PH24101: Physics ([Link].

I)
Syllabus
Module-1: Physical Optics
Polarization, Malus’ Law, Brewster’s Law, Double Refraction, Interference in thin films (Parallel films), Interference in wedge-shaped layers, Newton’s rings, Fraunhofer
diffraction by single slit, Double slit. Elementary ideas of fibre optics and application of fibre optic cables. [8]
Module-2: Electromagnetic Theory
Gradient, Divergence and Curl, Statement of Gauss theorem & Stokes theorem, Gauss’s law, Applications, Concept of electric potential, Relationship between E and V,
Polarization of dielectrics, dielectric constant, Boundary conditions for E & D, Gauss’s law in magnetostatics, Ampere’s circuital law, Boundary conditions for B & H,
Equation of continuity, Displacement current, Maxwell’s equations. [8]
Module-3: Special Theory of Relativity
Introduction, Inertial frame of reference, Galilean transformations, Postulates, Lorentz transformations and its conclusions, Length contraction, time dilation, velocity
addition, Mass change, Einstein's mass energy relation. [6]
Module-4: Quantum Mechanics
Planck's theory of black-body radiation, Compton effect, Wave particle duality, De Broglie waves, Davisson and Germer's experiment, Uncertainty principle, Brief idea of
Wave Packet, Wave Function and its physical interpretation, Schrodinger equation in one-dimension, free particle, particle in an infinite square well. [9]
Module-5: Modern Physics
Laser – Spontaneous and stimulated emission, Einstein's A and B coefficients, Population inversion, Light amplification, Basic laser action, Ruby and He-Ne lasers,
Properties and applications of laser radiation, Nuclear Physics- Binding Energy Curve, Nuclear Force, Liquid drop model, Introduction to Shell model, Applications of
Nuclear Physics, Concept of Plasma Physics, and its applications. [9]
Text books:
1: A. Ghatak, Optics, 4th Edition, Tata Mcgraw Hill, 2009
2: Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press ( 2001)
3: Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill
4. F. F. Chen, Introduction to Plasma Physics and controlled Fusion, Springer, Edition 2016.
Reference books: 1: Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday, Walker and Resnick
1
 Module – 5 : Modern Physics
Laser – Spontaneous and stimulated emission, Einstein's A and B coefficients, Population
inversion, Light amplification, Basic laser action, Ruby and He-Ne lasers, Properties and
applications of laser radiation

Nuclear Physics – Binding Energy Curve, Nuclear Force, Liquid drop model, Introduction to Shell
model, Applications of Nuclear Physics, Concept of Plasma Physics, and its applications. [9]

Text book:

T1: A. Ghatak, Optics, 6th Edition, 2017, McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd.

T3: Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill

Reference book: R1: Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday, Walker and Resnick

2
 LASER

❑ The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

❑ The laser is a device that produces a light beam with some remarkable properties:

❑ The light is very nearly monochromatic [Δ𝜆 ~ 10−6 Å] 𝜃 𝜃 < 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑

❑ The light is coherent, with the waves all exactly in phase with one another

❑ Directionality, Tight Focusing and small spectral width – laser beam diverges hardly at all

❑ High Power – the beam is extremely intense, more intense by far than the light from any
other source (high power, about 105 Watts – can be used in cutting and welding)

3
Metastable states

❑ The key to laser is the presence of many atoms in one (or more) excited metastable energy
levels whose lifetimes may be 10−3 sec or more instead of the usual 10−8 sec.

4
 ❑ Three kinds of transition involving EM radiation are possible between the two energy
levels-- the ground state 𝐸1 and the excited state 𝐸2 .

1. If the atom is initially in the ground (lower) state 𝐸1 , then

an external radiation can excite it to a higher energy state
𝐸2 , PROVIDED the energy of the incident radiation is equal Stimulated
Absorption
to the energy gap (𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈), at least. This process is
called stimulated absorption or simply the absorption.

2. If the atom is initially in the higher energy state 𝐸2 , it can

drop (decay) spontaneously to the ground state 𝐸1 by
emitting a photon of energy ℎ𝜈. This is spontaneous Spontaneous
emission. It takes a time ~10−8 sec. emission

5
3. Einstein, in 1917, was the first to point out a third
𝐸2
possibility, stimulated emission. In this case, an
incident photon stimulates the decay from 𝐸2 to 𝐸1 .
In order to conserve the energy, two photons of
energy 𝒉𝝂 are released.
𝐸1
Stimulated emission

➢ If the two released photons excite two other atoms, 4 photons are released, and so on.

➢ We say that the incident radiation has got amplified.

Each released photon has the same direction and phase as the incident photon.

