Unit 1: Units and Measurement

1.1 Units, Dimensions and Dimensional Formulae

Q1. Write the dimensional formulae of (a) force, (b) work, (c) power,
(d) pressure.
Answer: (a) Force = mass × acceleration = [M][LT⁻²] = [MLT⁻²] (b)
Work = force × distance = [MLT⁻²][L] = [ML²T⁻²] (c) Power =
work/time = [ML²T⁻²]/[T] = [ML²T⁻³] (d) Pressure = force/area =
[MLT⁻²]/[L²] = [ML⁻¹T⁻²]
Q2. What are the SI units of the seven base physical quantities? List
them with their symbols.
Answer: Length – metre (m); Mass – kilogram (kg); Time – second
(s); Electric current – ampere (A); Thermodynamic temperature –
kelvin (K); Amount of substance – mole (mol); Luminous intensity –
candela (cd). These are called base units because all other (derived)
units can be expressed in terms of them, e.g. Newton (force) =
kg·m·s⁻².
Q3. Find the dimensional formula of the universal gravitational
constant G, given F = Gm₁m₂/r².
Answer: G = Fr²/(m₁m₂) [G] = [MLT⁻²][L²] / [M][M] =
[MLT⁻²L²M⁻²] = [M⁻¹L³T⁻²] SI unit of G: N m² kg⁻² = m³ kg⁻¹ s⁻².
Q4. Explain the difference between fundamental (base) units and
derived units with two examples of each.
Answer: Fundamental units are independent units not derived from
any other unit — e.g. metre (length), kilogram (mass), second (time).
Derived units are obtained by combining base units through the
defining equation of the quantity — e.g. speed (m/s = m·s⁻¹) and
force (newton = kg·m·s⁻²). Every derived unit can be broken down
into a unique combination of the seven base units, which is why
dimensional analysis works.
Q5. The frequency of vibration of a stretched string depends on its
length L, tension T and mass per unit length μ. Using dimensional
analysis, derive the formula for frequency.
Answer: Let f = k Lᵃ Tᵇ μᶜ, where k is a dimensionless constant. [f] =
[T⁻¹], [L] = [L], [T] (tension) = [MLT⁻²], [μ] = [ML⁻¹] T⁻¹ = Lᵃ
(MLT⁻²)ᵇ (ML⁻¹)ᶜ = M^(b+c) L^(a+b-c) T^(-2b) Comparing powers:
M: b + c = 0; L: a + b − c = 0; T: −2b = −1 → b = 1/2 So c = −1/2,
and a = c − b = −1/2 − 1/2 = −1 Hence f = (k/L) √(T/μ). (The exact
value k = 1/2, obtained from theory, is not derivable from dimensional
analysis alone.)
1.2 Significant Figures
Q6. State the rules for counting significant figures and apply them to
find the number of significant figures in: 0.00507, 6.020, 1500, 1.500
× 10³.
Answer: Rules: (i) All non-zero digits are significant. (ii) Zeros
between non-zero digits are significant. (iii) Leading zeros are never
significant. (iv) Trailing zeros after a decimal point are significant. (v)
Trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are ambiguous
(treated as not significant unless stated otherwise).
 0.00507 → 3 significant figures (5, 0, 7)
 6.020 → 4 significant figures
 1500 → 2 significant figures (ambiguous trailing zeros)
 1.500 × 10³ → 4 significant figures (scientific notation removes
ambiguity)
Q7. Add the following measurements to the correct number of
significant figures: 12.53 m + 4.2 m + 0.789 m.
Answer: In addition/subtraction, the result is rounded to the least
number of decimal places among the terms. Sum = 12.53 + 4.2 +
0.789 = 17.519 m Least decimal places = 1 (from 4.2), so answer =
17.5 m.
Q8. Multiply 4.237 × 2.1 and express the answer with the correct
number of significant figures.
Answer: In multiplication/division, the result has as many significant
figures as the term with the fewest significant figures. 4.237 × 2.1 =
8.8977 2.1 has 2 significant figures, so the answer = 8.9.
Q9. Round off the following to 3 significant figures: 6.849, 12.652,
0.02456.
Answer: Using the rule that if the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by
non-zero digits (or >5) round up, if <5 round down:
 6.849 → 6.85
 12.652 → 12.7
 0.02456 → 0.0246
Q10. Why do we need the concept of significant figures in
experimental physics? Explain with reference to the measurement of
the length of a rod using a metre scale (least count 0.1 cm).
Answer: Significant figures indicate the precision of a measured
quantity — the reliably known digits plus one estimated digit. Since a
metre scale has a least count of 0.1 cm, a length recorded as 25.4 cm
has 3 significant figures: the "2" and "5" are certain, and the "4" is the
estimated digit. Reporting more digits (e.g. 25.400 cm) would falsely
imply a precision the instrument cannot provide, while reporting
fewer (25 cm) discards real information. Significant figures thus
prevent both false precision and loss of data during calculations.
1.3 Errors in Measurement
Q11. Distinguish between systematic errors and random errors, giving
one example of each.
Answer: Systematic errors are consistent, repeatable errors that occur
in the same direction due to a flaw in the instrument, method or
observer (e.g. zero error in a vernier caliper, causing every reading to
be off by a fixed amount). They can be corrected once identified.
Random errors are unpredictable, irregular fluctuations caused by
uncontrollable factors (e.g. small variations in reaction time while
using a stopwatch). They can be reduced by taking many readings and
averaging, but never fully eliminated.
Q12. The length of a pendulum is measured five times as 98.2, 98.4,
98.0, 98.3, 98.1 cm. Find the mean value, absolute error in each
observation, mean absolute error, and percentage error.
Answer: Mean = (98.2+98.4+98.0+98.3+98.1)/5 = 491.0/5 = 98.2 cm
Absolute errors: |98.2−98.2|=0.0, |98.4−98.2|=0.2, |98.0−98.2|=0.2, |
98.3−98.2|=0.1, |98.1−98.2|=0.1 Mean absolute error =
(0.0+0.2+0.2+0.1+0.1)/5 = 0.6/5 = 0.12 cm Percentage error =
(0.12/98.2) × 100 = 0.12% Result: L = (98.2 ± 0.12) cm
Q13. If the percentage errors in measuring the length and breadth of a
rectangle are 2% and 3% respectively, find the percentage error in the
calculated area.
Answer: For a quantity Z = A × B, the relative error adds: ΔZ/Z =
ΔA/A + ΔB/B % error in area = 2% + 3% = 5%
