Module -1

Urban transport planning: Urbanization, urban class groups, transportation problems and
identification, impacts of transportation, urban transport system planning process, modeling
techniques in planning. Urban mass transportation systems: urban transit problems, travel
demand, types of transit systems, public private, para-transit transport, mass and rapid transit
systems, BRTS and Metro rails, capacity, merits and comparison of systems, coordination, types
of coordination.

Scope of Urban Transport Planning: Transport planning is a science that seeks to study the problems
that arise in proving transportation facilities in an urban, regional or national setting and to prepare a
systematic basis for planning.
 Since the developed countries where this science has evolved are mainly urban-oriented the emphasis
is more on urban transport planning.

 The principles of urban transport planning can be applied to regional or national transport planning as
well with due changes.

 Town and country planning is a science that deals with the study of the urban or country “system”
covering the interacting activities using adopted spaces linked by communications through channels.

 Transport planning is an important part of overall town and country planning, since it deals with the
transport network which is an important channel of a communications.

Through motor vehicles have revolutionised our life and brought comfort, pleasure and convenience, they
have created problems of congestion, lack of safety and degeneration of the environment

URBANIZATION

Urbanization is a process whereby populations move from rural to urban area, enabling cities and towns to
grow. It can also be termed as the progressive increase of the number of people living in towns and cities. It
is highly influenced by the notion that cities and towns have achieved better economic, political, and social
mileages compared to the rural areas.
Majority of people move to cities and towns because they view rural areas as places with hardship and
backward/primitive lifestyle. Therefore, as populations move to more developed areas (towns and cities) the
immediate outcome is urbanization. This normally contributes to the development of land for use in
commercial properties, social and economic support institutions, transportation, and residential buildings.
Eventually, these activities raise several urbanization issues.

Causes of Urbanization
1. Industrialization
Industrialization is a trend representing a shift from the old agricultural economics to novel non-agricultural
economy, which creates a modernized society. Through industrial revolution, more people have been attracted
to move from rural to urban areas on the account of improved employment opportunities. Industrialization has
increased employment opportunities by giving people the chance to work in modern sectors in job categories
that aids to stir economic developments.

2. Commercialization
Commerce and trade play a major role in urbanization. The distribution of goods and services and commercial
transactions in the modern era has developed modern marketing institutions and exchange methods that have
tremendously given rise to the growth of towns and cities. Commercialization and trade comes with the general
perception that the towns and cities offer better commercial opportunities and returns compared to the rural
areas.

3. Social benefits and services

There are numerous social benefits attributed to life in the cities and towns. Examples include better
educational facilities, better living standards, better sanitation and housing, better health care, better recreation
facilities, and better social life in general. On this account, more and more people are prompted to migrate
into cities and towns to obtain the wide variety of social benefits and services which are unavailable in the
rural areas.

4. Employment opportunities
In cities and towns, there are ample job opportunities that continually draw people from the rural areas to seek
better livelihood. Therefore, the majority of people frequently migrate into urban areas to access well paying
jobs as urban areas have countless employment opportunities in all developmental sectors such as public
health, education, transport, sports and recreation, industries, and business enterprises. Services and industries
generate and increase higher value-added jobs, and this leads to more employment opportunities.

5. Modernization and changes in the mode of living

Modernization plays a very important role in the process of urbanization. As urban areas become more
technology savvy together with highly sophisticated communication, infrastructure, medical facilities,
dressing code, enlightenment, liberalization, and other social amenities availability, people believe they can
lead a happy life in cities. In urban areas, people also embrace changes in the modes of living namely
residential habits, attitudes, dressing, food, and beliefs. As a result, people migrate to cities and the cities grow
by absorbing the growing number of people day after day.

6. Rural urban transformation

As localities become more fruitful and prosperous due to the discovery of minerals, resource exploitation, or
agricultural activities, cities start emerging as the rural areas transform to urbanism. The increase in
productivity leads to economic growth and higher value-added employment opportunities.
This brings about the need to develop better infrastructure, better education institutions, better health facilities,
better transportation networks, establishment of banking institutions, better governance, and better housing.
As this takes place, rural communities start to adopt the urban culture and ultimately become urban centers
that continue to grow as more people move to such locations in search of a better life.

EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION

1. Positive effects of urbanization

Urbanization yields several positive effects if it happens within the appropriate limits. Some of the positive
implications of urbanization therefore include creation of employment opportunities, technological and
infrastructural advancements, improved transportation and communication, quality educational and medical
facilities, and improved standards of living. However, extensive urbanization mostly results in adverse effects.
Below listed points are few of them.

2. Housing problems
Urbanization attracts people to cities and towns which lead to high population increase. With the increase in
the number of people living in urban centers, there is continued scarcity of houses. This is due to insufficient
expansion space for housing and public utilities, poverty, unemployment, and costly building materials which
can only be afforded by few individuals.
3. Overcrowding
Overcrowding is a situation whereby a huge number of people live in a small space. This form of congestion
in urban areas is consistent because of overpopulation and it is an aspect that increases day by day as more
people and immigrants move into cities and towns in search of better life. Most people from rural or
undeveloped areas always have the urge of migrating into the city that normally leads to congestion of people
within a small area.

4. Unemployment
The problem of joblessness is highest in urban areas and it is even higher among the educated people. It is
estimated that more than half of unemployed youths around the globe live in metropolitan cities. And, as much
as income in urban areas is high, the costs of living make the incomes to seem horribly low. The increasing
relocation of people from rural or developing areas to urban areas is the leading cause of urban unemployment.

5. Development of slums
The cost of living in urban areas is very high. When this is combined with random and unexpected growth as
well as unemployment, there is the spread of unlawful resident settlements represented by slums and squatters.
The growth of slums and squatters in urban areas is even further exacerbated by fast-paced industrialization,
lack of developed land for housing, large influx of rural immigrants to the cities in search of better life, and
the elevated prices of land beyond the reach of the urban poor.

6. Water and sanitation problems

Because of overpopulation and rapid population increase in most urban centres, it is common to find there are
inadequate sewage facilities. Municipalities and local governments are faced with serious resource crisis in
the management of sewage facilities. As a result, sanitation becomes poor and sewages flow chaotically, and
they are drained into neighbouring streams, rivers, lakes, or seas. Eventually, communicable diseases such as
typhoid, dysentery, plague, and diarrhea spread very fast leading to suffering and even deaths. Overcrowding
also highly contributes to water scarcity as supply falls short of demand.

7. Poor health and spread of diseases

The social, economic and living conditions in congested urban areas affects access and utilization of public
health care services. Slum areas in particular experience poor sanitation and insufficient water supply which
generally make slum populations susceptible to communicable diseases. The environmental problems such as
urban pollution also cause many health problems namely allergies, asthma, infertility, food poisoning, cancer
and even premature deaths.

8. Traffic congestion
When more people move to towns and cities, one of the major challenges posed is in the transport system.
More people means increased number of vehicles which leads to traffic congestion and vehicular pollution.
Many people in urban areas drive to work and this creates a severe traffic problem, especially during the rush
hours. Also as the cities grow in dimension, people will move to shop and access other social needs/wants
which often cause traffic congestion and blockage.

9. Urban crime
Issues of lack of resources, overcrowding, unemployment, poverty, and lack of social services and education
habitually leads to many social problems including violence, drug abuse, and crime. Most of the crimes such
as murder, rape, kidnapping, riots, assault, theft, robbery, and hijacking are reported to be more prominent in
the urban vicinities. Besides, poverty related crimes are the highest in fast-growing urban regions. These acts
of urban crime normally upset the peace and tranquility of cities/towns.
URBAN CLASS GROUP

According to the Census definition of India, an urban area consists of (Census of India, 2011).
1) All Statutory Towns: All places with a Municipality, Corporation, Cantonment Board or Notified Town
Area Committee, etc. so declared by State law; and
2) Census Towns: which places and satisfy following criteria:- a minimum population of 5000 ; at least 75%
of male working population engaged in non agricultural pursuits; and a density of population of at least 400
persons per sq km. Furthermore, Population Census in India classifies urban settlement into six size classes
as per the limits indicated below (2001): Population Size Category
100,000 and more Class I
50,000 to 100,000 Class II
20,000 to 50,000 Class III
10,000 to 20,000 Class IV
5,000 to 10,000 Class V
Less than 5,000 class VI

URBAN TRANSPORT PROBLEMS

1. Road congestion
As populations increase, the average travel distances as well as intensity are expected to increase as there is a
direct correlation between the two indicators. Average trips lengths for metro cities including Bengaluru are
over 8 km, while it is 6 km or less for all other metro cities. This trend in trip length and frequency is only
expected to increase with increasing income levels, migration, participation of women and a service-oriented
economy. As more people travel over longer distances on regular basis for employment and education
purposes, will inevitably lead to road congestion.