6
 Einstein theory (prediction) of stimulated emission (1917)

𝐸2 𝑃 𝐸2 ∝ 𝑒 −𝐸2/𝑘𝐵𝑇
❑ In general, population of atoms in the lower
energy levels or ground state is higher.
𝐸1 𝑃 𝐸1 ∝ 𝑒 −𝐸1/𝑘𝐵𝑇

Larger number of atoms in the lower energy Larger number of atoms in the upper energy
state result in the attenuation of the radiation. state (known as population inversion) result
in the amplification of the radiation
7
 Einstein theory of stimulated emission: A and B coefficients

𝑑𝑁1 𝐴𝑏𝑠 𝐴𝑏𝑠

❑ Rate of absorption: = 𝑅1→2 = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑢(𝜈) 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡 𝐸2
𝑑𝑁2 𝑆𝑝𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑜𝑛 Spon. Stim.
❑ Rate of spontaneous emission: = 𝑅2→1 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 Abs.
𝑑𝑡 Emi. Emi.
𝑑𝑁2 𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚
❑ Rate of stimulated emission: = 𝑅2→1 = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑢(𝜈) 𝐸1
𝑑𝑡
𝑁1
❑ 𝐵12 is the Einstein’s coefficient for absorption.
𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are the populations at
❑ 𝐴21 is the Einstein’s coefficient for spontaneous emission.
energy levels 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 , respectively.
❑ 𝐵21 is the Einstein’s coefficient for stimulated emission.
❑ 𝑢(𝜈) is the energy density of
photons per unit volume

𝐴𝑏𝑠 𝑆𝑝𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚

❑ At equilibrium, rate of absorption = rate of emission: 𝑅1→2 = 𝑅2→1 + 𝑅2→1

8
 Einstein theory (prediction) of stimulated emission (1917)
𝐴𝑏𝑠 𝑆𝑝𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚
❑ At equilibrium: 𝑅1→2 = 𝑅2→1 + 𝑅2→1 𝑁2
𝐸2
❑ 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑢 𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑢(𝜈)
Spon. Stim.
Abs. Emi.
𝐴21 Emi.
𝐵21 𝐸1
❑ This can be rearranged as: 𝑢 𝜈 = 𝐵12 𝑁1
𝐵21 𝑁2
−1 𝑁1

𝑁1 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are the populations at

❑Replace: = 𝑒 (𝐸2 −𝐸1 )/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 and energy levels 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 , respectively.
𝑁2
𝐴21 𝐸
𝐵21 −𝑘 1𝑇
we have 𝑢 𝜈 = 𝐵12
 𝑁1 ∝ 𝑒 𝐵

𝐵21
𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 −1
𝐸
−𝑘 2𝑇
 𝑁2 ∝ 𝑒 𝐵

8𝜋ℎ 𝜈3
❖ Compare with Planck’s law: 𝑢 𝜈 = 
𝑁1
= 𝑒 (𝐸2−𝐸1 )/𝑘𝐵𝑇 = 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝐵𝑇
𝑐 3 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 1
𝑁2

9
 Einstein theory (prediction) of stimulated emission (1917)
𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ 3
𝜈
𝐵21 𝑐3
❑We get, 𝐵12 =
𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 −1 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 1
𝐵21

𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ 3 𝐵12

❑Equating coefficients of 𝜈3 and 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 : = 𝜈 and =1
𝐵21 𝑐3 𝐵21

𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ 3 Rate of spontaneous emission

❑ = 𝜈  ∝ 𝜈3
𝐵21 𝑐3 Rate of stimulated emission

𝐵12
❑ =1  Rate of stimulated absorption = Rate of stimulated emission
𝐵21

➢ Spontaneous emission dominates at high frequencies and Stimulated

emission dominates at low frequencies.

10
 Module – 5 : Modern Physics
Laser – Spontaneous and stimulated emission, Einstein's A and B coefficients, Population
inversion, Light amplification, Basic laser action, Ruby and He-Ne lasers, Properties and
applications of laser radiation.

Nuclear Physics – Binding Energy Curve, Nuclear Force, Liquid drop model, Introduction to Shell
model, Applications of Nuclear Physics, Concept of Plasma Physics, and its applications. [9]

Text book:
T1: A. Ghatak, Optics, 6th Edition, 2017, McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd.
T3: Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill
Reference book: R1: Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday, Walker and Resnick

11
 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
❑ Components of laser

1. Lasing material or Active Medium (crystal/gas/semiconductor, etc.)

2. Pump source (flash lamp/radiation from other lasers, etc.)

3. Optical cavity or Optical resonator

❑ A practical lasing action

❑ The pump source excites the atoms to 𝐸3.

❑ There is non-radiative transition (due to collision)

to the metastable level 𝐸2.

❑ If this process is continued, population inversion

is achieved.

12
 The lasing action

❑ The atoms spontaneously emit in all directions. All

the emitted photons that are not parallel to the
axis, escape through the walls (top and bottom).

❑ Photons moving parallel to the axis reflect back

and forth and produce standing waves.

❑ The amplitude of the standing wave increases due to

constructive interference between the photons
emitted by stimulated emission. The wavelength of
the cavity must be an integer multiple of 𝜆/2.

❑ A portion of the standing wave leaks out through the

partially reflecting mirror, and we attain the laser light.

13
 The Ruby Laser (Maiman, 1960)

❑ Ruby is formed of Al2O3 with some Al3+ ions are

replaced by (0.05%) Cr3+ ions.
❑ A Cr3+ ion has a metastable level whose lifetime is
about 0.003 sec.

❑ It was made from a single cylindrical ruby crystal

whose ends were flat, with one end was fully
silvered and the other end was partially silvered.

❑ A xenon flash lamp (green and blue light) excites the Cr3+ ions absorb to a level of higher energy –
from which they rapidly fall to the metastable level by losing energy to other ions in the crystal.
❑ The rod’s length is made precisely of length = 𝑛𝜆/2, so that spontaneously emitted radiation from
the metastable level trapped in it forms an optical standing wave.