Q14. The radius of a sphere is measured as (5.0 ± 0.1) cm. Find the
percentage error in the calculated volume.
Answer: V = (4/3)πr³, so ΔV/V = 3(Δr/r) Δr/r = 0.1/5.0 = 0.02 → 2%
% error in V = 3 × 2% = 6%
Q15. Explain why repeating an experiment and taking the mean of
several readings reduces random error but does not eliminate
systematic error.
Answer: Random errors fluctuate unpredictably above and below the
true value; when many readings are averaged, these fluctuations tend
to cancel out (positive and negative deviations partly offset each
other), so the mean is statistically closer to the true value — precision
improves. Systematic error, however, shifts every single reading in the
same direction by roughly the same amount (e.g. a mis-calibrated
scale). Averaging readings that are all offset by the same amount
simply reproduces that same offset in the mean, so it does not cancel.
Systematic errors must instead be removed by calibrating the
instrument, applying zero-error corrections, or changing the
experimental method.
1.4 Dimensional Analysis
Q16. Check the dimensional correctness of the equation s = ut +
(1/2)at², where s is displacement, u is initial velocity, a is acceleration
and t is time.
Answer: [s] = [L] [ut] = [LT⁻¹][T] = [L] [at²] = [LT⁻²][T²] = [L] All
three terms have dimension [L], so the equation is dimensionally
correct (dimensional homogeneity is satisfied — every term in a
valid physical equation must have the same dimensions).
Q17. Using dimensional analysis, show that the equation v² = u² + 2as
is dimensionally consistent.
Answer: [v²] = [LT⁻¹]² = [L²T⁻²] [u²] = [L²T⁻²] [2as] = [LT⁻²][L] =
[L²T⁻²] Since all terms reduce to [L²T⁻²], the equation is
dimensionally correct.
Q18. State two limitations of dimensional analysis.
Answer: (i) It cannot determine dimensionless constants (like 1/2, π,
2) that appear in a formula, since these have no dimensions to check.
(ii) It fails for equations involving trigonometric, exponential or
logarithmic functions, and cannot distinguish between quantities
having the same dimensions (e.g. it cannot tell whether an equation
should contain torque or energy, since both have dimension
[ML²T⁻²]). It also cannot be used to derive formulas involving more
than three unknown independent variables when only three
dimensional equations (M, L, T) are available.
Q19. The time period T of a simple pendulum depends on its length l
and acceleration due to gravity g. Derive the formula for T using
dimensional analysis.
Answer: Let T = k lᵃ gᵇ [T] = [L]ᵃ[LT⁻²]ᵇ = [L^(a+b) T^(-2b)]
Comparing: T⁰L⁰ = ... M: none. T: −2b = 1 → b = −1/2. L: a + b = 0
→ a = 1/2 So T = k √(l/g), and experimentally k = 2π, giving the
familiar T = 2π√(l/g).
Q20. Convert 1 joule into erg using dimensional analysis (unit
conversion method), given 1 J is the SI unit of energy [ML²T⁻²] and
CGS units are cm, g, s.
Answer: Using n₁u₁ = n₂u₂ where u = Mᵃ Lᵇ Tᶜ (a=1, b=2, c=−2): n₂
= n₁ (M₁/M₂)ᵃ (L₁/L₂)ᵇ (T₁/T₂)ᶜ = 1 × (1 kg/1 g)¹ × (1 m/1 cm)² × (1
s/1 s)⁻² = 1 × (1000)¹ × (100)² × 1 = 1000 × 10000 = 10⁷ erg So 1 J =
10⁷ erg.
1.5 Measuring Instruments — Vernier Caliper & Screw Gauge
Q21. A vernier caliper has 20 divisions on the vernier scale coinciding
with 19 divisions of the main scale (1 main scale division = 1 mm).
Find its least count.
Answer: Least count = 1 MSD − 1 VSD. 1 VSD = 19/20 MSD = 0.95
mm Least count = 1 mm − 0.95 mm = 0.05 mm = 0.005 cm
Q22. In a screw gauge, the pitch is 1 mm and there are 100 divisions
on the circular scale. Find the least count. If the main scale reading is
3 mm and the circular scale reading is 45, find the diameter of the
wire (assume no zero error).
Answer: Least count = pitch / number of circular scale divisions = 1
mm/100 = 0.01 mm Diameter = Main scale reading + (circular scale
reading × least count) = 3 mm + (45 × 0.01 mm) = 3 + 0.45 = 3.45
mm
Q23. Explain what "zero error" means in a screw gauge and how
positive and negative zero errors are corrected.
Answer: Zero error occurs when the zero of the circular scale does
not coincide with the reference line on the main scale when the
jaws/spindle are fully closed. If the circular scale's zero lies below the
reference line, the error is positive (the instrument reads more than the
true value), and the zero-error value is subtracted from every observed
reading. If the circular scale's zero lies above the reference line, the
error is negative, and the zero-error value (taken as negative) is
subtracted, effectively adding to the reading — i.e. Correct reading =
Observed reading − Zero error (with sign).
Q24. A vernier caliper with least count 0.01 cm is used to measure the
diameter of a cylinder. The main scale reads 2.4 cm and the 6th
vernier division coincides with a main scale division. Find the
diameter. If there is a zero error of +0.02 cm, find the corrected
diameter.
Answer: Observed diameter = main scale reading + (vernier
coincidence × least count) = 2.4 + (6 × 0.01) = 2.4 + 0.06 = 2.46 cm
Corrected diameter = observed − zero error = 2.46 − 0.02 = 2.44 cm
Q25. Compare the range of measurement and precision of a metre
scale, vernier caliper, and screw gauge, and explain when each should
be used.
Answer: A metre scale has a least count of 0.1 cm (1 mm) and is
suited for measuring larger lengths (tens of cm to a metre) where high
precision isn't critical, e.g. the length of a table. A vernier caliper has a
least count of about 0.01 cm (0.1 mm), giving 10× better precision,
and is used for measuring the internal/external diameter or depth of
small objects like a test tube or a coin. A screw gauge (micrometer)
has a least count of about 0.001 cm (0.01 mm or better), the finest of
the three, and is used for very small dimensions such as the diameter
of a thin wire or the thickness of a sheet of paper, where even a
vernier caliper is not precise enough.