2. Parking problems
The acute shortage of parking spaces both on and off the streets in Indian cities increases the time spent
searching for a parking spot and induces traffic congestion. Available data shows that a high proportion of
Indian streets are faced with on-street parking issue. This problem is especially acute in smaller, compact
Indian cities. On-street parking is perversely incentivized because it is either free or priced lower than off-
street parking. Even if cities invest in multilevel car parks in prime areas, the parking rates are not expected
to recover the costs.

3. Air pollution
The severity of air pollution in Indian cities is judged based on CPCB’s (Central Pollution Control Board) air
quality classification. According to available air quality data of 180 Indian cities, there is a wide variation in
the pollution concentration and severity across cities. Cities are considered critically polluted if the levels of
criteria pollutants are more than 1.5 times the standard. Results show that half of the residential areas in cities
monitored by CPCB are at critical levels of air pollution .The danger is especially pronounced when diesel
vehicles are operating, as diesel emissions are known to trigger adverse respiratory health effects.
Metro cities that have initiated pollution control action have witnessed either stabilization or dip in the
pollution levels, however, in other cities, the situation has been observed to be getting worse. Toxic air and its
effects on health are seriously compromising the ‘livability’ of Indian cities.
4. Deteriorating road safety

The high dependence of migrants on non-motorised transport modes such as walking and cycling causes traffic
mix in common roads where fast-moving motorised traffic shares the roads with slow-moving modes leading
to an increasing number of fatalities and road accidents. In most Indian cities, non-motorised modes like
cycling and walking presently share the same right of way as cars and two-wheelers leading to unsafe
conditions for all.
The number of fatalities is also increasing in relation to the increasing motorisation and higher slow-moving
vehicles in the traffic stream. While progress has been made towards protecting people in cars, the needs of
vulnerable groups of road users, primarily cyclists and pedestrians, are not being met. Pedestrian fatalities
constitute a significant share of total fatalities and the magnitude is in fact much higher in cities that lack
adequate pedestrian facilities. The percentage of streets with pedestrian pathways is hardly 30 per cent in most
Indian cities. The main reason behind this is inequitable distribution of road space and the fact that streets in
India are not designed with the intention of accommodating all the functions of a street. Furthermore, only a
part of the right of way is developed leading to un-organised and unregulated traffic, which is unsafe for
pedestrians and cyclists.

IMPACTS OF TRANSPORTATION

Some of the major environmental impact of transport development are:

1. Energy consumption in transport and environment pollution:
• Transportation requires energy mainly for vehicle operation and to some extent for manufacturing of
vehicles. The energy consumption in transport is main cause of pollution.

• There is a significant difference in fuel efficiencies between various modes of transport Eg: Consumption of
energy in car is more among urban transport modes. Though there is significant improvement in the fuel
efficiency of automobiles, the energy consumption will continue to increase in spite of fuel efficiency
measures.

2. Air Pollution
Pollution of the atmosphere by fumes and smoke emitted by the motor vehicles makes the urban street
extremely unpleasant. With further growth of vehicle population, the problem is bound to assume serious
proportions.
The major source of the pollutants in the exhaust gas emitted by the internal combustion engine. The following
are the major components of the exhaust gas:
• Carbon di-oxide (CO2): It is the most important contributor to climatic change.

• Carbon monoxide (CO): This is the poisonous gas caused as a result of incomplete combustion. Small doses
of CO present in air due to rad traffic may not be a medical danger, but can cause major effects.

• Oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds: The concentration of nitrogen oxides due to road traffic being small,
there presence does not appear danger to health but the effect of long-term exposure might cause anxiety.
Increase in concentration of lead compounds also affects the well-being of the society.