14
 The Ruby Laser (Maiman, 1960)

❑ Trapped spontaneously emitted radiation triggers a cascade of stimulated emissions,

producing coherent light that is amplified within the cavity.

❑ After a few microseconds they produce large pulse of monochromatic, coherent red light
(6943 Å) from the partly transparent end of the rod.

15
 The Ruby Laser (Maiman, 1960)
❑ The xenon flash lamp does not operate continuously; it fires in
bursts. Once the flash ends, population inversion ceases, and
the lasing action stops.

❑ The high pumping power required generates significant heat,

which would destroy the crystal if run continuously, making
pulsed operation necessary. The first Ruby laser

❑ Spiking: The flash operation of the lamp leads to a pulsed

output of the laser.

❑ Ruby lasers are generally inefficient, requiring significant energy

for high-intensity pulses, which generates considerable heat,
often necessitating cooling systems (like liquid nitrogen). They
have largely been replaced in modern applications by more
efficient solid-state technologies, such as Nd:YAG lasers.

16
 The He-Ne Laser

❑ First gas laser (632.8 nm red beam) first fabricated at Bell Lab, USA (1961).

❑ It consists of a mixture of He and Ne in a ratio of ~ 10: 1, placed inside a long narrow discharge
tube. The pressure inside the tube is ~ 1 Torr.

❑ The gas system is enclosed between a pair of plane mirrors (or a pair of concave mirrors) that forms
a resonator system. One mirror is of very high reflectivity and the other one is partially transparent
so that energy may be go out of the system.

❑ The spacing of the mirrors is equal to 𝑛/2 times of the laser wavelength 632.8 nm .

17
 The He-Ne Laser
❑ The electric discharge in the tube causes He
atoms to excite to metastable levels F2 and F3.

❑ Hence, He in F1 + collision with electron →

He in F2 or F3 + electrons with lesser KE.

❑ These He atoms collide with the Ne atoms

and excite them to metastable E4 and E6

➢ He in F3 + Ne in E1 → He in F1 + Ne in E6 ; He in F2 + Ne in E1 → He in F1 + Ne in E4

❑ Gas lasers are, in general, found to emit light, which is more directional and more monochromatic.

❑ This is because of the absence of effects like crystalline imperfection, thermal distortion and
scattering, which are present in solid-state lasers.

❑ Gas lasers are capable of operating continuously without need for cooling.
18
 Applications of Laser

❑ Medicine: Bloodless surgery (e.g., eye), laser healing

❑ Industry: Cutting, Welding, Material heat treatment

❑ Defense: Marking targets, Missile weapons

❑ Research: Interferometer, Raman Spectroscopy,

Laser scanning, Remote Sensing, Holography,
Photochemistry, Laser cooling of atoms

❑ Commercial: Laser printer, CDs, Barcode scanner

❑ Aesthetics: Laser light show

19
 Module – 5 : Modern Physics
Laser – Spontaneous and stimulated emission, Einstein's A and B coefficients, Population
inversion, Light amplification, Basic laser action, Ruby and He-Ne lasers, Properties and
applications of laser radiation.

Nuclear Physics – Binding Energy Curve, Nuclear Force, Liquid drop model, Introduction to Shell
model, Applications of Nuclear Physics. Concept of Plasma Physics, and its applications. [9]

Text book:
T1: A. Ghatak, Optics, 6th Edition, 2017, McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd.
T3: Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill
Reference book: R1: Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday, Walker and Resnick

20
 Nuclear Physics
❑ Nuclear Composition: Neutrons and protons are jointly called nucleons.
❑ The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in each of its atomic nuclei,
which is the same as the number of electrons in a neutral atom of the element.

❑ All nuclei of a given element do not necessarily have same numbers of neutrons: The
varieties of an element that differ in the numbers of neutrons are called its isotopes.

❑ The conventional symbols for nuclear species, or nuclides, follow the pattern 𝑨
𝒁𝑿.

❑ 𝑋 = chemical symbol of the element

❑ 𝑍 = atomic number of the element = number of protons in the nucleus

❑ 𝐴 = mass number of the nuclide = number of nucleons in the nucleus

21
 Atomic Mass
❑ Atomic masses are expressed in mass units (u), which are so defined that the mass of a
𝟏𝟐
𝟔𝑪 atom, the most abundant isotope of carbon, is exactly 12 u (𝟏 𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg).

❑ The energy equivalent of a mass unit is 931.49 MeV.

22
 Some Nuclear Properties
❑ Nuclear Mass ≃ 2𝑍 (where 𝑍 is atomic number)

❑ 𝛼-particle scattering experiments show that radius of nucleus ≲ 𝟏𝟎 𝒇𝒎 (where 1 𝑓𝑚 = 10−15 𝑚).

❑ Nuclear forces are of very short range (≲ 10 𝑓𝑚) but dominate over Coulomb repulsion.

❑ 𝒏-𝒏 nuclear forces are of the same magnitude as 𝒏-𝒑 nuclear forces.