Unit 2: Vectors
2.1 Vector Representation and Types
Q26. Differentiate between scalar and vector quantities. Give three
examples of each.
Answer: Scalars are quantities that have only magnitude, no
direction, and are fully specified by a number and unit — examples:
mass, temperature, speed, time. Vectors have both magnitude and
direction and obey the laws of vector addition (triangle/parallelogram
law) — examples: displacement, velocity, force, acceleration. A key
test: two scalars of the same kind simply add algebraically, while two
vectors must be added using vector rules that account for direction.
Q27. What are equal vectors, negative vectors, and null (zero)
vectors? Illustrate each.
Answer: Equal vectors have the same magnitude and the same
direction, regardless of their initial points (e.g. two arrows of length 5
units pointing north are equal even if drawn at different locations). A
negative vector has the same magnitude as a given vector but points
in the exactly opposite direction (−A has magnitude |A| but direction
reversed). A null vector (zero vector) has zero magnitude and an
indeterminate/arbitrary direction; it results, for example, when a
vector is added to its own negative: A + (−A) = 0. Physically, the
displacement of a body that returns to its starting point is a null
vector.
Q28. What is a unit vector? Find the unit vector in the direction of A =
3î + 4ĵ.
Answer: A unit vector has magnitude 1 and indicates only direction;
it is obtained by dividing a vector by its own magnitude: Â = A/|A|. |
A| = √(3² + 4²) = √25 = 5 Â = (3î + 4ĵ)/5 = 0.6î + 0.8ĵ
Q29. Explain the difference between a position vector and a
displacement vector.
Answer: A position vector specifies the location of a point with
respect to a fixed origin — it is drawn from the origin O to the point
(e.g. r = xî + yĵ + zk̂ ). A displacement vector describes the change in
position of an object between two points, and is independent of the
origin — it is found by subtracting the initial position vector from the
final position vector: Δr = r₂ − r₁. Unlike position vectors,
displacement vectors can be freely translated (they are "free vectors")
since only their magnitude and direction matter, not their starting
point.
Q30. Can two vectors of unequal magnitude add up to give a zero
resultant? Can three vectors of unequal magnitude do so? Justify.
Answer: Two vectors of unequal magnitude can never give a zero
resultant, because for A + B = 0 we require B = −A, which forces |A|
= |B| — equal magnitudes are essential. However, three vectors of
unequal magnitude can add to zero, provided they can be arranged
head-to-tail to form a closed triangle (this requires each vector's
magnitude to be less than the sum of the other two, similar to the
triangle inequality) — for example, three unequal forces in
equilibrium acting on a point form a closed triangle when added
vectorially.
2.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction
Q31. State the triangle law and parallelogram law of vector addition.
Using the parallelogram law, derive the formula for the magnitude of
the resultant of two vectors A and B inclined at angle θ.
Answer: Triangle law: if two vectors are represented in magnitude
and direction by two sides of a triangle taken in order, their resultant
is represented by the third side taken in the reverse order.
Parallelogram law: if two vectors acting at a point are represented by
the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant is represented by
the diagonal passing through that point. Derivation: Let A and B be
inclined at angle θ. Drop a perpendicular from the tip of B onto the
extension of A, forming a right triangle with base (A + B cosθ) and
height (B sinθ). R² = (A + Bcosθ)² + (Bsinθ)²= A² + 2ABcosθ +
B²cos²θ + B²sin²θ = A² + B² + 2ABcosθ R = √(A² + B² + 2AB cosθ),
with direction tanα = (B sinθ)/(A + B cosθ) from A.
Q32. Two forces of magnitude 8 N and 6 N act on a body at an angle
of 60° to each other. Find the magnitude of the resultant force.
Answer: R = √(A² + B² + 2AB cosθ) = √(8² + 6² + 2×8×6×cos60°) =
√(64 + 36 + 96×0.5) = √(64+36+48) = √148 ≈ 12.17 N
Q33. For what angle between two vectors of equal magnitude is the
magnitude of their resultant equal to the magnitude of either vector?
Answer: Let both vectors have magnitude A. R = √(A² + A² +
2A²cosθ) = A√(2+2cosθ). We want R = A: A√(2+2cosθ) = A → 2 +
2cosθ = 1 → cosθ = −1/2 → θ = 120°
Q34. Vector A = 5î − 3ĵ and vector B = −2î + 6ĵ. Find A + B and A −
B.
Answer: A + B = (5−2)î + (−3+6)ĵ = 3î + 3ĵ A − B = (5−(−2))î +
(−3−6)ĵ = 7î − 9ĵ
Q35. Prove that vector addition is commutative, i.e. A + B = B + A,
using the triangle law/geometric construction.
Answer: Draw vector A from O to P, then B from P to Q; by the
triangle law, A + B = OQ. Now draw B from O to P′, then A from P′ to
Q; this gives B + A = OQ as well. Both constructions (OPQ and OP
′Q) form a parallelogram OPQP′, and OQ is the same diagonal in both
cases. Since the resultant OQ is identical regardless of the order in
which A and B are added, A + B = B + A, proving vector addition is
commutative.
2.3 Resolution of Vectors and Unit Vectors
Q36. A force of 100 N acts at 30° above the horizontal. Find its
horizontal and vertical components.
Answer: Horizontal component, Fx = F cosθ = 100 × cos30° = 100 ×
0.866 = 86.6 N Vertical component, Fy = F sinθ = 100 × sin30° = 100
× 0.5 = 50 N
Q37. Explain the concept of resolution of a vector into rectangular
components, and write the general formula for a vector in a plane in
terms of î and ĵ.
Answer: Resolution is the process of splitting a single vector into two
(or three) mutually perpendicular component vectors whose vector
sum equals the original vector. Any vector A in the xy-plane, making
angle θ with the x-axis, can be written as A = Axî + Ayĵ, where Ax = A
cosθ and Ay = A sinθ are its rectangular components along the x and y
axes respectively, and î, ĵ are unit vectors along those axes. This is
useful because perpendicular components can be handled
independently (e.g. in projectile motion, horizontal and vertical
motions are analysed separately).
Q38. Find the magnitude and direction of the vector A = 4î − 3ĵ.
Answer: |A| = √(4² + (−3)²) = √(16+9) = √25 = 5 units Direction:
tanθ = |Ay/Ax| = 3/4 → θ = tan⁻¹(3/4) ≈ 36.87° below the x-axis
(since Ay is negative), i.e. at −36.87° from the positive x-axis.
Q39. A vector makes an angle of 45° with both the x-axis and y-axis
and lies in the xy-plane with magnitude 10 units. Express it in
component form.
Answer: Ax = 10 cos45° = 10 × (1/√2) = 7.07 Ay = 10 sin45° = 10 ×
(1/√2) = 7.07 A = 7.07î + 7.07ĵ
Q40. Three unit vectors î, ĵ, k̂ are mutually perpendicular. Show that
î·î = 1 and î·ĵ = 0, and explain their physical significance in describing
3D vectors.
Answer: By definition, î, ĵ, k̂ each have magnitude 1 and point along
the x, y, z axes respectively. î · î = |î||î|cos0° = 1×1×1 = 1 (dot product
of a unit vector with itself is 1, since the angle between it and itself is
0°). î · ĵ = |î||ĵ|cos90° = 1×1×0 = 0 (since î and ĵ are perpendicular,
angle 90°). Physical significance: any vector in 3D space can be
uniquely written as A = Axî + Ayĵ + Azk̂ , where î, ĵ, k̂ act as an
orthonormal basis. This allows vector addition, subtraction and
products to be reduced to simple algebraic operations on components
along independent, non-interfering directions.
2.4 Scalar (Dot) Product
Q41. Define the scalar (dot) product of two vectors and write its
formula in terms of magnitudes and the angle between them.
Answer: The scalar product of two vectors A and B is defined as A ·
B = |A||B|cosθ, where θ is the angle between them when placed tail to
tail. It is called "scalar" because the result is a pure number (scalar),
not a vector. Physical example: Work done W = F · d = Fd cosθ,
where only the component of force along the displacement contributes
to work.
Q42. Find the angle between A = 2î + 3ĵ and B = 3î − 2ĵ using the dot
product.
Answer: A · B = (2)(3) + (3)(−2) = 6 − 6 = 0 Since A · B = |A||B|cosθ
= 0 and neither vector is zero, cosθ = 0 → θ = 90° (the vectors are
perpendicular).
Q43. A force F = 3î + 4ĵ N displaces an object by d = 5î + 2ĵ m. Find
the work done.
Answer: W = F · d = (3)(5) + (4)(2) = 15 + 8 = 23 J
Q44. Show that if two non-zero vectors are perpendicular, their dot
product is zero, and use this to determine whether A = î + 2ĵ − k̂ and B
= 2î − ĵ + 0k̂ are perpendicular.
Answer: For perpendicular vectors, θ = 90°, so A · B = |A||B|cos90° =
|A||B|(0) = 0. Conversely, if A·B = 0 for non-zero A, B, then cosθ = 0,
meaning θ = 90°. Check: A · B = (1)(2) + (2)(−1) + (−1)(0) = 2 − 2 +
0 = 0 Since the dot product is zero, A and B are perpendicular.
Q45. Using the dot product, derive the expression for the component
of vector A along vector B.
Answer: The component of A along the direction of B is the
projection of A onto B. A · B = |A||B|cosθ, so cosθ = (A·B)/(|A||B|)
Component of A along B = |A|cosθ = |A| × (A·B)/(|A||B|) = (A·B)/|B|
In vector form, this projection can be written as [(A·B)/|B|²] B if the
vector component (not just magnitude) is required.
2.5 Vector (Cross) Product
Q46. Define the vector (cross) product of two vectors, including the
formula for its magnitude and the rule for its direction.
Answer: The cross product of two vectors A and B is defined as A ×
B = |A||B|sinθ n̂ , where θ is the angle between them and n̂ is a unit
vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and B. The direction of
n̂ is given by the right-hand rule: curl the fingers of the right hand
from A to B, and the thumb points along A × B. Unlike the dot
product, the result is itself a vector. Physical example: Torque τ = r ×
F, and angular momentum L = r × p.
Q47. Find A × B if A = 2î + 3ĵ and B = î − 2ĵ.
Answer: Using the determinant method: A × B = | î ĵ k̂ ; 2 3 0 ; 1 −2 0
| = î(3×0 − 0×(−2)) − ĵ(2×0 − 0×1) + k̂ (2×(−2) − 3×1) = î(0) − ĵ(0) +
k̂ (−4−3) = −7k̂
Q48. Two vectors of magnitude 5 and 8 units act at an angle of 30° to
each other. Find the magnitude of their cross product.
Answer: |A × B| = |A||B|sinθ = 5 × 8 × sin30° = 40 × 0.5 = 20 units
Q49. Prove that the cross product is anti-commutative, i.e. A × B = −
(B × A).
Answer: By definition, A × B = |A||B|sinθ n̂ ₁, where n̂ ₁ is found by
the right-hand rule curling from A to B. For B × A, we curl from B to
A instead — this reverses the sense of rotation, so the right-hand rule
gives a unit vector n̂ ₂ = −n̂ ₁ (pointing in exactly the opposite
direction), while the magnitude |A||B|sinθ remains unchanged. Hence
B × A = |A||B|sinθ(−n̂ ₁) = −(|A||B|sinθ n̂ ₁) = −(A × B), proving the
cross product is anti-commutative (order matters).
Q50. Using the cross product, show that the area of a parallelogram
formed by two vectors A and B as adjacent sides is |A × B|.
Answer: Consider a parallelogram with adjacent sides A and B
meeting at angle θ. Its base = |A| and its perpendicular height = |B|
sinθ (the vertical drop from the tip of B to the line of A). Area = base
× height = |A| × |B|sinθ = |A||B|sinθ Since |A × B| = |A||B|sinθ by
definition of the cross product's magnitude, Area = |A × B|. (This is
why the cross product is central to computing torque and angular
quantities, which involve this "sweep" geometry.)

