Chapter 3

WAVES
3 Questions
1. Waves

 (1) Properties of waves

Wave motion, medium, wave source, transverse and longitudinal waves
 (2) Propagation of waves and how to express it
Wave form, amplitude, period, frequency, wave length, wave velocity,
sinusoidal wave, phase, energy of wave
 (3) Superposition principle and Huygens’ principle
Superposition principle, interference, standing wave, Huygens’ principle,
law of reflection, law of refraction, diffraction
(1) Properties of waves
 Wave Motion: The transfer of energy through a medium without the physical
transfer of the medium itself. Waves can be classified into various types, such as
mechanical waves (which require a medium for propagation) and
electromagnetic waves (which can propagate through a vacuum).
 Medium: The material or substance through which a wave travels.
 Wave Source: The origin or starting point of a wave. This could be a vibrating
object, such as a tuning fork for sound waves, or a disturbance in a body of water
for water waves.
 Transverse Waves: Waves in which the particles of the medium move
perpendicular (at right angles) to the direction of wave propagation. The motion
of the particles is in an up-and-down or side-to-side motion. Examples include
light waves and waves on a string.
 Longitudinal Waves: Waves in which the particles of the medium move parallel to
the direction of wave propagation. The motion of the particles is back-and-forth
along the direction of the wave. Sound waves in air or waves in a coiled spring
are examples of longitudinal waves.
 (2) Propagation of waves and how to express it
 Waveform: The shape, pattern, or graphical representation depicting
the disturbance or oscillation of a wave over time or space. It shows
how the magnitude of the wave changes over a specific period.
 Amplitude: The maximum magnitude or displacement of a wave
from its equilibrium position. For a transverse wave, it's the maximum
height from the baseline to the crest (or depth to trough). In a
longitudinal wave, it's the maximum compression or rarefaction from
the equilibrium.
 Period: The time taken for one complete cycle of a wave to pass a
certain point. It's the duration required for a wave to repeat its
pattern or oscillation. It's the inverse of the frequency.
 Frequency: The number of complete cycles of a wave passing
through a point in a given period, usually per second. It’s measured
in hertz (Hz) and is the inverse of the period.
 Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive points
exhibiting similar phases on a wave, for instance, two crests or two
troughs. It's the spatial length over which one cycle of the wave
occurs.
 Wave Velocity: The speed at which a wave propagates through a
medium. It's calculated as the product of the wavelength and
frequency.
(2) Propagation of waves
and how to express it(cont.)

 Sinusoidal Wave: A type of wave that

follows a sinusoidal pattern, represented by
a sine or cosine function. It showcases
smooth, repetitive oscillations.
 Phase: The position or relative stage of a
point in a wave cycle concerning a
reference point. It's often measured in
degrees or radians and describes the
position of the wave cycle.
 Energy of Wave: The measure of the energy
transmitted by a wave, often proportional
to its amplitude squared. Higher amplitudes
generally indicate higher energy carried by
the wave.
Travelling Wave (One dimensional)

 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
2𝜋
 𝑘= , 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜆

 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡, 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒, 𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ,

𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜙 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡(𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0), 𝑘 =
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟(ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒), 𝜔 =
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
 (3) Superposition
principle and Huygens’
principle
 Superposition Principle: This principle states that when
two or more waves interact in a given medium, the
resulting displacement at any point is the algebraic sum
of the individual wave displacements at that point. It
applies to waves of all types, allowing them to combine
and form new waves.
 Interference: Interference occurs when two or more
waves overlap in space and time. Constructive
interference happens when waves combine to form a
resultant wave with a larger amplitude, while
destructive interference occurs when waves combine
to reduce the overall amplitude at a point.
 Standing Wave: A standing wave is formed by the
interference of two identical waves traveling in
opposite directions in the same medium. This results in
certain points (nodes and antinodes) along the
medium where the wave appears to be standing still,
while other points experience maximum displacement.
(3) Superposition principle and
Huygens’ principle(cont.)
 Huygens’ principle: This principle states that each point on a
wavefront serves as a source of secondary wavelets that propagate
outward, and the new wavefront is the envelope tangent to these
secondary wavelets. It is used to explain wave propagation and the
behaviour of light in terms of secondary wavelets.
 Law of Refraction(Snell's Law): When light waves change direction
when they pass from one medium to another with different optical
densities, the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and
refraction is equal to the ratio of the velocities of light in the two
media.
 Diffraction: Diffraction is the bending or spreading of waves as they
encounter an obstacle or pass through an aperture. It occurs when
waves encounter an obstruction or aperture that's comparable in size
to their wavelength. Diffraction allows waves to spread out and
produce patterns beyond obstacles or through openings.
2. Sound