❑ Nuclear radius is usually given by 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴1/3 (𝐴 is the nuclear mass in amu and 𝑅0 ≃ 1.2 𝑓𝑚).
4
❑ Note: 𝐴 ∝ 𝜋𝑅3 → 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴1/3
3

23
Solve Find the radius of 126𝐶 atom.

24
25
Some Nuclear Properties: Spin and Magnetic Moment

26
 Stable Nuclei
See the plot of 𝑁 versus 𝑍 for stable nuclides.
❑ Lighter nuclei (𝐴 < 20): Neutron number = Proton number
❑ Heavier nuclei (𝐴 > 20): Neutron number > Proton number
❑ Why some combinations of neutrons and protons are more
stable than others?

27
 Why some combinations of neutrons and protons are more stable than others?

❑ Similar to the energy levels in atoms, nucleus has its

own nuclear energy levels.
❑ Nucleons (neutron and proton) are spin-1/2
particles. So, they obey Pauli’s exclusion principle.
❑ Each nuclear energy level can contain two neutrons
of opposite spins and two protons of opposite spins.
❑ Energy levels in nuclei are filled in sequence, just as
energy levels in atoms.
Boron isotope 125𝐵 has more energy than
❑ This is required to achieve configurations of carbon isotope 126𝐶 because one of its
minimum energy and therefore maximum stability.
neutrons is in a higher energy level - so, 125𝐵
❑ This should prefer p = n scenario! is unstable.

If 125𝐵 is created in a nuclear reaction,

through beta decay it will form a stable 126𝐶
nucleus in a fraction of a second. 28
 Why some combinations of neutrons and protons are more stable than others?

❑ Protons are positively charged and repel one another electrically.

❑ This repulsion becomes large in nuclei with more than 10 protons.
❑ Neutrons produce only attractive forces. So excess neutrons are
required for the stability.
❑ Thus, the curve departs more and more from the 𝑁 = 𝑍 line as 𝑍
increases.

❑ 60% of stable nuclides have both even 𝑍 and even 𝑁; these are called “even-even” nuclides.
❑ Nearly all the others have either even 𝑍 and odd 𝑁 (even-odd nuclides) or odd 𝑍 and even 𝑁
(odd-even nuclides), with the numbers of both kinds being about equal.
❑ Only five stable odd-odd nuclides are known: 21𝐻, 63𝐿𝑖, 105𝐵𝑒, 147𝑁, and 180
73𝑇𝑎.

29
 Nuclear Decay: The 𝜶-decay
❑ Nuclear forces are limited in range, and as a result nucleons interact strongly only with their
nearest neighbors. This effect is referred to as the saturation of nuclear forces.
❑ Because the coulomb repulsion of the protons is appreciable throughout the entire nucleus,
there is a limit to the ability of neutrons to prevent the disruption of a large nucleus.

❑ This limit is represented by the heaviest stable nuclide of bismuth isotope 𝟐𝟎𝟗
𝟖𝟑𝑩𝒊. Nuclei with
𝑍 > 83 and 𝐴 > 209 spontaneously transform into lighter nuclei through 𝜶-decay (emission of
alpha particles, which are 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 nuclei):

❑ If the resulting daughter nuclei has either too small or too large a neutron/proton ratio for
stability, it may 𝜷-decay to a more appropriate configuration.

30
 Nuclear Decay: The 𝜷-decay
❑ In negative 𝜷-decay, a neutron is transformed into a proton and an electron is emitted:

❑ Negative 𝛽-decay decreases the proportion of neutrons and positive 𝛽-decay increases it.
❑ A competing process is the capture by a nucleus of an electron from its innermost shell.
The electron is absorbed by a nuclear proton which is thereby transformed into a neutron:

❑ The 𝜸-decay: Following 𝛼 and 𝛽-decay, nucleus is in excited state. It returns to the ground
state by emitting 𝜸-ray.

31
 Binding Energy: The missing energy that keeps a nucleus together

❑ Binding energy of nucleus X is defined as: 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑍 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑁 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝑋 × 931.49 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑢

32
 Binding Energy per Nucleon: 𝑬𝒃 /𝑨

❑ The figure shows the binding energy per nucleon

(𝐸𝑏 /𝐴) as a function of mass number (𝐴).
❑ For example, 𝐸𝑏 /𝐴 for 21𝐻 is (2.2 MeV)/2 = 1.1
MeV/nucleon, and for 209
83𝐵𝑖 it is (1640 MeV)/209
= 7.8 MeV/nucleon.
❑ The greater the binding energy per nucleon, the
more stable the nucleus is.
❑ Peak at 𝐴 = 4 corresponds to the exceptionally
stable 42𝐻𝑒 nucleus (α-particle).

❑ 𝐸𝑏 /𝐴 is a maximum (8.8 MeV/nucleon) for nuclei of mass number 𝐴 = 56 (Iron isotope 56 26𝐹𝑒). This is
the most stable nucleus of them all, since the most energy is needed to pull a nucleon away from it.

33
❑ If a heavy nucleus is split into two medium-sized ones, each of the new nuclei will have more
𝐸𝑏 /𝐴 than the original nucleus. The extra energy will be given off. This is called nuclear fission.
❑ Ex: If 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝑼 is broken into two smaller nuclei, the binding energy difference per nucleon is
about 0.8 MeV. The total energy given off is therefore 0.8 × 235 MeV = 188 MeV.
❑ This is a truly enormous amount of energy to be produced in a single atomic event.