Unit 3: Motion in One Dimension and Projectile Motion

3.1 Kinematic Equations in 1D
Q51. Derive the three equations of motion (v = u + at, s = ut + ½at²,
v² = u² + 2as) for uniformly accelerated motion using the
calculus/graphical method.
Answer: By definition, acceleration a = dv/dt (constant), so ∫dv = ∫a
dt from 0 to t: v − u = at → v = u + at ... (i) Velocity v = ds/dt = u +
at, so ∫ds = ∫(u+at)dt from 0 to t: s = ut + ½at² → s = ut + ½at² ... (ii)
From (i), t = (v−u)/a. Substitute into (ii): s = u(v−u)/a + ½a[(v−u)/a]²
= [u(v−u)]/a + (v−u)²/(2a) Multiply through by 2a: 2as = 2u(v−u) +
(v−u)² = (v−u)[2u + v − u] = (v−u)(v+u) = v² − u² v² = u² + 2as ... (iii)
Q52. A car accelerates uniformly from 18 km/h to 36 km/h in 5 s.
Find (a) the acceleration, (b) the distance travelled during this time.
Answer: u = 18 km/h = 5 m/s, v = 36 km/h = 10 m/s, t = 5 s (a) a =
(v−u)/t = (10−5)/5 = 1 m/s² (b) s = ut + ½at² = 5×5 + ½×1×25 = 25 +
12.5 = 37.5 m
Q53. A body starting from rest moves with uniform acceleration.
Show that the distances covered in successive equal intervals of time
are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 …
Answer: For a body starting from rest (u=0) with acceleration a,
distance covered in the nth second is given by Snth = a/2 × (2n−1)
[derived from s(n) − s(n−1)]. For n = 1, 2, 3, 4…, Snth = a/2, 3a/2,

since Snth ∝ (2n−1).

5a/2, 7a/2, … Ratio = 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 : …, i.e. the odd natural numbers,

Q54. A particle moving with uniform acceleration covers 40 m in the

4th second and 60 m in the 6th second of its motion. Find the initial
velocity and acceleration.
Answer: Distance in nth second: Snth = u + a/2(2n−1) For n=4: u +
3.5a = 40 ... (i) For n=6: u + 5.5a = 60 ... (ii) (ii) − (i): 2a = 20 → a =
10 m/s² From (i): u = 40 − 3.5×10 = 40 − 35 = 5 m/s
Q55. A train moving at 72 km/h is brought to rest by applying brakes,
producing a uniform retardation of 2.5 m/s². Find the time taken to
stop and the distance travelled before stopping.
Answer: u = 72 km/h = 20 m/s, v = 0, a = −2.5 m/s² Time: v = u + at
→ 0 = 20 − 2.5t → t = 8 s Distance: v² = u² − 2as → 0 = 400 −
2(2.5)s → s = 400/5 = 80 m
3.2 Position-Time and Velocity-Time Graphs
Q56. What does the slope of a position-time graph represent? What
does the slope of a velocity-time graph represent?
Answer: The slope of a position-time (x–t) graph at any instant gives
the instantaneous velocity of the object at that instant (since v =
dx/dt). A steeper slope means higher speed; a horizontal line (zero
slope) means the object is at rest; a negative slope means motion in
the negative direction. The slope of a velocity-time (v–t) graph gives
the instantaneous acceleration (since a = dv/dt). A constant positive
slope indicates uniform acceleration; a zero slope indicates constant
velocity (zero acceleration); a negative slope indicates deceleration or
acceleration in the negative direction.
Q57. What physical quantity is represented by the area under a
velocity-time graph? A v–t graph shows velocity increasing uniformly
from 0 to 20 m/s in 10 s. Find the distance travelled.
Answer: The area under a v–t graph represents the displacement (or
distance, if velocity doesn't change sign) covered in that time interval.
Here the graph is a straight line from (0,0) to (10,20), forming a right
triangle. Area = ½ × base × height = ½ × 10 × 20 = 100 m
Q58. Sketch (describe) the shape of the position-time graph for (a) a
body at rest, (b) a body moving with uniform velocity, (c) a body
moving with uniform acceleration starting from rest.
Answer: (a) At rest: the x–t graph is a horizontal straight line
(position constant, slope = 0, so velocity = 0). (b) Uniform velocity:
the x–t graph is an inclined straight line with constant slope (equal
displacements in equal time intervals). (c) Uniform acceleration from

upward (since x ∝ t²), starting with zero slope at t=0 and becoming
rest: the x–t graph is a curve — specifically a parabola opening

