CLASS 12 MATHEMATICS — CHAPTER 3

Complete Master Study Guide & Quick Revision Notes: MATRICES

Target Exam: CBSE / State Boards / JEE Main | Subject: Mathematics | Coverage: Complete Theory, Proofs, Formulas
& Solved Examples

1. Introduction to Matrices

A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions. The numbers or functions are called the elements or the
entries of the matrix. We denote matrices by capital letters such as A, B, C, X, Y, etc.

Definition: An array of m × n numbers arranged along m horizontal lines (called rows) and n vertical lines (called
columns) is bounded by square brackets [ ] or parentheses ( ) and is called a matrix of order m × n.

1.1 General Representation of a Matrix

A matrix A of order m × n is written in expanded form as:

a11 a12 a13 ... a1n

a21 a22 a23 ... a2n

A= a31 a32 a33 ... a3n m×n

: : : ... :
am1 am2 am3 ... amn

In compact form, we write: A = [aij]m × n, where 1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

• i represents the row index (which row the element is in).

• j represents the column index (which column the element is in).
• aij is the element present in the i-th row and j-th column.

• The total number of elements in an m × n matrix is equal to m · n.

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 EXAMPLE 1: CONSTRUCTING A MATRIX

Construct a 3 × 2 matrix A = [aij] whose elements are given by aij = ½ |i - 3j|.

Solution: Since A is of order 3 × 2, it has 3 rows and 2 columns:

a11 a12

A= a21 a22

a31 a32

Calculating each entry:

• a11 = ½ |1 - 3(1)| = ½ |-2| = 1

• a12 = ½ |1 - 3(2)| = ½ |-5| = 5/2

• a21 = ½ |2 - 3(1)| = ½ |-1| = 1/2

• a22 = ½ |2 - 3(2)| = ½ |-4| = 2

• a31 = ½ |3 - 3(1)| = ½ |0| = 0

• a32 = ½ |3 - 3(2)| = ½ |-3| = 3/2

Hence, the required matrix is:

1 5/2
A= 1/2 2
0 3/2

2. Types of Matrices

Matrices are classified into various types based on their order, structure, and element values.

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 Type of Matrix Mathematical Condition / Description Example

Row Matrix A matrix having only one row (m = 1). Order is 1 × n. [1 -2 5]1 × 3

Column Matrix A matrix having only one column (n = 1). Order is m × 1. 0 3×1

-1

1 2
Square Matrix Number of rows equals number of columns (m = n). Said to be of order n. 2×2
3 4

3 0 0
A square matrix in which all non-diagonal elements are zero (aij = 0 for i ≠
Diagonal Matrix 0 -1 0
j).
0 0 5

c 0 0
A diagonal matrix in which all diagonal elements are equal (aij = k for i = j,
Scalar Matrix 0 c 0
aij = 0 for i ≠ j).

0 0 c

1 0 0

A scalar matrix whose diagonal entries are all 1 (aij = 1 for i = j, aij = 0 for 0 1 0
Identity Matrix (I)
i ≠ j).
0 0 1

(I3)

0 0
Zero / Null Matrix
A matrix whose all elements are zero (aij = 0 for all i, j).
(O)
0 0

2.1 Diagonal Elements and Principal Diagonal

In a square matrix A = [aij]n × n, the elements a11, a22, a33, ..., ann are called the diagonal elements. The line along which
these elements lie is called the principal diagonal or main diagonal.

Trace of a Matrix: The sum of all diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called the Trace of A, denoted by Tr(A).

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 Tr(A) = a11 + a22 + a33 + ... + ann = ∑i=1n aii

2.2 Equality of Matrices

Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal (A = B) if and only if:

1. They are of the same order.

2. Each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B, i.e., aij = bij for all i and j.

EXAMPLE 2: EQUALITY OF MATRICES

Find the values of x, y, z, and a if:

x+3 z+4 2y - 7 0 6 3y - 2
=
-6 a-1 0 -6 -3 2c + 2

Equating corresponding elements:

• x + 3 = 0 ⇒ x = -3
•z+4=6⇒z=2
• 2y - 7 = 3y - 2 ⇒ y = -5
• a - 1 = -3 ⇒ a = -2
• 0 = 2c + 2 ⇒ c = -1

3. Matrix Operations

3.1 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

Let A = [aij]m × n and B = [bij]m × n be two matrices of the same order.

• The sum A + B is defined as a matrix C = [cij]m × n where cij = aij + bij for all i, j.