34
❑ Two light nuclei join to form a heavier one also means more binding energy per new nucleon.
❑ Ex: If two 𝟐𝟏𝑯 deuterium nuclei combine to form a 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 helium nucleus, over 23 MeV is released.
❑ This process is the nuclear fusion and is also a very effective way to obtain energy. In fact, nuclear
fusion is the main energy source of the sun and other stars.

35
36
 Module – 5 : Modern Physics
Laser – Spontaneous and stimulated emission, Einstein's A and B coefficients, Population
inversion, Light amplification, Basic laser action, Ruby and He-Ne lasers, Properties and
applications of laser radiation.

Nuclear Physics – Binding Energy Curve, Nuclear Force, Liquid drop model, Introduction to Shell
model, Applications of Nuclear Physics. Concept of Plasma Physics, and its applications. [9]

Text book:
T3: Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill
Reference book: R1: Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday, Walker and Resnick

37
 The Liquid-Drop Model
(Proposed by George Gamow in 1929 and developed in detail by C. F. von Weizsäcker in 1935)

❑ Nucleons exert very strong attractive forces upon one another, but, their range is short (< 3 fm).
Nuclear attraction betn two protons is ~100 times stronger than the electric repulsion

❑ Assumption: each nucleon in a nucleus interacts solely with nearest neighbors, and interactions
between 𝑝-𝑝, 𝑝-𝑛, and 𝑛-𝑛 are identical.

❑ This is similar to that of atoms in a solid, which ideally vibrate about fixed positions in a crystal
lattice, or that of molecules in a liquid, which ideally are free to move about while maintaining a
fixed intermolecular distance.

❑ The analogy with a solid cannot be pursued because a calculation shows that the vibrations of the
nucleons about their average positions would be too high for the nucleus to be stable.

❑ The analogy with a liquid turns out to be extremely useful in understanding certain aspects of
nuclear behavior.

38
 The Liquid-Drop Model

❑ We assume that the nucleons are like liquid

molecules that move about keeping the average
intermolecular distance same.
❑ Scattering experiments suggest that nuclei have
approximately constant density, so that the nuclear
radius can be calculated by using that density as if
the nucleus were a drop of a uniform liquid.

❑ Two properties that are analogous to liquids:

1. Nucleon density are same with an abrupt cutoff (incompressible liquid).
𝐸
2. Total B.E. is almost proportional to mass ( 𝑏 ≃ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.), just like heats of vaporization are
𝐴
proportional to mass in a liquid.

39
 The Liquid-Drop Model: The volume energy

❑ Assume: an energy 𝑼 associated with each nucleon-nucleon bond

(it is actually negative, but only the magnitude is written).
❑ Each bond energy 𝑈 is shared by two nucleons, so, B.E. per
nucleon is 𝑼/𝟐.
❑ In the bulk, each nucleon is in contact with 𝟏𝟐 neighbors. Hence
𝑈
each interior nucleon in a nucleus has a B.E. of 12 × = 𝟔𝑼.
2

❑ If all 𝐴 nucleons in a nucleus are in its interior, total B.E. would be

𝑬𝒗 = 𝟔𝑼𝑨. Or, simply, 𝐸𝑣 = 𝑎1 𝐴. (Volume Energy)

❑ However, some of the nucleons are on the surface, and they have a fewer neighbors.
Number of such nucleons depends on the surface area of the nucleus.

40
 The Liquid-Drop Model : The surface energy

❑ For a nucleus with 𝑨 nucleons, total B.E. is 𝑬𝒗 = 𝒂𝟏 𝑨 (Volume Energy).

NOTE: A liquid drop model assumes that the forces on the nucleons on the surface are different
from those on nucleons on the interior where they are completely surrounded by other attracting
nucleons. This is similar to the surface tension of a tiny liquid drop.

❑ The number of nucleons with small B.E. is proportional to the

area [4𝜋𝑅2 = 4𝜋(𝑅0 𝐴1/3 )2 ] or 𝐴2/3 . Thus, the reduction in
total B.E. is 𝑬𝒔 = −𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝟐/𝟑 (Surface Energy).
❑ This term becomes more important for the lighter nuclei
where surface-to-volume ratios are higher.

❑ The Coulomb energy also contributes toward reduction in B.E. The electric repulsion between
each pair of protons in a nucleus also contributes toward decreasing its binding energy.

41
 The Liquid-Drop Model : The Coulomb energy

❑ For a nucleus with 𝑨 nucleons, total B.E. is 𝑬𝒗 = 𝒂𝟏 𝑨 (Volume Energy).

❑ Reduction in total B.E. is 𝑬𝒔 = −𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝟐/𝟑 (Surface Energy).