progressively steeper, showing that velocity (the slope) keeps

increasing with time.
Q59. Can the velocity-time graph of a moving object be a straight line
parallel to the time axis but not touching it? What does this represent
physically? Can the position-time graph ever be parallel to the
position axis?
Answer: Yes — a v–t graph parallel to the time axis (but at a positive
value, not touching it) represents a body moving with constant, non-
zero velocity (zero acceleration), e.g. a car cruising at a fixed speed.
However, a position-time graph can never be a straight line parallel to
the position axis (i.e., vertical), because that would mean the object
occupies infinitely many different positions at a single instant of time
— physically impossible, since a real object has a definite position at
each instant.
Q60. From a v–t graph, a particle moves with velocity 10 m/s for 4 s,
then decelerates uniformly to rest in the next 2 s. Find the total
distance travelled and draw/describe the corresponding shape.
Answer: Phase 1 (0 to 4s): constant velocity 10 m/s → distance =
10×4 = 40 m (rectangle on the graph, area = 40). Phase 2 (4 to 6s):
decelerates uniformly from 10 m/s to 0 → distance = ½×2×10 = 10 m
(triangle on the graph, area = 10). Total distance = 40 + 10 = 50 m.
The v–t graph is a horizontal line at v=10 from t=0 to t=4, followed
by a straight line sloping down to (6,0) — the total area under both
segments (trapezium shape) gives the 50 m.
3.3 Free Fall / Motion Under Gravity
Q61. A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 80 m high. Find the
time it takes to reach the ground and its velocity just before hitting the
ground. (Take g = 10 m/s²)
Answer: u = 0, s = 80 m, a = g = 10 m/s² s = ut + ½gt² → 80 = 0 +
½×10×t² → t² = 16 → t = 4 s v = u + gt = 0 + 10×4 = 40 m/s
Q62. A ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 30 m/s.
Find (a) the maximum height reached, (b) the time taken to reach
maximum height, (c) the total time of flight (take g = 10 m/s²).
Answer: u = 30 m/s, at max height v = 0, a = −g = −10 m/s² (a) v² =
u² − 2gh → 0 = 900 − 20h → h = 45 m (b) v = u − gt → 0 = 30 − 10t
→ t = 3 s (c) By symmetry, time to come back down equals time to go
up, so total time of flight = 2×3 = 6 s
Q63. Show that for a body thrown vertically upward, the time of
ascent equals the time of descent, and the speed of return to the point
of projection equals the initial speed of projection (ignoring air
resistance).
Answer: Time of ascent: from v = u − gt with v=0 at the top, t_up =
u/g. Time of descent: the body falls the same height h = u²/2g from
rest, so using h = ½gt², t_down = √(2h/g) = √(2(u²/2g)/g) = √(u²/g²) =
u/g. Since t_up = t_down = u/g, the times are equal. Speed on return:
using v² = u² − 2g(0) for descent from rest over height h: v_return² =
2gh = 2g(u²/2g) = u². So v_return = u, i.e. it returns with the same
speed it was projected with (a consequence of energy conservation
and symmetry of the motion, since only gravity acts throughout).
Q64. A body is dropped from a height and falls freely. Find the ratio
of distances covered in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd seconds of its fall.
Answer: Distance in nth second (starting from rest): Snth = g/2
(2n−1) For n=1: g/2 (1) = g/2 For n=2: g/2 (3) = 3g/2 For n=3: g/2 (5)
= 5g/2 Ratio = 1 : 3 : 5 (consistent with the general odd-number rule
for uniformly accelerated motion from rest).
Q65. A balloon is rising vertically upward with a constant velocity of
5 m/s. When it is 30 m above the ground, a packet is dropped from it.
Find the time taken by the packet to reach the ground. (Take g = 10
m/s²)
Answer: The packet initially shares the balloon's upward velocity, so
u = +5 m/s (taking upward as positive), starting height = 30 m above
ground, a = −g = −10 m/s². Taking downward displacement as −30 m
(ground level relative to release point): s = ut + ½at² → −30 = 5t − 5t²
→ 5t² − 5t − 30 = 0 → t² − t − 6 = 0 (t−3)(t+2) = 0 → t = 3 s
(rejecting negative root) t = 3 s
3.4 Horizontal Projectile Motion
Q66. A ball is projected horizontally with a speed of 20 m/s from the
top of a tower 45 m high. Find (a) the time taken to reach the ground,
(b) the horizontal distance (range) from the base of the tower. (g = 10
m/s²)
Answer: Vertical motion (independent of horizontal): u_y = 0, h = 45
m h = ½gt² → 45 = ½×10×t² → t² = 9 → t = 3 s Horizontal motion
(constant velocity, since no horizontal force): Range R = u_x × t = 20
× 3 = 60 m
Q67. Explain why the horizontal and vertical components of a
projectile's motion can be treated independently.
Answer: Once a projectile is launched (ignoring air resistance), the
only force acting on it is gravity, which acts purely in the vertical
(downward) direction. There is no horizontal force, so the horizontal
component of velocity remains constant throughout the flight
(Newton's first law), while the vertical component changes uniformly
under gravity's acceleration g, exactly like a body in free fall. Since
the two directions are perpendicular, gravity's vertical pull has no
effect on horizontal motion and vice versa — this is the principle of
independence of perpendicular components of motion, which allows
the two to be analysed using separate 1D kinematic equations and
then combined.
Q68. A stone is thrown horizontally from a cliff and hits the ground at
a point whose horizontal distance from the base is 3 times the height
of the cliff. Find the angle made by the velocity vector with the
horizontal at the point of striking the ground.
Answer: Let height = h, so range R = 3h. Time of flight: h = ½gt² → t
= √(2h/g) Horizontal velocity: u_x = R/t = 3h/√(2h/g) Vertical
velocity at ground: v_y = gt = g√(2h/g) = √(2gh) tanθ = v_y/u_x =
√(2gh) / [3h/√(2h/g)] = √(2gh) × √(2h/g) / 3h = (2h)/(3h) = 2/3 θ =
tan⁻¹(2/3) ≈ 33.7° below horizontal
Q69. Derive the equation of trajectory (path) of a horizontally
projected body in terms of x and y, and state its shape.
Answer: Let the projectile leave a height with horizontal speed u,
taking the point of projection as origin, x horizontal, y vertically
downward. Horizontal: x = ut → t = x/u Vertical: y = ½gt² = ½g(x/u)²
= (g/2u²)x² y = (g/2u²) x², which is of the form y = kx² — the equation
of a parabola. This confirms that the trajectory of a horizontally
launched projectile is parabolic.
Q70. Two balls are thrown horizontally from the same height, one
with speed 10 m/s and another with speed 20 m/s. Which one reaches
the ground first, and why? Compare their ranges.
Answer: Both balls reach the ground at the same time, because the
time of fall depends only on the height and g (t = √(2h/g)), which are
identical for both — the horizontal speed has no effect on the vertical
motion since the two are independent. However, their ranges differ
because Range = u × t: the ball with speed 20 m/s travels twice the
horizontal distance of the ball with speed 10 m/s, since t is the same
for both but u is doubled.
3.5 Oblique Projectile Motion
Q71. Derive expressions for the time of flight, maximum height, and
horizontal range of a projectile launched with initial speed u at angle θ
above the horizontal.
Answer: Resolve initial velocity: u_x = u cosθ (constant), u_y = u
sinθ (decelerated by g). Time of flight: total time until it returns to
the same vertical level, so vertical displacement = 0. 0 = u sinθ · T −
½gT² → T = 2u sinθ/g → T = 2u sinθ / g Maximum height: at the
top, vertical velocity = 0. 0 = (u sinθ)² − 2gH → H = u²sin²θ / 2g
Horizontal range: R = u_x × T = u cosθ × (2u sinθ/g) = R =
u²sin2θ / g (using 2sinθcosθ = sin2θ)
Q72. A cricket ball is hit with a velocity of 25 m/s at an angle of 37°
above the horizontal. Find the maximum height, time of flight, and
range. (g = 10 m/s², sin37°=0.6, cos37°=0.8)
Answer: u = 25 m/s, θ = 37°, u_x = 25×0.8 = 20 m/s, u_y = 25×0.6 =
15 m/s Max height: H = u_y²/2g = 15²/20 = 225/20 = 11.25 m Time of
flight: T = 2u_y/g = 2×15/10 = 3 s Range: R = u_x × T = 20 × 3 = 60
m (check with formula: R = u²sin2θ/g = 625×sin74°/10 ≈
625×0.961/10 ≈ 60.1 m ✓)
Q73. Show that the horizontal range of a projectile is the same for
two angles of projection θ and (90° − θ), for the same initial speed.
Answer: R(θ) = u²sin2θ/g R(90°−θ) = u²sin[2(90°−θ)]/g =
u²sin(180°−2θ)/g Using sin(180°−x) = sinx: sin(180°−2θ) = sin2θ So
R(90°−θ) = u²sin2θ/g = R(θ) Since R(θ) = R(90°−θ), the ranges are
equal. For example, a projectile launched at 30° has the same range
as one launched at 60° with the same speed, though their times of
flight and maximum heights differ.
Q74. At what angle of projection is the horizontal range of a projectile
maximum, for a given initial speed? Justify using the range formula.
Answer: R = u²sin2θ/g. For fixed u and g, R is maximum when sin2θ
is maximum, i.e. sin2θ = 1, which occurs when 2θ = 90°, so θ = 45°.
At this angle, R_max = u²/g. This is why, in the absence of air
resistance, projectiles (like a shot put or cricket ball hit for maximum
distance) are ideally launched at 45° to achieve the greatest horizontal
range.
Q75. A projectile is fired with speed u at angle θ. Find an expression
for its velocity and direction of motion at the highest point of its
trajectory.
Answer: At the highest point, the vertical component of velocity
becomes zero (v_y = 0), because vertical velocity only reverses after
this point, while the horizontal component remains unchanged
throughout the flight (no horizontal force). So at the top: velocity =
u_x = u cosθ, directed horizontally (along the direction of
projection's horizontal component), i.e. the direction makes 0° with
the horizontal, since the vertical component has vanished. This
horizontal velocity u cosθ is the minimum speed the projectile has
during its entire flight.