• Carbon particles (Smoke): Smoke contains minute particles of carbon and though by itself is not a health
hazard, it may prove dangerous in combination with other compounds.
3. Noise Pollution:
Another impact of transport system is the noise pollution. The sources of noise from road vehicles are many
and varied including,
a) Noise generated from various parts of the vehicles like engine, exhaust, breaks, horns, chassis, loads in the
vehicle, door slamming etc.
• Motor vehicles and scooters are generally nosier than passenger cars

• Commercial trucks are a main source of noise as they carry heavy loads

• Old and improper maintenance of vehicles generates more noise

b) Noise contributed by the interaction between vehicle and road surface:

• Smooth surface generally produces less noise than rough surface

• Grooved cement concrete has been practically found to be a source of annoying noise

c) Noise dependent on the speed, flow, density of traffic:

• AS the traffic volume increases, the noise level inevitably raises

• Higher speed also known to cause higher noise level

• Noise level increases during acceleration

4. Visual intrusion and degrading the aesthetics:

• In urban areas, the motor vehicles have been competing for space for movement and it appears that buildings
seem to raise from the plinth of cars.

• The tranquillity and openness of parks and squares has been occupied and spoiled.

• To attract the attention of the motorist numerous signs, signals and bill board have sprung up all along streets,
spoiling the beauty of the surrounding land, historical landmarks and architectural master pieces.

• Service stations, garages and petrol filling stations have spread up along the road and added their mite to the
degradation of the general scene.

5. Severance and land consumption:

Severance is the general term denoting the psychological, cultural and physical disturbance caused by a traffic
facility on the neighbourhood, land, society and life cycle.

• Highway and streets consume an enormous amount of land and requires compulsory acquisition of land
which can cause disruption to way of life among community.

• The amount of land acquired by streets and highways is so large that it has created problems of rehabilitation
and relocation.

• Precious land uses such as forestry, agriculture, housing and nature reserves may be displaced.
TRANSPORT SYSTEM PLANNING

Transport planning is s science that seeks to study the problems thar arises in providing transportation facilities
in an urban, regional or national setting and to prepare a systematic basis for planning such facilities.

Interdependence of the Land use and Traffic

Transportation planning was done through measurement of traffic using streets, identifying those sections
were present traffic has exceeded the capacity and undertaking improvement measures to relieve congestion
and bottle necks in the smooth traffic flow. This simplest approach failed to deal with complex transport
problems and only provided short term solutions. This approach is eventually abounded.

1. In 1954, Mitchell and Rapkin made a statement that ‘Urban transport was a function of land use’. It
paved the way for a new line of thinking in urban transportation and land use planning.
Mitchell and Rapkin observed the various kind of activities based on the land called land use – “generated’’
different amount and kinds of traffic. They concluded that measures such as provision and improvement of
physical channel of movement and regulation and control of traffic were effective in dealing with urban traffic.
But the most basic level of action for a long run solution of traffic problem is the planning, guidance and
control of land use pattern.

2. Buchannan has also emphasised the inter-relationship between traffic and buildings in town. He states
that ‘In towns, traffic takes place because of buildings in fact all movements in town have an origin and
destination in building’. The pattern traced by traffic is thus closely related to the manner in which buildings
are arranged.

SYSTEM APPROACH TO TRANSPORT PLANNING

The process involved in the system approach in transport planning is represented in figure below:

• The transport planning starts with the decision to adopt planning as a tool for achieving certain desired goals
and objectives.
• After goals and objectives are defined, solutions are generated taking due consideration of problems,
constraints, potential and forecasting. These solutions are evaluated after analysis.
• The best amongst is chosen for implementation.
• After implementation, the system is studied in operation and its performance assessed. Based on this
assessment it may be necessary to go back to certain stages of planning and repeat the sequence.

Stages in Transport Planning

Transport planning can be broken down into five stages:
1. Survey and analysis of existing condition
2. Forecast, analysis of future condition and plan synthesis
3. Evaluation
4. Programme adoption and implementation
5. Continuing study

1. Survey and analysis of existing condition:

The survey and inventory start with definition of survey area and division of area into smaller units called
zones to study the pattern of movement. Some of the goals are formed to meet some of the aspects line:
a) Minimum disruption of environment
b) Minimum demolition of general environment
c) A high benefit/cost ratio
d) Operational feasibility
e) To improve safety of travel

The inventory of existing travel pattern includes:

• Collection of data on origin and destination of journey, traffic volume on various links in the existing network
• Collection of data on movement of goods vehicles and public transport buses
• Collection of data on movement by rail transit
• Parking characteristics (supply, usage, duration and method of charging
The inventory of existing transport facilities includes:
• Studies on travel time by different modes
• Inventory of public transport buses, their speeds, schedules, capacity, terminals, passenger carried etc.
• Parking inventory, accident data etc.