• The difference A - B is defined as A + (-1)B where dij = aij - bij.

CRITICAL RULE: Matrix addition and subtraction are defined ONLY when both matrices have the exact same order.
If orders differ, A + B is undefined.

Properties of Matrix Addition:

1. Commutative Law: A + B = B + A
2. Associative Law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
3. Existence of Additive Identity: Let O be the zero matrix of order m × n. Then A + O = O + A = A. O is the additive
identity.
4. Existence of Additive Inverse: For any matrix A, there exists -A = [-aij] such that A + (-A) = (-A) + A = O. Here, -A
is the additive inverse of A.

Class 12 Mathematics — Chapter 3: Matrices Page 4 of 14

 5. Cancellation Law:
◦ Left cancellation: A + B = A + C ⇒ B = C
◦ Right cancellation: B + A = C + A ⇒ B = C

3.2 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar

If A = [aij]m × n is a matrix and k is a scalar (a real or complex number), then kA is the matrix obtained by multiplying every
element of A by k:

kA = k [aij]m × n = [k · aij]m × n

Properties of Scalar Multiplication:

Let k and l be scalars, and A, B be matrices of order m × n:

1. k(A + B) = kA + kB
2. (k + l)A = kA + lA
3. k(lA) = (kl)A = l(kA)
4. (-k)A = -(kA) = k(-A)
5. 1 · A = A and (-1) · A = -A

3.3 Multiplication of Matrices

The product of two matrices A and B is defined if and only if the number of columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B.

Order Rule: If A is of order m × n and B is of order n × p, then the product AB exists and will have order m × p.

Am × n · Bn × p = Cm × p

Method of Multiplication (Row-by-Column Rule):

Let A = [aij]m × n and B = [bjk]n × p. The element cik of the product matrix C = AB is obtained by taking the i-th row of A and
the k-th column of B, multiplying corresponding entries, and summing them up:

cik = ai1b1k + ai2b2k + ai3b3k + ... + ainbnk = ∑j=1n aij bjk

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 EXAMPLE 3: MATRIX MULTIPLICATION STEP-BY-STEP

Find AB if:

2 3
1 -2 3
A= 2×3
and B = 4 5 3×2
0 4 5
2 1

Check Order A is 2 × 3, B is 3 × 2. Inner dimensions match (3 = 3). Product AB will be of order 2 × 2.

Calculating entries:

• c11 = (1)(2) + (-2)(4) + (3)(2) = 2 - 8 + 6 = 0

• c12 = (1)(3) + (-2)(5) + (3)(1) = 3 - 10 + 3 = -4

• c21 = (0)(2) + (4)(4) + (5)(2) = 0 + 16 + 10 = 26

• c22 = (0)(3) + (4)(5) + (5)(1) = 0 + 20 + 5 = 25

0 -4
AB =
26 25

Properties of Matrix Multiplication:

1. Non-Commutative Property: In general, AB ≠ BA. Even if both AB and BA are defined, they may have different
orders or different elements.
2. Associative Law: (AB)C = A(BC) whenever both sides are defined.
3. Distributive Law:
◦ A(B + C) = AB + AC
◦ (A + B)C = AC + BC

4. Existence of Multiplicative Identity: For every square matrix A of order n, there exists an identity matrix In such
that A · I = I · A = A.
5. Zero Product Property Warning: If AB = O, it does NOT imply that A = O or B = O. Two non-zero matrices can
multiply to give a zero matrix.

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 EXAMPLE 4: NON-ZERO PRODUCT YIELDING ZERO MATRIX

Let:

0 -1 3 5
A= and B =
0 2 0 0

Both A ≠ O and B ≠ O. Computing AB:

0(3) + (-1)(0) 0(5) + (-1)(0) 0 0

AB = = =O
0(3) + 2(0) 0(5) + 2(0) 0 0

4. Positive Integral Powers of a Matrix

For a square matrix A, we define powers as:

• A1 = A
• A2 = A · A
• A3 = A2 · A = A · A2
• An+1 = An · A for any positive integer n
• A0 = I (where I is the identity matrix of same order)

IMPORTANT NOTE ON ALGEBRAIC IDENTITIES FOR MATRICES:

For matrices A and B:

(A + B)2 = (A + B)(A + B) = A2 + AB + BA + B2

The expansion simplifies to A2 + 2AB + B2 ONLY IF AB = BA (i.e., matrices commute).