Unit 4: Relative Motion

4.1 Relative Velocity in One Dimension
Q76. Define relative velocity. Two cars A and B move in the same
direction along a straight road with speeds 60 km/h and 40 km/h
respectively. Find the velocity of A relative to B.
Answer: The relative velocity of object A with respect to object B is
defined as v_AB = v_A − v_B, i.e. the velocity that A appears to have
as observed from B. Taking the common direction as positive: v_A =
60 km/h, v_B = 40 km/h v_AB = 60 − 40 = 20 km/h (A appears to
move away from B at 20 km/h, in the direction of motion).
Q77. Two trains, each of length 100 m, are running in opposite
directions on parallel tracks with velocities 36 km/h and 54 km/h.
Find the time taken by them to completely cross each other.
Answer: Converting to m/s: v₁ = 36 km/h = 10 m/s, v₂ = 54 km/h =
15 m/s Since they move in opposite directions, relative velocity = v₁
+ v₂ = 10 + 15 = 25 m/s Total distance to be covered for complete
crossing = sum of lengths = 100 + 100 = 200 m Time =
distance/relative velocity = 200/25 = 8 s
Q78. A police car moving at 30 m/s chases a thief's car moving at 20
m/s in the same direction, initially 500 m ahead. Find the time taken
by the police car to catch the thief.
Answer: Relative velocity of police car with respect to thief's car =
30 − 20 = 10 m/s (closing speed, since both move in the same
direction) Initial separation = 500 m Time to catch up =
separation/relative velocity = 500/10 = 50 s
Q79. Explain, with an example, why relative velocity can sometimes
exceed the individual velocities of both objects, even though neither
velocity itself is very large.
Answer: When two objects move in opposite directions, their relative
velocity is the sum of their individual speeds (v_AB = v_A − v_B,
and if v_B is negative, this becomes an addition). For example, if two
cars approach each other on a straight road, each moving at 50 km/h,
then relative to each other, they close the gap at 50 + 50 = 100 km/h
— a value greater than either individual speed. This happens because
relative velocity measures the rate at which the separation between the
two objects changes, and when they move toward each other, both
contribute to reducing that separation, so their effects add up rather
than partially cancelling (as they would if moving in the same
direction).
Q80. A man walks on a moving escalator. If he takes 30 s to walk up a
stationary escalator and 20 s when it is moving, how long would it
take him to walk up if he stood still on the moving escalator?
Answer: Let escalator length = L. Man's walking speed relative to
escalator = L/30. Combined speed (man walking + escalator moving)
= L/20. Escalator's own speed = L/20 − L/30 = (3L−2L)/60 = L/60
Time to be carried up while standing still = L / (L/60) = 60 s
4.2 Relative Velocity in Two Dimensions
Q81. Two cars, A and B, move with velocities 20 m/s due east and 15
m/s due north respectively. Find the velocity of A relative to B
(magnitude and direction).
Answer: v_A = 20î m/s (east), v_B = 15ĵ m/s (north) v_AB = v_A −
v_B = 20î − 15ĵ Magnitude: |v_AB| = √(20² + 15²) = √(400+225) =
√625 = 25 m/s Direction: tanθ = 15/20 = 0.75 → θ = 36.87° south of
east (since the ĵ component is negative)
Q82. Explain the vector method to find relative velocity between two
bodies moving in different directions, and why simple algebraic
addition/subtraction (as in 1D) does not work in 2D.
Answer: In 2D or 3D, velocities are vectors with both magnitude and
direction, so relative velocity is found using vector subtraction: v_AB
= v_A − v_B, where each velocity is first expressed in component
form (e.g. v = v_xî + v_yĵ), and the subtraction is performed
component-wise. Simple algebraic (scalar) addition/subtraction only
works in 1D because there, direction is captured entirely by a + or −
sign along a single line. In 2D, direction requires an angle as well as
magnitude, so treating velocities as plain numbers and
adding/subtracting them ignores the angular relationship between
them, giving an incorrect result — one must resolve into components
or use the parallelogram/triangle law for vector subtraction.
Q83. Rain is falling vertically downward with a speed of 10 m/s. A
cyclist moves with a speed of 10√3 m/s in the horizontal direction.
Find the velocity of rain as observed by the cyclist (magnitude and
direction).
Answer: v_rain = −10ĵ m/s (downward), v_cyclist = 10√3 î m/s
(horizontal) v_(rain, cyclist) = v_rain − v_cyclist = −10√3 î − 10ĵ
Magnitude: |v_rc| = √((10√3)² + 10²) = √(300+100) = √400 = 20 m/s
Direction: tanθ = 10/(10√3) = 1/√3 → θ = 30° from the vertical
(downward direction), tilted backward relative to the cyclist's motion.
So the cyclist must hold the umbrella tilted at 30° to the vertical,
toward the direction they are moving.
Q84. Two ships, A and B, leave port simultaneously; A sails due north
at 12 km/h and B sails due east at 16 km/h. Find the velocity of ship A
relative to ship B, and the distance between them after 2 hours.
Answer: v_A = 12ĵ km/h, v_B = 16î km/h v_AB = v_A − v_B = −16î
+ 12ĵ Magnitude: |v_AB| = √(16²+12²) = √(256+144) = √400 = 20
km/h Direction: tanθ = 12/16 = 0.75 → θ ≈ 36.87° from west, toward
north (i.e. N 53.13° W approximately) Distance after 2 h (since
relative velocity is constant, and they start together): distance = |
v_AB| × t = 20 × 2 = 40 km
Q85. A swimmer can swim at 3 m/s in still water. He swims in a river
flowing at 4 m/s. If he wishes to move in a direction making the
resultant velocity as small as possible with respect to the ground while
crossing, describe qualitatively how he should swim, and find the
minimum possible resultant speed (assuming he can choose any
direction relative to the current).
Answer: The resultant velocity with respect to the ground is the
vector sum of the swimmer's velocity (relative to water, magnitude 3
m/s, direction adjustable) and the river's velocity (4 m/s, fixed
direction). The minimum possible magnitude of this resultant occurs
when the swimmer's velocity vector points exactly opposite to the
river's flow (i.e. swims directly against the current). In that case,
resultant speed = |4 − 3| = 1 m/s, directed along the flow of the river
(since the river's 4 m/s dominates the swimmer's 3 m/s in the opposite
direction). This is the smallest achievable ground speed since the two
vectors are now anti-parallel, which minimizes the magnitude of their
vector sum (compare: if same direction, resultant = 7 m/s, which is
maximum).
4.3 River-Boat Problems
Q86. A boat can travel at 5 m/s in still water. It needs to cross a river
flowing at 3 m/s, by heading straight across (perpendicular to the
bank). If the river is 100 m wide, find (a) the time to cross, (b) the
drift (distance moved downstream), (c) the resultant velocity of the
boat.
Answer: Boat's velocity relative to water = 5 m/s (perpendicular to
bank, i.e. across); river's velocity = 3 m/s (along the
bank/downstream). (a) Since crossing (perpendicular) component of
boat's velocity is unaffected by the current, time = width/v_boat =
100/5 = 20 s (b) Drift = river velocity × time = 3 × 20 = 60 m
(downstream) (c) Resultant velocity = √(5² + 3²) = √(25+9) = √34 ≈
5.83 m/s, at angle θ = tan⁻¹(3/5) ≈ 30.96° from the perpendicular (in
the downstream direction).
Q87. A man wants to cross a river of width 200 m in the shortest
possible time. The river flows at 2 m/s and the man can swim at 3 m/s
in still water. Find the shortest time to cross and the drift produced.
Answer: To cross in the shortest time, the man should direct his
swimming velocity straight across the river (perpendicular to the
flow) — any component directed upstream or downstream only
reduces the effective crossing speed, since only the perpendicular
component determines how fast the width is covered. Shortest time =
width / (swimming speed, since directed fully across) = 200/3 ≈ 66.67
s Drift = river speed × time = 2 × 200/3 = 400/3 ≈ 133.3 m
(downstream)
Q88. A swimmer wishes to cross a river straight across (i.e. reach the
point directly opposite the starting point) without any drift. The river
flows at 4 m/s and the swimmer can swim at 5 m/s in still water. At
what angle to the upstream direction (or to the bank) should he swim,