The inventory of land use and economic activities consists of:

• Information on land use type (residential, commercial, recreational etc)
• Population statistics, household structure including family income, car ownership, family size, gender etc
• Employment pattern

2. Forecast, Analysis of future condition and Plan synthesis:

• Transport plans are long-run in scope and involve planning 20 to 25 years ahead. It therefore be become
necessary to do prediction of travel pattern and needs for the future year.
• Forecasting future economic activity for the study year is an important and difficult phase in the in the
transport planning process. Future land-use pattern also needs to be predicted.
• Economic activity can be predicted by extending past trends in the various parameters representing economic
activity
• Population forecast can be done by studies of past trend. More detailed studies of birth, death and migration
data help
• Estimation of future employment pattern follow from prediction of economic activity.
• Future car ownership is an important parameter that influence future travel and mode choice
• The predicted growth in land use pattern such as residential, industrial, commercial, recreational and open
spaces can be determined by formulating suitable land use allocation models.

Eg: Knowing the expected rate of GNP (Gross National Product), expected traffic growth T can be calculated
as: log𝑇= 𝑇0+𝑇1log (𝑇𝑇𝑇)
Where, A0 = regression constant
A1 = regression co-efficient/ elasticity co-efficient

3. Evaluation:
• In an urban system, a number of alternative transport plans are feasible for a given set of goals and policies.
In order to select the best from these, it is necessary to evaluate each of alternatives as to how it fulfils the
desired objectives
• At this stage, it may be necessary to revise the plans and go back to initial stage of design to evolve further
alternatives.

4. Programme adoption and Implementation:

• The best alternative emerging from the evaluation study is selected for adoption and implementation.
• The stages in which the project is to be implemented are decided with the consideration of financial
resources.

5. Continuing study:
• Transport planning is a dynamic and complex process, there cannot be any finality about the plan. The urban
system and the people inhibiting it are not deterministic and are governed by random behaviour. Technology
and preferences of people may change. Plans and policies which are relevant today may not remain so in
future. This underlines the need for a continuous review and updating of the plan
• Periodic survey should be carried out on the trends in travel pattern, journey times and other relevant factors
and the plan readjusted, if need to be.

TRANSPORTATION PLANNING MODELS

The process of travel demand forecasting consists of four stage model
1. Trip Generation:
Trip generation is the first stage of transportation demand models. It is a general term used in the transportation
planning process to cover the number of trip ends in the given area. Trip generation is classified into
production and attraction.
Production (Origin): Number of trip end originated in zone i
Attraction (Destination): Number of trip end attracted to zone j
There are basically two tools for trip generation analysis:
a) Multiple linear regression analysis

b) Category analysis

2. Trip Distribution:
The decision to travel for a given purpose called trip generation. The decision to choose destination
from origin is directional distribution and forms the second stage of travel demand modelling.

Trip distribution is determined by the number of trip ends originated in zone-i to number of trips attracted to
zone-j, which can be understand by matrix between zones. The matrix is called origin-destination (O&D)
matrix.
The trip generation models include:
a) Growth factor models

• Uniform growth factor

• Average growth factor

• Fratar method

• Furness method

b) Synthetic modes

• Gravity model

• Opportunity model
3. Modal Split:
The third stage in travel demand modelling is modal split. Modal split is determined by number of trips of
people process by the different mode of travel. In other words, modal split is used to C two or more mode
categories like public transport riders and personal/private riders.
Modal split methods include:
a) Probit Model

b) Logit Model

4. Trip Assignment:
Trip assignment is fourth and final phase of the four-stage modelling. Travelers will choose the route which
will take minimum travel time, minimum travel distance dependent on the traffic volume on the road. The
following are commonly used traffic assignment models.
1. All or nothing assignment

2. Multiple route assignment model

3. Capacity restraint assignment model

4. Capacity restraint multipath route assignment model

5. Diversion curves technique model

URBAN MASS TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

“Mass Transit, also referred to as public transit, is a passenger transportation service, usually local in scope
that is available to any person who pays a prescribed fare “
Mass Transit System is designed to move large numbers of people at one time.

