න 𝛻 × 𝐻 ∙ 𝑑𝑠 = න 𝐽𝑠 ∙ 𝑑𝑠

ර 𝐻 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼

The line integral of the magnetic field H around a closed contour C. 𝐼 is the total current passing
through the surface enclosed by C.
• Ampere’s law states that the line integral of the magetic field (H) on a closed path equal to the
total current passing through the surface enclosed by the contour.
 When to apply Coulomb, Biot-Savart, Gauss’s
and Ampere’s Laws?
• The Coulomb’s law and Biot Savart Law are analogous since they are both
applied when the sources are randomly distributed that is, when there is
no particular symmetry in the system.
• The Gauss’s and Ampere’s Laws are applied when the distribution of the
sources are symmetric.
Gauss’s Law
Coulomb’s law ρ𝑣 ρ 𝑙 ρ𝑠

Random charge distribution Symmetric charge distribution

𝑞

Ampere’s Law
Biot Savart Law
J𝑣 𝐼 J𝑠
Symmetric current distribution
Random current distribution
 When to apply Coulomb, Biot-Savart, Gauss’s
and Ampere’s Laws? Coulomb’s Law: Used to calculate
the electric field or force directly
Gauss’s Law between point charges that are
Coulomb’s law ρ𝑣 ρ 𝑙 ρ𝑠
scattered in space with no
Random charge distribution Symmetric charge distribution symmetry.
𝑞
Biot–Savart Law: Used to calculate
the magnetic field produced by
Ampere’s Law
Biot Savart Law individual current elements in
J𝑣 𝐼 J𝑠
cases where the current
Symmetric current distribution distribution is random and lacks
Random current distribution symmetry.
When the system has a random
distribution of sources, use
Coulomb’s Law or Biot–Savart Law
for direct calculations.
 When to apply Coulomb, Biot-Savart, Gauss’s
and Ampere’s Laws? Gauss’s Law: If the charges are
distributed with symmetry (like on
a spherical shell or an infinite
Gauss’s Law
Coulomb’s law ρ𝑣 ρ 𝑙 ρ𝑠 plane), the electric field can be
easily found using a closed surface
Random charge distribution Symmetric charge distribution
𝑞 integral.
Ampere’s Law: If the current has a
Ampere’s Law symmetric distribution (such as a
Biot Savart Law
J𝑣 𝐼 J𝑠 long straight wire or solenoid), the
Symmetric current distribution
magnetic field can be found using
Random current distribution a closed loop integral.
When the sources are
symmetrically distributed, use
Gauss’s Law or Ampere’s Law for
much simpler and faster
calculations.