❑ The coulomb energy of a nucleus is the work done to gather 𝑍 protons from infinity.
𝒆𝟐
❑ The potential energy of 2 protons 𝑟 distance apart is equal to 𝑽 = −
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

𝑍(𝑍−1) 𝒁 𝒁−𝟏 𝒆𝟐 𝟏
❑ Since there are 𝑍(𝑍 − 1)/2 pairs of protons: 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑉 = −
2 𝟖𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

1 1
❑ Where implies average value of over all proton pairs. If the proton distribution is
𝑟 𝑟
𝟏 𝟏
uniform, ⟨𝟏/𝒓⟩ ∝ ∝ (where R is the radius of the nucleus)
𝑹 𝑨𝟏/𝟑

𝒁 𝒁−𝟏 𝒆𝟐
❑ 𝑬𝒄 = −𝒂𝟑 (Coulomb Energy)
𝑨𝟏/𝟑

42
 The Liquid-Drop Model: Binding energy

𝒁 𝒁−𝟏 𝒆𝟐
❑ Thus, 𝑬𝒃 = 𝑬𝒗 + 𝑬𝒔 + 𝑬𝒄 = 𝒂𝟏 𝑨 −𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝟐/𝟑 − 𝒂𝟑
𝑨𝟏/𝟑
𝑬𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒁 𝒁−𝟏 𝒆𝟐
❑ And, = 𝒂𝟏 − − 𝒂𝟑
𝑨 𝑨𝟏/𝟑 𝑨𝟒/𝟑

❑ The above formula can be improved by considering

two effects:
➢ For 𝑵 > 𝒁, higher energy levels (Pauli’s exclusion)
𝐴
have to be occupied compared to 𝑁 = 𝑍 = case
2
(for a fixed 𝑨). Thus binding energy decreases.
➢ The tendency of nucleons to form pairs.

43
 The Liquid-Drop Model: Corrections to BE formula

❑ The original nucleus had 𝑁 = 𝑍 = 8. Let us increase the no.

of neutrons (keeping 𝐴 = 16 fixed).

❑ Let’s replace 4 protons with 4 neutrons of the nucleus.

❑ Newly added 4 neutrons would occupy levels higher in

energy by 𝟐𝝐 = 𝟒𝝐/𝟐.

𝟏 𝟏
❑ In general, (𝑵 − 𝒁) new neutrons, each of them must be raised in energy by (𝑵 − 𝒁)𝝐/𝟐.
𝟐 𝟐
energy increase
❑ Total work needed is: Δ𝐸 = no. of new neutrons
no. of new neutrons

1 1 𝜖 𝜖 𝜖
❑ Δ𝐸 = 𝑁−𝑍 𝑁−𝑍 = (𝑁 − 𝑍)2 = (𝐴 − 2𝑍)2
2 2 2 8 8

❑ The greater the no. of nucleons in a nucleus, the smaller is the energy level spacing 𝝐 ∝ 𝟏/𝑨.
(𝑨−𝟐𝒁)𝟐
❑ The asymmetry energy 𝐸𝑎 arises due to the difference between 𝑁 and 𝑍 : 𝑬𝒂 = −𝒂𝟒
𝑨
44
 The Liquid-Drop Model + Corrections: The Weizsäcker formula
❑ The last correction term comes because of the tendency of nucleons to pair.

❑ Even 𝒏 and even 𝒑 nuclei have highest B.E. Empirically, the energy varies as ~𝑨−𝟑/𝟒
𝒂𝟓
❑ Hence, Pairing Energy: 𝑬𝒑 = (±, 𝟎) (+ →even-even, 𝟎 →odd-even/even-odd, − → odd-odd)
𝑨𝟑/𝟒

𝒁 𝒁−𝟏 𝒆𝟐 𝑨−𝟐𝒁 𝟐 𝒂𝟓
❑ 𝑬𝒃 = 𝑬𝒗 + 𝑬𝒔 + 𝑬𝒄 + 𝑬𝒂 + 𝑬𝒑 = 𝒂𝟏 𝑨 − 𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝟐/𝟑 − 𝒂𝟑 − 𝒂𝟒 (±, 𝟎)
𝑨𝟏/𝟑 𝑨 𝑨𝟑/𝟒

❑ A good fit : 𝑎1 = 14.1 𝑀𝑒𝑉, 𝑎2 = 13.0 𝑀𝑒𝑉, 𝑎3 = 0.595 𝑀𝑒𝑉, 𝑎4 = 19.0 𝑀𝑒𝑉, 𝑎5 = 33.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉

• Liquid-drop model explains the spherical shape and stability of nuclei very well.
• Helps in predicting the atomic mass of the nuclei accurately.
• Helps in predicting the binding energies of various nuclei accurately.
• Helps in predicting the emission of alpha particles and beta particles in radioactivity.
• Efficiently explains the basic features of the process of fission.
45
46
 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Shell Model

❑ Basic assumption of liquid-drop model is that each nucleon in a nucleus interacts only with its nearest neighbors,
like a molecule in a liquid.
❑ At the other extreme, the hypothesis that each nucleon interacts chiefly with a general force field produced by all
the other nucleons also has a lot of support.
❑ Like an electron in an atom, in shell model, it is assumed that each nucleon moves in a central force field produced
by all other nucleons.
❑ Just like the periodic table where atomic properties vary periodically, the nuclear properties also show periodic
variations.
❑ Atoms with 𝑍 = 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86 electrons have all their electron shells completely filled. Such electron
structures have high binding energies and are exceptionally stable, hence, rare gases are chemically inert.
❑ The same kind of effect is observed with respect to nuclei. In nuclei, that have 2, 8, 20, 28, 82 and 126 neutrons or
protons are found to be more stable (abundant) than others. Other evidence also points up the significance in
nuclear structure of the numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126, which are known as magic numbers. Dr. Anupam Roy 47
 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Shell Model