5. Transpose of a Matrix

If A = [aij]m × n is any matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of
A. It is denoted by A′ or AT.

If A = [aij]m × n, then AT = [aji]n × m.

In other words, row i of A becomes column i of AT.

5.1 Properties of Transpose of a Matrix

For any matrices A and B of suitable orders:

1. (AT)T = A

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 2. (kA)T = k AT (where k is any scalar)
3. (A + B)T = AT + BT
4. Reversal Law of Transpose: (AB)T = BT AT
5. Generalization: (A A A ... A )T = A T ... A T A T A T
1 2 3 n n 3 2 1

EXAMPLE 5: VERIFICATION OF REVERSAL LAW (AB)ᵀ = Bᵀ Aᵀ

If A =

1
-4 and B = [1 2 1], verify that (AB)T = BT AT.

Step 1: Compute AB

1 1 2 1
AB = -4 3 × 1 [1 2 1]1 × 3 = -4 -8 -4 3×3
3 3 6 3

Step 2: Take (AB)ᵀ

1 -4 3
(AB)T = 2 -8 6
1 -4 3

Step 3: Compute Bᵀ Aᵀ

1
BT = 2 , AT = [1 -4 3]
1

1 1 -4 3
BT AT = 2 [1 -4 3] = 2 -8 6
1 1 -4 3

Thus, (AB)T = BT AT is verified.

6. Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices

Symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices apply only to square matrices.

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6.1 Symmetric Matrix

A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be symmetric if AT = A.

That is, aij = aji for all possible values of i and j.

a h g a h g
Example: A = h b f ⇒ AT = h b f =A
g f c g f c

6.2 Skew-Symmetric Matrix

A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be skew-symmetric if AT = -A.

That is, aij = -aji for all possible values of i and j.

CRUCIAL PROPERTY OF SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRICES:

All diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are ZERO.
Proof: For diagonal elements, i = j. So aii = -aii ⇒ 2aii = 0 ⇒ aii = 0.

0 e f 0 -e -f
T
Example: B = -e 0 g ⇒ B = e 0 -g = -B
-f -g 0 f g 0

6.3 Fundamental Theorems on Symmetric & Skew-Symmetric Matrices

Theorem 1: For any square matrix A with real number entries:

• A + AT is a symmetric matrix.
• A - AT is a skew-symmetric matrix.

Proof for A + AT: Let P = A + AT. Then PT = (A + AT)T = AT + (AT)T = AT + A = A + AT = P. Hence P is symmetric.

Proof for A - AT: Let Q = A - AT. Then QT = (A - AT)T = AT - (AT)T = AT - A = -(A - AT) = -Q. Hence Q is skew-
symmetric.

Theorem 2 (Decomposition Theorem): Any square matrix A can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a symmetric
matrix and a skew-symmetric matrix:

A = ½ (A + AT) + ½ (A - AT)

Where:
• P = ½ (A + AT) is the Symmetric component.
• Q = ½ (A - AT) is the Skew-Symmetric component.

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 EXAMPLE 6: EXPRESSING A MATRIX AS SUM OF SYMMETRIC & SKEW-SYMMETRIC
MATRICES

Express A =

3 5
as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.
1 -1

Given A =

3 5 3 1
, its transpose is AT = .
1 -1 5 -1

Step 1: Compute Symmetric Part P

6 6 3 3
P = ½ (A + AT) = ½ =
6 -2 3 -1

Check: PT = P (Symmetric).

Step 2: Compute Skew-Symmetric Part Q

0 4 0 2
Q = ½ (A - AT) = ½ =
-4 0 -2 0

Check: QT = -Q (Skew-symmetric).

Step 3: Verification

3 3 0 2 3 5
P+Q= + = =A
3 -1 -2 0 1 -1

7. Elementary Operations (Transformations) of a Matrix

There are 6 elementary operations on a matrix: 3 due to rows and 3 due to columns.

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 Column
Operation Row Transformation
Transformation Description
Type Symbol
Symbol

1. Interchange Ri ↔ R j Ci ↔ C j Interchanging the i-th and j-th rows/columns.

Multiplying all elements of i-th row/column by a

2. Scalar Scaling Ri → k Ri (k ≠ 0) Ci → k Ci (k ≠ 0)
non-zero constant k.

Adding to the elements of i-th row/column,

3. Linear
Ri → Ri + k Rj Ci → Ci + k Cj corresponding elements of j-th row/column
Combination
multiplied by k.

8. Invertible Matrices and Matrix Inverse

8.1 Definition of Invertible Matrix

If A is a square matrix of order n, and if there exists another square matrix B of the same order n such that:

A B = B A = In

then B is called the inverse matrix of A and is denoted by A-1. In this case, A is said to be invertible.