and what is his resultant speed across the river?
Answer: To have zero drift, the upstream component of the
swimmer's velocity must exactly cancel the river's downstream flow.
sinθ = v_river/v_swimmer = 4/5 = 0.8 → θ = sin⁻¹(0.8) = 53.13° from
the perpendicular to the bank (i.e., the swimmer must aim upstream at
this angle), or equivalently at 90°+53.13° from the downstream
direction of flow. Resultant velocity across the river (perpendicular
component only, since drift cancels) = v_swimmer cosθ = 5 ×
cos53.13° = 5 × 0.6 = 3 m/s (straight across).
Q89. Is it always possible for a swimmer to cross a river without any
drift? Explain the condition required, with reference to the swimmer's
speed compared to the river's speed.
Answer: No — zero drift is only possible if the swimmer's speed in
still water (v_s) is greater than or equal to the river's flow speed (v_r),
i.e. v_s ≥ v_r. This is because the required upstream angle is given by
sinθ = v_r/v_s; if v_r > v_s, then sinθ > 1, which is impossible (no
real angle satisfies this). Physically, if the current is faster than the
swimmer, no matter which direction the swimmer aims, they cannot
generate enough upstream component of velocity to fully cancel the
downstream drift caused by the current — they will inevitably be
carried some distance downstream while crossing.
Q90. A boat crosses a river of width d by heading at angle θ to the
upstream direction (i.e., partly against the current), with speed v
relative to water; the river flows with speed u. Derive expressions for
the time to cross and the drift.
Answer: Set up axes: x along the flow (downstream positive), y
across the river (width direction). Boat's velocity relative to water at
angle θ to the upstream direction: y-component (across) = v sinθ, x-
component (relative to water, upstream) = −v cosθ. Resultant x-
velocity (relative to ground) = u − v cosθ Resultant y-velocity
(relative to ground) = v sinθ (this determines crossing) Time to cross:
t = d / (v sinθ) Drift: x = (u − v cosθ) × t = (u − v cosθ) d / (v sinθ)
(If u > v cosθ, drift is downstream/positive; if u < v cosθ, drift is
upstream/negative — i.e. the boat lands upstream of the starting
point.)
4.4 Rain-Man Problems
Q91. Rain is falling vertically downward with a speed of 5 m/s. A
man runs horizontally with a speed of 5 m/s. At what angle to the
vertical should he hold his umbrella to protect himself from the rain?
Answer: v_rain = 5 m/s downward, v_man = 5 m/s horizontal
Velocity of rain relative to man = v_rain − v_man (vector
subtraction): downward component 5 m/s, and horizontal component
−5 m/s (opposite to the man's motion, appearing to come from the
front). tanθ = horizontal component / vertical component = 5/5 = 1 →
θ = 45° from the vertical, tilted toward the direction the man is
moving (i.e., forward), since the rain appears to come from that
direction relative to him.
Q92. To a man walking at 3 km/h, rain appears to fall vertically.
When he increases his speed to 6 km/h, it appears to fall at 45° to the
vertical (from the front). Find the actual speed of the rain.
Answer: When rain appears vertical to the man walking at 3 km/h, it
means the horizontal component of rain's velocity equals the man's
velocity: v_rain,horizontal = 3 km/h (so that it cancels out in the
relative frame). When speed increases to 6 km/h, relative horizontal
component = 6 − 3 = 3 km/h (now the man is faster than the rain's
horizontal wind-drift component, so rain appears to lean toward him).
Given the angle is 45°, tan45° = 1 = (horizontal component of relative
velocity)/(vertical component of rain) → vertical component of rain,
v_y = 3 km/h (since horizontal relative = 3 km/h and tan45°=1 means
they're equal) Actual rain speed = √(v_x² + v_y²) = √(3² + 3²) = √18
= 3√2 ≈ 4.24 km/h, at 45° to the vertical.
Q93. A man is running at 8 m/s in a direction due east. Rain is falling
vertically downward at 6 m/s. Find the velocity of rain relative to the
man and the angle at which he should tilt his umbrella (from the
vertical), including the direction (i.e., toward which side he should tilt
it).
Answer: v_rain = −6ĵ (downward), v_man = 8î (east) v_(rain,man) =
v_rain − v_man = −8î − 6ĵ Magnitude = √(8²+6²) = √(64+36) = √100
= 10 m/s tanθ = 8/6 = 1.333 → θ ≈ 53.13° from the vertical Since
the horizontal component (−8î) is directed opposite to the man's
motion (i.e., toward the west, from the man's perspective the rain
appears to come from the front/east), he should tilt the umbrella
forward, toward the east (the direction he is running), at 53.13°
from the vertical.
Q94. Explain physically why a person running in the rain needs to tilt
their umbrella forward (in the direction of motion) rather than
backward, even though the rain itself falls straight down.
Answer: Although rain falls vertically in the ground (stationary
observer's) frame, what matters for protection is the velocity of rain
relative to the running person, since that is the direction from which
raindrops actually approach the person. By vector subtraction,
v_(rain,person) = v_rain − v_person: subtracting the person's forward
velocity effectively adds a backward-pointing horizontal component
to the rain's relative velocity as seen from the person's frame —
mathematically, the rain in the person's frame appears to gain a
horizontal component opposite to the person's own velocity, i.e. it
seems to come slanting in from the front (same direction the person is
heading into). This is analogous to how rain appears to hit the front
windshield of a moving car at an angle even when falling straight
down — hence the umbrella must be tilted forward, into the direction
of motion, to block this apparent slanted rain.
Q95. Rain falls at 10 m/s at an angle of 30° to the vertical, as
observed by a stationary observer, moving toward the east. A cyclist
moving east at 5 m/s wants to know the velocity of the rain relative to
himself. Find it (magnitude and direction).
Answer: Resolve rain's velocity (taking east as positive x, downward
as positive y): v_rain,x = 10 sin30° = 10×0.5 = 5 m/s (eastward, since
it's inclined toward the east) v_rain,y = 10 cos30° = 10×0.866 = 8.66
m/s (downward) v_cyclist = 5î m/s (east) v_(rain,cyclist) = v_rain −
v_cyclist = (5−5)î + 8.66ĵ = 0î + 8.66ĵ So the relative velocity is
purely vertical: magnitude = 8.66 m/s, direction = straight
downward. (This makes sense — since the cyclist's eastward speed
exactly matches the horizontal component of the rain's velocity, the
rain appears to fall vertically on the moving cyclist.)
4.5 Closest Approach / Minimum Distance Problems
Q96. Two ships are 10 km apart, one due north of the other. The one
to the south is moving east at 20 km/h, and the one to the north is
moving north at 20 km/h. Find their velocity of approach/separation
and describe qualitatively how the distance between them changes.
Answer: Let south ship velocity = 20î (east), north ship velocity = 20ĵ
(north). Initial separation vector (south ship's position relative to north
ship, or vice versa) = along north-south line, magnitude 10 km.
Relative velocity of south ship w.r.t. north ship = 20î − 20ĵ, magnitude
= √(400+400) = 20√2 km/h. Since this relative velocity has a
component both perpendicular and along the line joining them, the
distance between the ships first behaves in a complex way:
qualitatively, this is a classic closest-approach problem — the
separation will decrease initially (as the relative velocity has a
component reducing the along-line separation) then increase after the
point of closest approach, since the relative velocity vector is fixed
while the relative position vector rotates as the ships move (this
scenario is best solved using the general closest-approach method
shown in Q97-Q100).
Q97. Derive the general method to find the time of closest approach
and the minimum distance between two particles A and B, given their
initial relative position vector r₀ and constant relative velocity vector
v_rel.
Answer: At any time t, the relative position vector is r(t) = r₀ + v_rel
· t. The distance between the particles is minimum when r(t) is
perpendicular to v_rel (i.e., the rate of change of |r| is zero, which

