Eprille Jan G.

Espedido
2 CE-A

The Role of Structural Analysis as an Integral Part of Any Structural Engineering

Project

Structural analysis is one of the most crucial aspects of any structural engineering
venture. It is the process of subjecting a structure to the loads it is expected to bear,
including dead loads, live loads, wind, earthquakes, snow, and a myriad of other forces.
Structural analysis enables engineers to know what a given structure can withstand even
before it is built.

Before the construction of any structure such as buildings, bridges, or towers can
commence, engineers must understand how these structures will react to different types
of loads. Thus, it could be argued that structural analysis is the most important aspect of
structural engineering because it involves assessing these responses under specified
loads.

During analysis, shear forces, bending moments, axial loads, and torsion are
evaluated. The analysis also determines the size of beams, columns, slabs, and
foundations required to resist loads without failing.

Lastly, the analysis also helps to produce cost-effective designs. When doing
structural analysis, engineers prevent the construction of undersized or oversized
structures. Undersized structures may result in partial or total collapse of a building while
oversized structures lead to unnecessary use of construction materials such as concrete
and steel. Thus, analysis helps in producing designs that are safe, follow the
recommended standards, and also save money.

The Impact of Computers on Structural Analysis

Computers have revolutionized engineering. They have brought about a significant

change in almost all fields of engineering, and civil engineering is not an exception.
Decades ago, the structural analysis of buildings comprised of a number of calculations
by hand using slide rules and force diagrams. It would take days, sometimes even
months, for the computations to be finished. One mistake in the calculation would render
one’s previous efforts useless.
Now, with the help of such programs as ETABS, [Link], ANSYS, and many
others, an engineer can perform complex 3D modeling in a matter of minutes. Additionally,
by using a computer, one can carry out more accurate calculations regarding non-linear
material behavior, seismic response, wind loads, and other effects.

Moreover, instead of attempting several designs one after another and only picking
the first one that satisfies one’s conditions, one can go through the process of elimination
and find the optimal design with ease. Furthermore, when paired with such innovations
as BIM (Building Information Modeling), they enable contractors, architects, and
engineers to collaborate more efficiently and avoid clashes during the building’s
construction.

Finally, although computers have made the engineer’s job significantly easier, they
still require a human touch. After all, a computer is only as smart as its operator.
 History of Structural Analysis and Design

Ancient Civilizations: Thousands of years ago, builders of Egypt, Greece, and Rome did
not have the luxury of design equations or design charts. Theirs was a world of experience
and trial and error, from which the Roman styles and innovations emerged, allowing the
Romans to carry out such engineering feats as constructing aqueducts, the Colosseum,
and other structures with huge stone blocks that have resisted the test of time.

17th-18th Century (The Birth of Science): Statics and dynamics, the study of forces acting
on objects, began to take shape as a science, as is testified by the work of such figures
as Galileo, who investigated the bending of beams, Robert Hook, who formulated the law
of elasticity, and Newton, who discovered the basic principles of motion and developed
the laws governing the equilibrium and motion of objects. These principles and laws were
later expanded by Leonhard Euler, who derived the formula for determining the buckling
point of a column.

19th Century (The Industrial Revolution): The advent of new construction materials and
structures, such as structural steel and reinforced concrete, led to the need for new
approaches to calculating stresses in structures, such as Castigliano’s theorem and
Mohr-Coulomb equations, as well as Maxwell’s method of solving statically indeterminate
systems.

20th Century to Present: The development of matrix methods and finite element methods
made it possible to break down complex systems into simple equations for solution on
computers. This allowed engineers to develop and test constructions for the first time in
their lives.

Design Code Specifications for Different Types of Structural Loads

In order to establish public safety, the structural codes (NSCP or ACI) specify certain
criteria that must be satisfied by structures subjected to different types of loads.

• Dead Load (DL): This refers to the weight of the structure itself, including slab,
beams, columns, permanent walls, floorings, and equipment.
• Live Load (LL): This is the load due to temporary or movable objects such as
occupants, furniture, movable partitions, and vehicles.
• Wind Load (WL): Wind load is often imposed on the structure due to wind
pressures acting on the surfaces of the building. The wind load criteria are usually
more stringent for high-rise buildings and structures exposed to frequent typhoons
and high winds.
• Earthquake / Seismic Load (EL): This is the ground acceleration that causes
inertia forces in structures. The structure should be designed to have sufficient
ductility to withstand seismic disturbances without collapsing.
• Snow & Ice Load (SL): This is a load caused by snow accumulation on the roof,
which is common for structures subjected to very cold climates.
• Hydrostatic & Flood Loads: These are the pressures exerted by water on
basement walls due to ground water, and on the structure due to flood waters.
• Thermal & Shrinkage Loads: These are internal stresses that are developed due
to the shortening of concrete members caused by shrinkage of concrete, and
expansion and contraction of structural members due to temperature changes.
• Load Combinations: Since structures are often subjected to more than a type of
load, the design codes specify certain load combinations (e.g. 1.2DL + 1.6LL) that
must be considered for safety.
 Greatest Structures Ever Built Around the World

Burj Khalifa skyscraper (Dubai, UAE): This skyscraper’s height of 828 meters, together
with its innovative design of Y-shaped “buttressed core” provide stability against the
strong winds at such altitude and massive pressure from the ground below.

Great Pyramid of Giza (Egypt): An ancient masterpiece, built with precision, using
millions of large rocky blocks, designed to hold its shape even when exerting a enormous
pressure onto the underlying sand.

Eiffel Tower (Paris): Completed in 1889, the Iron tower demonstrated exceptional ability
to resist strong winds, thus ensuring the safety and well-being of the visitors who reach
more than 300 meters above the ground in one of the fastest lifts in the world.

Golden Gate Bridge (San Francisco): Being a symbol of the city, this particular
suspension bridge was made to resist the strong waves of the ocean, an intense wind
activity and powerful earthquakes, which are common in the area.