NEED FOR MASS TRANSIT SYSTEM

 Generates low travel times and travel costs for people and goods

 Permits equal access to urban life opportunities (social services, education, Health, recreation)
Provides adequate support to desired form, size, and density of the city-region contributes to the
improvement of air quality and urban environment

Classification of mass transit system

The classification of modes can be done for transit are based on three characteristics
i. Right of way
ii. Technology
iii. Type of service

i. RIGHT OF WAY
Right of way is the strip of land on which the transit vehicle operates. There three basic right of way categories,
distinguished by three degree separation from other traffic.

a. Category A : “grade separated or exclusive” It is a fully controlled right of way without grade crossing
or any legal access by other vehicles. In some way it resembles a free way system.
 b. Category B: Includes right of way types that are longitudinally physically separated from other traffic,
but with grade crossing for vehicles and pedestrians, including regular intersections. A light rail transit
system that crosses a few streets at the surface falls into this category.

c. Category C: surface streets with mixed traffic. Most bus system and streetcar system fall into this
category.

ii. TECHNOLOGY
The technology of transit concerned with the mechanical features of the vehicle and riding surface there are
at least four important characteristics of transit modes
a. The support between the vehicle and riding surface – rubber tires on bituminous roads, steels tires on steels
rails.
b. The steering or guidance of vehicle.
c. The method of propulsion
d. The means of regulating or controlling the vehicles longitudinally

iii. TYPE OF SERVICE

Type of service can be classified into three groups by the types of routes and trips served
a. Short haul is low speed service within small areas with high travel density, such as central business districts
b. City transit, which is the most common type, serves people needing transport in the city.
c. Regional transit serves long trips, makes few stops, and generally has high speeds. Rapid rail and express
bus system fall into this category.

Rapid Rail Transit System

Railway transit is a well-known means of rapid transit along high density corridors. They can be surface/
underground/ elevated.
• Surface rapid rail transit service serves an important role in Bombay, Madras and Delhi. The lines are
electrified.

• Underground system lines between Dum Dum and Tollygunge has built in Calcutta. This line is 16.4km
long.

• Bangalore city is running elevated metro line for 33km Long.

• First rapid rail system in India is Kolkata Metro (1984)

• Delhi metro has largest network in entire country (288km running)

1. Heavy Rail Transit (HRT)

 Trains of high performance, electrically powered rail cars operating in exclusive rights-of-way
 Metro is the most common international term for Heavy Rail Transit.
 Maximum service speeds range from 50 to 70 kmph
 Conventional two rail "railroad" tracks, plus a slightly raised third rail
 Full grade separation ensures safety
2. Automated Guide Way Transit

Guided transit mode with fully automated operation

The Automated Guide way Transit would include
a. Personal Rapid Transit (PRT)

 2-6 passengers per vehicle

 Maximum Speed of +/- 30 mph
 Short trips - local circulators/shuttles
 Lighter passenger loads.

b. People Movers

 30-100 Passengers/Vehicle,
+/-30 mph maximum speed,
 Short trips - local circulators/ shuttles, medium passenger loads.
 c. Advanced Rapid Transit (ART)

 75-135 P/V, +/-

 50 mph maximum operating speed,
 4-6 cars per train,
 medium trips - regional trunk routes,
 heavier passenger loads

3. Monorail

These are guided transit mode with vehicles riding on or suspended from a single rail, beam, or tube.
𝑇 Vehicles may employ steel wheel or rubber tire support. Supported or suspended
𝑇 Won’t run on a single rail, runs on the surface of a rather large beam, or inside an enclosed box structure.
𝑇 Grade separated guide ways to accommodate rubber-tire mono-beams
𝑇 Trains are articulated, 4-car units about 42 m long by 2.6 m wide, with about 60 seats. Seat & standing
capacity of 215 passengers
𝑇 Ultimate capacity of 20,000 PHPD passengers

4. Light Rail Transit

Commonly referred as “streetcars” or “trolleys.”
𝑇 Most systems are powered by overhead electric wires
𝑇 Run on either exclusive or shared rights-of-way with or without grade crossings, or occasionally in mixed
traffic lanes on city streets.
𝑇 Tracks can be laid in any of three generic right-of-way (ROW) categories
𝑇 Cars are typically articulated, about 28 m long by 2.65 m wide, with about 75 seats
𝑇 Trains vary from 2-4 cars, with a 4-car train capable of carrying about 300 seated passengers, and a total of
up to 750 passengers.

5. Commuter Rail / Regional Rail

𝑇 Commuter Rail is a mode of transportation that is based on operating passenger trains on the tracks of the
general railroad system, which is shared with freight trains.
𝑇 The Commuter rail can carry about 75,000 passengers per hour per direction.