0 requires r ⊥ v_rel at the minimum). Setting r(t) · v_rel = 0: (r₀ +

happens when r and v_rel are perpendicular, since d|r|²/dt = 2r·v_rel =

v_rel t) · v_rel = 0 → t_min = −(r₀ · v_rel) / |v_rel|² Minimum

distance: substitute t_min back into r(t) and take the magnitude, or
equivalently use d_min = |r₀ × v_rel| / |v_rel| (the perpendicular
distance formula, using the cross product magnitude, works in 2D by
treating vectors in the plane).
Q98. Car A is 100 m due east of car B. Car A moves north at 6 m/s,
and car B moves east at 8 m/s. Find the time at which the two cars are
closest to each other, and the minimum distance between them.
Answer: Position of A relative to B initially: r₀ = 100î (A is east of B)
v_A = 6ĵ, v_B = 8î v_rel (A w.r.t. B) = v_A − v_B = −8î + 6ĵ |v_rel|² =
64 + 36 = 100 r₀ · v_rel = (100)(−8) + (0)(6) = −800 t_min = −
(r₀·v_rel)/|v_rel|² = −(−800)/100 = 8 s For minimum distance, use
d_min = |r₀ × v_rel|/|v_rel|: r₀ × v_rel (z-component) = (100)(6) − (0)
(−8) = 600 d_min = 600/10 = 60 m
Q99. Two particles start moving simultaneously from two points
separated by 60 m. Particle A moves with velocity 5 m/s at 37° above
the line joining them, and particle B moves with velocity 5 m/s
perpendicular to that line (toward A's side), along the direction such
that both velocities lie in the same plane. Set up the relative velocity
approach conceptually and explain what determines whether they will
collide.
Answer: To conceptually determine whether the two particles collide,
we examine their relative velocity vector v_rel = v_A − v_B and
relative position vector r₀ (from B to A, or vice versa, magnitude 60
m along the line joining them). Collision occurs only if v_rel is
directed exactly along the line joining the initial positions of A and
B (i.e., v_rel is anti-parallel to r₀, so that the relative position vector
r(t) = r₀ + v_rel t eventually becomes zero for some positive t). If
v_rel has any component perpendicular to r₀, the particles will never
meet exactly — instead they will reach a point of closest approach
(found using t_min = −(r₀·v_rel)/|v_rel|²) and then start moving apart
again, without their separation ever reaching zero. Thus, checking
whether v_rel is parallel to −r₀ is the key condition for an actual
collision, rather than a mere close pass.
Q100. Explain, using the concept of relative velocity, why the "closest
approach" method is important in real-world applications like ship
navigation and aircraft collision avoidance. Illustrate with the general
principle (no numerical calculation required).
Answer: In real-world navigation, two moving vessels or aircraft
each have their own velocity relative to the ground, but what actually
determines whether they will collide, pass close by, or move safely
apart is their relative velocity with respect to each other, not their
individual ground velocities. By transforming to the reference frame
of one vehicle (i.e., computing v_rel = v_A − v_B), the problem is
reduced to a simpler one: how does a "fixed" point B move relative to
A, along a straight-line relative trajectory (since v_rel is constant for
constant individual velocities)? Using the closest-approach formulas
(t_min = −(r₀·v_rel)/|v_rel|² and d_min = |r₀ × v_rel|/|v_rel|),
navigators and collision-avoidance systems (like ship radar/ARPA
systems or aircraft TCAS) can calculate the exact time and minimum
distance at which two vessels will pass each other, well before it
happens. This allows early course corrections if d_min is dangerously
small, even though each vehicle's own path (in the ground frame)
might look like it is moving safely on its own separate course — the
danger only becomes apparent when relative motion is considered.

End of Holiday Homework — 100 Questions (25 per chapter, 5 per

subtopic) with detailed solutions.