 (1)Properties and propagation of sound

Velocity of sound, reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference of
sound, beat
 (2) Vibrations of sounding body and resonance
Vibration of string, vibration of air column, resonance
 (3) Doppler effect
Doppler effect, case of moving sound source, case of moving observer,
case of moving sound source and moving observer
 (1)Properties and propagation of
sound
 Velocity of Sound: The speed at which sound waves travel through a medium. The velocity
of sound depends on the properties of the medium through which it travels. In air at room
temperature, sound travels at approximately 343 meters per second (m/s).
 Reflection of Sound: The bouncing back of sound waves when they encounter a surface
that doesn’t absorb the waves entirely. For instance, an echo is a result of sound waves
reflecting off surfaces and returning to the listener's ears.
 Refraction of Sound: The change in the direction of sound waves as they pass from one
medium to another with varying properties, such as density or temperature. This change in
direction is due to the variation in the speed of sound in different mediums.
 Diffraction of Sound: The bending or spreading out of sound waves as they encounter
obstacles or pass through openings. When sound waves encounter an edge or an
obstacle comparable in size to their wavelength, they diffract around it, allowing sound to
spread into the regions behind obstacles.
 Interference of Sound: The combination of sound waves to produce a resultant wave when
they overlap in space. Constructive interference occurs when waves combine to create a
wave with a larger amplitude, while destructive interference occurs when waves cancel
each other out, reducing the amplitude.
 Beat: A phenomenon that arises when two sound waves of slightly different frequencies
are heard together. As they overlap, they create a fluctuating sound intensity with a
periodic variation in loudness. This fluctuation is perceived as a "beat" or a throbbing sound.
 (2) Vibrations of sounding
body and resonance

 Vibration of String: In musical instruments like guitars, violins, or

pianos, sound is produced by the vibration of strings. When a
string is plucked or struck, it vibrates, creating sound waves. The
frequency of these vibrations determines the pitch of the sound
produced.
 Vibration of Air Column: In wind instruments like flutes, clarinets,
or trumpets, sound is produced by the vibration of an air column.
When air is blown across an opening or through a tube, it
creates vibrations within the column of air, producing sound
waves. The length of the air column determines the pitch of the
produced sound.
 Resonance: Resonance occurs when an object is forced to
vibrate at its natural frequency or a harmonic frequency. When
an external force matches the natural frequency of an object,
the amplitude of its vibrations increases significantly. In the
context of sound, resonance amplifies sound waves, leading to
louder or clearer sound production. Resonance is vital in musical
instruments and acoustic systems to amplify sound or maintain
specific frequencies.
(3) Doppler effect

 Doppler effect: The Doppler effect describes the perceived change in frequency or
wavelength of a wave as observed by an observer moving relative to the wave source.
 Case of Moving Sound Source: When the source of sound is in motion relative to an observer,
the frequency of the sound waves changes. If the source is moving towards the observer, the
perceived frequency is higher than the emitted frequency. As the source moves away from
the observer, the perceived frequency becomes lower than the emitted frequency. This shift
in frequency is due to the compression or expansion of the sound waves as the source moves,
altering the wavelength observed by the listener.
 Case of Moving Observer: If the observer is moving towards the stationary sound source, the
perceived frequency is higher than the emitted frequency. When the observer moves away
from the stationary source, the perceived frequency is lower than the emitted frequency.
Similar to the case of the moving source, the relative motion causes changes in the frequency
observed by the moving observer.
 Case of Moving Sound Source and Moving Observer: When both the sound source and the
observer are in motion relative to each other, the observed frequency changes are
compounded. The relative velocities of both the source and the observer determine the net
perceived frequency, leading to more complex frequency shifts based on their combined
motion.
3. Light

 (1) Properties of light

Visible light, white light, monochromatic light, light and color, spectrum,
dispersion, polarization
 (2) Propagation of light
Velocity of light, reflection and refraction of light, total reflection, scattering
of light, lenses, spherical mirror
 (3) Diffraction and interference of light
Diffraction, interference, Young’s experiment, diffraction grating, thin-film
interference, air wedge interference
 (1) Properties of light
 Visible Light: The part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to
the human eye. It encompasses the range of wavelengths roughly
between 400 to 700 nanometers (nm). Colors in the visible spectrum
include red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
 White Light: A combination of all the colors in the visible spectrum. When
white light passes through a prism or dispersing medium, it separates into
its constituent colors, creating a spectrum.
 Monochromatic Light: Light composed of a single wavelength or color.
It consists of a narrow range of wavelengths, resulting in light of a
specific color.
 Light and Color: Color is a visual perception created by the human eye's
interpretation of different wavelengths of light. The color of an object is
determined by the wavelengths of light it reflects or emits. Different
wavelengths correspond to different colors.
 Spectrum: The distribution of wavelengths or frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by a particular
substance. In the context of visible light, the spectrum represents the
range of colors seen when white light is dispersed.
 (1) Properties of light(cont.)