6. BRT Buses

𝑇 By use of exclusive or reserved rights-of-way (bus ways) that permit higher speeds and avoidance of delays
from general traffic flows.
𝑇 Include reverse lane operation on limited access roadways, and/or prioritization of at grade bus movements
through signalized intersections.
𝑇 A standard BRTS bus can carry 5000 pphpd and with an overtaking lane, this number could reach 8000.

Advantages of Mass Transit

1. Reduction in Congestion: The main idea behind mass transit is to reduce the number of vehicles on
the road by providing a larger facility which carries higher number of passengers thus eliminating
congestion

2. Saves Time: Mass transit reduces the travel time to a great extent as it moves at high speeds and stops only
at specific spots

3. Cost effective: Mass transit is comparably cheaper than other modes of public transport
Other impacts

4. Environmental impacts: Mass transit is believed to be more environmentally friendly than other
public transport facilities. Private vehicles emit about twice as much carbon monoxide and other volatile
organic compounds than public vehicles.
Mass transit reduces number of cars on the road which in turn reduces the pollution caused by cars

5. Social Impact: All the members of the society irrespective of their financial status, religion or cast can
travel which enhances the social integrity of the country

6. Economic Impacts: Mass transit development can improve both the usefulness and efficiency of the
public transit system as well as results in increased business for commercial development and thus serves to
improve the economy of the country

Disadvantages
1. Mass transit systems are economically feasible only in areas that have relatively large population. As the
number of inhibits per square km decreases, the efficiency of mass transit system also decreases.

2. Mass transit system are also very expansive to build and operate. When this system has to be installed in
cities where development had already taken place and disruption of existing structure is a serious problem

3. While using mass transit people need to wait for a long time to have a bus or train. Flexibility in time to
reach the destination in desired time is not possible.

4. Risk of being the criminal victim is high. Rapes and snatch crime is the most common cases that caused by
the public transport

5. In addition, people cannot have a comfortable journey to their destination. Some of the mass transit system
are usually crowded, dirty and smelly. Also, some special people such as disables person and old folks may
be treated bad.

Para-Transit Transport:
 • Paratransit service is the general terms for a “demand-response” service which a passenger must reserve a
ride in advance.
• It includes all public and private automobile travel and fixed route and fixed schedule bus and rail transit.

• It also includes carpools and vanpools (shared ride modes), public autos (station cars), charter buses,
exclusive and shared ride taxi cabs and bus transportation operating on flexible routes and flexible schedules
in response to individual request for service. Hence termed as “ Demand-Responsive” or ‘Dial-a-ride” service.

COMPARISON BETWEEN TRANSIT SYSTEMS

𝑇 BRT, LRT and Monorail can go around sharp road bends and hence reduce the need for property acquisition.
𝑇 Additionally, Monorail can negotiate steep gradients, thus reducing the need for long ramps.
𝑇 Between these 3 modes, Monorail is elevated while BRT and LRT can be at grade or elevated modes.

BRT vs. LRT vs. Monorail

𝑇 LRT reportedly needs 2 to 3 lanes of road space compared to 3 to 4 lanes needed for BRT( WB) and gives
better capacity.
𝑇 LRT is mostly proposed when service is possible at-grade for a substantial length of the corridor.
𝑇 Monorail can be considered when the road is narrow and congested. It permits more daylight and air
underneath that is relevant when building lines that lie close to the edge of the road ROW.
Metro Rail vs. Light Rail
𝑇 Metro rail requires flat curves (necessitating property acquisition) and long ramps taking up a lot of road
space.
𝑇 Light rail transit, on the other hand, can go round road bends and does not require property acquisition.
𝑇 It provides savings in running cost due to low axle load (11t) compared to

Metro rail (17 t).