❑ Like an electron in an atom, in shell model, it is assumed that each

nucleon moves in a central force field produced by all other nucleons.
❑ Nuclei with 2, 8, 20, 28, 82 and 126 neutrons or protons are found to
be more stable (abundant) than others. They have relatively inert
nuclear structures. These numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126, are
known as magic numbers.
❑ Examples: 188𝑂 (𝑍 = 8), 40
20𝐶𝑎 (𝑍 = 20, 𝑁 = 20),
92
42𝑀𝑜 (𝑁 = 50), and
208
82𝑃𝑏 (𝑍 = 82, 𝑁 = 126)

❑ Ca & Pb are doubly magic → shells of protons as well as of neutrons are

filled. These nuclei also have spherical shape (no quadrupole moment)
❑ Explanation of these magic numbers come from quantum theory by
incorporating spin-orbit interaction leading to splitting of energy levels. Dr. Anupam Roy 48
 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Applications of Nuclear Physics

❑ Nuclear Power – energy released can be converted to electricity.

❑ Nuclear Weapons – the same energy can be used as a weapon.
❑ Nuclear Medicine – use of radioactive materials for diagnosis/treatment (radioactive medicines taken internally
can be traced by external detectors for imaging).
❑ Radioactive carbon dating
❑ Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – strong magnetic field takes the distribution of nuclei (in the nuclear energy
levels) out of equilibrium. When it is turned off, the relaxation times give us information about the constituent
atoms and chemical natures of the molecules. MRI utilized the property of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to
image the nuclei of atoms inside the body.

Dr. Anupam Roy 49

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5

Next Class

Questions?
Dr. Anupam Roy 50
PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5

Date: 02.03.2023

Lecture: 15

Dr. Anupam Roy 51

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 4
Module – 5 : Modern Physics

Laser – Spontaneous and stimulated emission, Einstein's A and B coefficients, Population inversion, Light amplification,
Basic laser action, Ruby and He-Ne lasers, Properties and applications of laser radiation.

Nuclear Physics – Binding Energy Curve, Nuclear Force, Liquid drop model, Introduction to Shell model, Applications of
Nuclear Physics.

Concept of Plasma Physics, and its applications. [9]

Text book:
T3: Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill
Reference book: R1: Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday, Walker and Resnick
Dr. Anupam Roy 52
 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)

Instructors: Dr. Rajyavardhan Ray and Dr. Anupam Roy

Dept of Physics, BIT Mesra.

Drop an e-mail: royanupam [AT] bitmesra [DOT] ac [DOT] in.

Class notes are based on the textbook: Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill

Section M & N
 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Nuclear Fission

❑ Recall binding energy per nucleon curve

❑ A lot of binding energy will be released if we can break
a large nucleus into smaller ones.
❑ But nuclei are ordinarily not at all easy to split.
❑ We need a way to disrupt a heavy nucleus without
using more energy than we get back from the process.
❑ The smaller nuclei shown here are typical of those
produced in the fission of 23592𝑈 and are both
radioactive.

Dr. Anupam Roy 54

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Nuclear Fission

235
❑ 92𝑈 undergoes fission when struck by a neutron. 235
92𝑈 nucleus
absorbs the neutron to become 236 92𝑈, and the new nucleus is
so unstable that almost at once it explodes into two fragments
94
( 38 𝑆𝑟 and 140
34𝑋𝑒).

❑ New nuclei that result from fission are called fission fragments.

❑ Several other heavy nuclides were found to be fissionable by

neutrons in similar processes.

Dr. Anupam Roy 55

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Nuclear Fission

❑ Striking aspect of nuclear fission is the magnitude of the energy

given off - ~200 MeV, a remarkable figure for a single atomic
event!!!

❑ Chain reaction: reaction is self-sustaining if at least one neutron

from each fission event on the average induces another fission
event. If the frequency of fissions increases (more than one
neutron per fission on the average induces another fission), the
energy release will be so rapid that the reaction is explosive
(which is the case in an atomic bomb).

❑ Application in nuclear power plant, nuclear reactor.

Dr. Anupam Roy 56

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Nuclear Fission
❑ Nuclear reactors
❑ A very efficient source of energy: the fission of 1g of 235U per day
evolves energy at a rate of about 1 MW, whereas 2.6 tons of coal
per day must be burned in a conventional power plant to produce 1
MW.
❑ The energy given off in a reactor becomes heat, which is removed
by a liquid or gas coolant. The hot coolant is then used to boil water,
and the resulting steam is fed to a turbine that can power an
electric generator, a ship, or a submarine.
❑ To slow down fission neutrons, the uranium in a reactor is mixed Reaction in a Breeder Reactor
with a moderator, a substance whose nuclei absorb energy from fast
neutrons in collisions without much tendency to capture the
neutrons. Dr. Anupam Roy 57
 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Nuclear Fusion

❑ The basic energy-producing process in the sun is the fusion of

hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei.

❑ This can take place in two different reaction sequences, most

common of which is the proton-proton cycle.

❑ The total evolved energy is 24.7 MeV per 42𝐻𝑒 nucleus formed.

❑ 24.7 MeV is 4 × 1012 J and Sun’s power output of 4 × 1026 W => means the sequence of reactions in the Figure
(above) must occur 1038 times per second.
❑ The sun consists of 70% hydrogen, 28% helium, and 2% of other elements, so plenty of hydrogen remains for
billions of years of further energy production at its current rate.
Dr. Anupam Roy 58
 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Nuclear Fusion
❑ Fusion reactors

❑ Nuclear fusion could become the ultimate source of energy on the earth: safe, relatively nonpolluting, and with
the oceans themselves supplying limitless fuel.