• A rectangular matrix cannot have an inverse (because AB and BA cannot both be defined and equal to identity matrices of
same order).
• If B is the inverse of A, then A is also the inverse of B (i.e., (A-1)-1 = A).

8.2 Key Theorems on Inverses

Theorem 3 (Uniqueness of Inverse): Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.

Proof: Let A be a square matrix of order n. Suppose B and C are two inverses of A.

Since B is inverse of A: AB = BA = I.

Since C is inverse of A: AC = CA = I.

Now, B = B · I = B(AC) = (BA)C = I · C = C.

Hence, B = C, proving the inverse is unique.

Theorem 4 (Reversal Law for Inverses): If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB) is also
invertible and:

(AB)-1 = B-1 A-1

Proof: By definition of inverse, (AB)(AB)-1 = I.

Pre-multiplying both sides by A-1:

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 A-1 (AB) (AB)-1 = A-1 I
(A-1 A) B (AB)-1 = A-1
I · B (AB)-1 = A-1 ⇒ B (AB)-1 = A-1

Pre-multiplying both sides by B-1:

B-1 B (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1

I (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1 ⇒ (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1

8.3 Inverse Using Elementary Operations

To find A-1 using Elementary Row Operations:

1. Write A = I A.
2. Apply a sequence of elementary row operations simultaneously to A on the LHS and to I on the RHS.
3. Continue until the LHS matrix A is transformed into I.
4. The equation will look like I = B A. The resulting matrix B is A-1.

NON-EXISTENCE CONDITION: If during the elementary row/column operations on A = I A, all elements of one or
more rows (or columns) on the LHS become zero, then A-1 does not exist (matrix is singular).

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 EXAMPLE 7: FINDING INVERSE VIA ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS

Find the inverse of A =

1 2
using elementary row operations.
2 -1

Set up A = I A:

1 2 1 0
= A
2 -1 0 1

Step 1 Apply R2 → R2 - 2 R1:

1 2 1 0
= A
0 -5 -2 1

Step 2 Apply R2 → -⅕ R2:

1 2 1 0
= A
0 1 2/5 -1/5

Step 3 Apply R1 → R1 - 2 R2:

1 0 1/5 2/5
= A
0 1 2/5 -1/5

Therefore, A-1 =

1/5 2/5 1 2
=⅕ .
2/5 -1/5 2 -1

Class 12 Mathematics — Chapter 3: Matrices Page 13 of 14

9. Comprehensive Formula Cheat Sheet & Quick Summary

Concept / Formula Mathematical Statement / Expression

Matrix Order m × n (m rows, n columns; Total elements = mn)

Trace of Square Matrix Tr(A) = ∑ aii = a11 + a22 + ... + ann

Matrix Addition Condition Same order required: [aij]m×n + [bij]m×n = [aij + bij]m×n

Matrix Multiplication Condition Am × n · Bn × p = Cm × p (Columns of A = Rows of B)

• (AT)T = A • (kA)T = k AT
Transpose Rules
• (A + B)T = AT + BT • (AB)T = BT AT

Symmetric Matrix AT = A (i.e., aij = aji)

Skew-Symmetric Matrix AT = -A (i.e., aij = -aji and diagonal elements aii = 0)

Matrix Expressed as Symm + Skew-Symm A = ½ (A + AT) + ½ (A - AT)

Inverse Definition A A-1 = A-1 A = I (Square matrices only)

Reversal Law of Inverses (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1

10. Common Exam Pitfalls & Important Tips

• Matrix Multiplication is Non-Commutative: Never assume AB = BA. Always preserve order when expanding
matrix expressions!
• No Division by Matrix: Expressions like A / B are strictly undefined in matrix algebra. Use A B-1 or B-1 A instead.
• Zero Diagonal in Skew-Symmetric: In Board Exam questions, if a matrix is given as skew-symmetric, immediately
check/apply that all principal diagonal entries are zero (aii = 0).

• Elementary Operations Consistency: If using Row operations to find A-1, use ONLY Row operations throughout
the problem. Do not mix row and column operations in the same reduction!

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