Underground vs. over ground

The decision on the choice of vertical separation depends upon the impacts of the following parameters
𝑇 Capital cost
𝑇 Right-of-way availability
𝑇 Visual and aesthetic impact
𝑇 Construction impacts
𝑇 Vibration
𝑇 Noise
𝑇 Air pollution
𝑇 City’s future development potential

Para-transit system
“Paratransit vehicles are a for-hire flexible passenger transportation that does not necessarily follow fixed
routes and schedules. They provide two types of services:
one involving trips along a more or less defined route with stops to pick up or discharge passengers on request.
The other is a demand-responsive transport which can offer a door-to-door service from any origin to any
destination in a service area

Factors influencing Para-transit

𝑇 Longer travel time, Higher cost and Lack of connectivity, Reduced Ridership of major public transport
systems

𝑇 High cost of introduction and maintenance of mass public transportation

𝑇 Short Trip lengths: The average trip length in medium and small size cities is less than five kilometre
𝑇 High percentage of low income groups
𝑇 Creates employment opportunities
𝑇 They provide first mile-last mile connectivity
𝑇 Ideal feeder system for the MRTS, Metro/Mono Rail, BRTS etc

Benefits of Para-transit system

𝑇 Increase in Ridership of existing Public Transport Systems
𝑇 Reduce in Modal share of Private Vehicles
𝑇 Time utility, increased productivity and economic growth
𝑇 Bridging Urban and Rural mobility, especially Urban poor
𝑇 Employment and livelihood opportunities
𝑇 Stepping towards Sustainable Urban Transport

COMPARISON BETWEEN TRANSIT SYSTEMS:

CO-ORDINATION
Coordination in an urban transit system refers to the process of integrating various modes of public
transport, such as buses, trains, and subways, to create a seamless and efficient network. This involves
synchronizing schedules, streamlining transfers, and optimizing the use of resources to enhance
accessibility and attract more riders.

Key aspects of coordination in urban transit:

 Mode Integration: Combining different transport modes to create a multimodal system that caters
to diverse travel needs.
 Transfer Optimization: Ensuring smooth and easy transfers between different modes at designated
transfer points.
 Schedule Synchronization: Coordinating schedules of different modes to minimize waiting times
and enhance connectivity.
 Information Technology: Utilizing technology for real-time information, route planning, and ticket
integration.
 Inter-agency Collaboration: Working collaboratively among different transit agencies to achieve a
unified system.

Benefits of coordination:
 Improved accessibility: Easier and more convenient access to different parts of the city.
 Increased ridership: More attractive and user-friendly transit systems encourage more people
to use public transport.
 Reduced travel time: Efficient transfers and synchronized schedules minimize travel times.
 Optimized resource utilization: Pooling resources and expertise across different agencies can
lead to cost savings and better service delivery.
 Enhanced sustainability: Public transport coordination contributes to reducing traffic
congestion, improving air quality, and promoting sustainable mobility.
Types of Co-ordination
In an urban transit system, coordination can be categorized into transfer coordination and multi-
route coordination, both of which aim to improve the efficiency and accessibility of public
transport.
 Transfer coordination focuses on maximizing the ease of transfers between different transit
modes at shared stations, while multi-route coordination deals with optimizing multiple routes
to respond to disruptions or enhance overall system performance.

1. Transfer Coordination:
Bidirectional and Unidirectional Synchronization:
Transfer coordination can be bidirectional (both ways) or unidirectional (one-way), depending
on the specific transfer scenario. For instance, last-train transfers are typically unidirectional, as
passengers are transferring from one train to the last connecting train.
Optimization Methods:
Various methods are used to optimize transfer coordination, including: Heuristic rule-based
approach: This involves developing rules and algorithms to guide the synchronization process.
Analytical modelling approach: This uses mathematical models to analyze transfer patterns
and identify optimization opportunities.
Mathematical programming approach: This employs mathematical optimization techniques to
find the best transfer schedules.
Simulation approach: This uses simulations to evaluate the impact of different transfer
coordination strategies.
Goals:
Transfer coordination aims to:
Improve connectivity: Ensure smooth and efficient transfers between different transit modes.
Increase synchronization: Coordinate arrival and departure times of different routes at shared
stations.
Enhance reliability: Reduce delays and uncertainties during transfers.
Improve accessibility: Make transfers easier for passengers, especially those with mobility
challenges.

2. Multi-Route Coordination:
Responding to Disruptions:
Multi-route coordination is particularly important when road disruptions or other events affect
multiple bus routes.
Adaptive Route Adjustments:
This involves identifying alternative bus routes that can bypass disruptions and determine the
most effective adjustments to bus timetables.
Passenger Flow Assignment:
The goal is to optimize the flow of passengers across affected routes, minimizing the impact of
disruptions on passenger travel time and cost.
Optimization Methods:
Similar to transfer coordination, mathematical programming and simulation techniques can be
used to optimize multi-route coordination.