 Dispersion: The separation of light

into its component colors due to
variations in the refractive index for
different wavelengths. When white
light passes through a medium like a
prism, it disperses, creating a
spectrum by bending different
wavelengths of light by different
amounts.
 Polarization: The orientation of the
oscillations of electromagnetic
waves in a specific direction.
Polarized light waves vibrate
predominantly in one plane.
Polarization can be achieved by
filtering light waves to allow only
waves oscillating in a specific
direction to pass through.
 (2) Propagation of light
 Velocity of Light: The speed at which light travels through a vacuum. In a vacuum, light travels at approximately 3x108 m/s

 Reflection and Refraction of Light:

 Reflection: The change in direction of light rays when they bounce off a surface, following the law of reflection where the angle of incidence equals
the angle of reflection.

 Refraction: The bending of light rays as they pass from one medium to another with different optical densities, caused by a change in the speed of
light. This bending is governed by Snell's Law.

 Total Reflection: Occurs when light traveling in a medium encounters a boundary with another medium where the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle. In this case, all the light is reflected back into the original medium, without refraction into the second medium.

 Scattering of Light: The redirection of light waves in various directions when they encounter particles or irregularities in a medium, causing the light to be
diffused or spread out. This phenomenon contributes to effects like the blue sky and the reddening of the sun during sunset.
 (2) Propagation of light(cont.)

 Lenses: Optical elements made of

transparent material, such as glass or
plastic, that can refract light to converge
or diverge light rays. Lenses are used in
optics to focus or redirect light for various
purposes, such as in cameras,
microscopes, or eyeglasses.
 Spherical Mirror: A mirror whose reflecting
surface is part of a sphere. There are two
types: concave and convex. Concave
mirrors converge light rays, while convex
mirrors diverge light rays. They are used in
various optical devices, from telescopes
to makeup mirrors.
 (3) Diffraction and interference of light

 Diffraction: The bending or spreading out of light waves as they encounter an obstacle or pass
through an aperture (opening) that is comparable in size to the wavelength of light. It causes the
light to spread into regions beyond the obstacle or aperture, resulting in patterns of light and dark
fringes.
 Interference: The combination of two or more coherent (having a constant phase difference) light
waves to produce a resultant wave that can be either reinforced (constructive interference) or
canceled out (destructive interference). Interference occurs when waves meet at a point in space,
leading to a change in the overall intensity of the light.
 Young’s Experiment: A classic experiment demonstrating interference patterns of light. It involves a
double-slit setup where light passes through two closely spaced slits and produces an interference
pattern on a screen placed behind the slits. This experiment illustrates the wave nature of light.
 (3) Diffraction and interference of
light(cont.)
 Diffraction Grating: A device consisting of a
large number of closely spaced parallel slits or
lines that cause diffraction and interference of
light waves passing through them. Diffraction
gratings are used to disperse light into its
component wavelengths, creating spectra for
analysis or measurement.
 Thin-Film Interference: A type of interference
caused by the reflection and interference of
light waves between two closely spaced
surfaces of a thin film. This phenomenon
produces colors due to constructive and
destructive interference of certain wavelengths,
depending on the thickness of the film and the
refractive index of the material.
 Air Wedge Interference: A type of interference
that occurs between two nearly flat surfaces,
typically formed by a thin film of air between
them. The air wedge causes the reflection of
light and interference, leading to patterns of
light and dark fringes.
 Important Equations
λ 1
 Velocity of wave: v = fλ = (f = )
𝑻 𝑇
 Interference: |𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐 |= mλ (m = 0,1,2,…)
𝟏
|𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐 |= (m + )λ (m = 0,1,2,…)
𝟐
 Beat frequency: N = |𝒇𝟏 − 𝒇𝟐 |
 Law of Refraction:
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 𝒏 𝝀 𝒗
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟐
= 𝒏𝟐 = 𝝀𝟏 = 𝒗𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝑭
 Speed of transverse waves of string : v =
𝝆
𝑽±𝒗𝟐
 Doppler Effect: f = 𝒇𝟎
𝑽±𝒗𝟏

Where V = speed of sound

𝒇𝟎 = frequency of sound (from source)
𝒗𝟏 = velocity of sound source (+ when moving away from observer, - when moving towards observer)
𝒗𝟐 = velocity of observer (+ when moving towards source, - when moving away from source)