❑ Two reactions that may eventually power fusion reactors involve the combination of two deuterons to form a
triton and a proton,

❑ A major advantage of these reactions is that deuterium is present in seawater and is cheap to extract.

Dr. Anupam Roy 59

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Nuclear Fusion

❑ Fusion reactors

❑ At the required temperatures, a fusion reactor’s fuel will be in the form of a plasma, which is a fully ionized gas.
Breakeven occurs when the energy produced equals the energy input to the reacting plasma.

❑ Ignition, a more difficult (and perhaps unnecessary) target, occurs when enough energy is produced for the
reaction to be self-sustaining.

Dr. Anupam Roy 60

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Nuclear Fusion and Plasma Physics

❑ At the required temperatures, a fusion reactor’s fuel will be in the form of a plasma, which is a fully ionized gas.

❑ The sun and stars are powered by fusion: nuclear reactions that create heavier elements from lighter ones.

❑ If this energy source can be harnessed at the human scale, it has the advantages of inexhaustible fuel resources
and greatly reduced environmental concerns.

❑ Yet fusion only takes place only at temperatures comparable to the center of the sun.

❑ So implementing fusion energy involves the development of techniques to create and confine the immensely hot,
ionized, "plasma" state of matter.

❑ This has proven to be a scientific grand challenge of great complexity.

Dr. Anupam Roy 61

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Plasma Physics

❑ Matter
❑ Solid
❑ Liquid
❑ Gas
❑ Plasma – The fourth state of matter
❑ Plasma consists of mostly ion/electrons, and has very high electrical conductivity. It is in the form of electrified gas
with the atoms dissociated into positive ions and negative electrons.
❑ The interactions between particles are long range (unlike collision interactions in ordinary gas particles). The
equilibrium velocity distribution is usually given by Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.

Dr. Anupam Roy 62

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Plasma Physics

❑ Definition of Plasma: A plasma is a quasi-neutral gas of charged and neutral particles which exhibits collective
behavior.
❑ By collective behavior, we mean that the motion of particles not only depends on the local conditions, but also on
the state of the plasma in remote as well.
❑ Ions and electrons interact:
❑ via short range atomic forces (due to collision)
❑ via long range electromagnetic forces (due to charges and currents)
❑ Long range nature of electromagnetic forces means that plasma can show collective behavior (oscillations,
instabilities, etc.)

Dr. Anupam Roy 63

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Plasma Physics
❑ Concept of temperature: Commonly measured in Kelvin or electronvolts (eV). [1 𝑒𝑉 = 11600 𝐾]
❑ This is a measure of the thermal kinetic energy per particle. High temperatures are usually needed to sustain
ionization, which is a defining feature of a plasma.
❑ The degree of plasma ionization is determined by the electron temperature relative to the ionization energy (and
more weakly by the density).
❑ In thermal equilibrium, the relationship is given by the Saha equation.
❑ At low temperatures, ions and electrons tend to recombine into bound states, atoms, and the plasma will
eventually become a gas.
❑ In most cases, the electrons and heavy plasma particles (ions and neutral atoms) separately have a relatively well-
defined temperature; that is, their energy distribution function is close to a Maxwellian even in the presence of
strong electric or magnetic fields. However, because of the large difference in mass between electrons and ions,
their temperatures may be different, sometimes significantly so.
Dr. Anupam Roy 64
 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Plasma Physics

❑ Saha equation: Tells the amount of ionization to be expected in a gas in

thermal equilibrium.

Dr. Anupam Roy 65

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Nuclear Physics
❑ Plasma Physics

❑ Debye Shielding
❑ Plasmas generally do not contain strong electric fields in their rest
frames. The shielding of an external electric field from the interior of a
plasma can be viewed as a result of high plasma conductivity: i.e., plasma
current generally flows freely enough to short out interior electric fields.
❑ However, it is more useful to consider the shielding as a dielectric
phenomena: i.e., it is the polarization of the plasma medium, and the
associated redistribution of space charge, which prevents penetration by
an external electric field.
❑ Not surprisingly, the length-scale associated with such shielding is the
Debye length.

Dr. Anupam Roy 66

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Plasma Physics
❑ Types of Plasma

❑ Industrial plasma
❑ Arc plasma
❑ Microwave plasma
❑ ECR plasma
❑ RF plasma
❑ Fusion plasma
❑ In addition to this, plasma can also be produced by shock wave.

Dr. Anupam Roy 67

 PH24101: Physics ([Link]. I)
Module 5 (Modern Physics)
Plasma Physics
❑ Applications of Plasma Physics

❑ Plasma as Fusion energy

❑ Semiconductor fabrication
❑ Plasma thruster in space craft
❑ Plasma TV for wide angle view
❑ Plasma pyrolysis
❑ Metallic coating on substrates
❑ Surface modification (For example, Nitriding of stainless steel)
❑ Plasma spraying, plasma polymerization, controlled thermo-nuclear fusion, MHD energy conversion, solid state
plasma
❑ Plasma for defense aircraft Dr. Anupam Roy 68