Network Theorems

Current Sources
The current source is described as the dual of the voltage
source. Just as a battery provides a fixed voltage to a
network, a current source establishes a fixed current in the
branch where it is located. Further, the current through a
battery is a function of the network to which it is applied,
just as the voltage across a current source is a function of
the connected network. The term dual is applied to any two
elements in which the traits of one variable can be
interchanged with the traits of another. This is certainly true
for the current and voltage of the two types of sources.

The symbol for a current source appears in Figure 1(a). The

arrow indicates the direction in which it is supplying current
Figure 1: Introducing the current
to the branch where it is located. The result is a current source symbol.
equal to the source current through the series resistor. In
Fig. 1(b), we find that the voltage across a current source is determined by the polarity of the
voltage drop caused by the current source. For single-source networks, it always has the polarity
of Fig. 1(b), but for multisource networks it can have either polarity. In general, therefore,

A current source determines the direction and magnitude of the current in the branch where it is
located.
Furthermore,

The magnitude and the polarity of the voltage across a current source are each a function of the
network to which the voltage is applied.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 1: Find the source voltage, the voltage V1, and
current I1 for the circuit in Fig. 2.
Solution:
Since the current source establishes the current in the
branch in which it is located, the current I1 must equal I,
and Figure 2.

𝐼1 = 𝐼 = 10 𝑚𝐴
The voltage across R1 is then determined by Ohm’s law:

𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 = (20 𝑚𝐴)(20Ω) = 200 𝑉

Since resistor R1 and the current source are in parallel, the voltage across each must be the same,
and
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 = 200𝑉
with the polarity shown.

Problem 2: Determine the current I1 and the voltage

Vs for the network in Fig. 3.
Solution:
Using the current divider rule:
𝑅𝑇 𝑅2 1Ω
𝐼1 = 𝐼= 𝐼= × (6𝐴) = 2𝐴
𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 1Ω + 2Ω
The voltage V1:
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 = (2𝐴)(2Ω) = 4𝑉
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage rule to determine Vs: Figure 3.

𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 + 20𝑉 = 4𝑉 + 20𝑉 = 24𝑉

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Nodal Analysis
Nodal analysis is based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL). It provides a general procedure for
analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables. Choosing node voltages instead of
element voltages as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the number of equations one must
solve simultaneously.

Procedure

1. Identify the total number of nodes within the network.

2. One node is taken as a reference node, and assign the voltage at each node like V1, V2, and
so on.
3. Develop the Kirchhoff’s current law equation for each non-reference node. Assume that
all unknown currents leave the node for each application of Kirchhoff’s current law.
4. Solve the KCL equations to get the nodal voltages.

Note:

• Leaving current is positive.

• Entering current is negative.
• Node voltage is highest in its’ own node equation.

Problem 3: Determine the node voltages for the network in Fig 4. And calculate the current flow
through 6 Ω and 12 Ω resistor.

Figure 4.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Solution:

Figure 5: (a) Network with assigned nodes, (b) Applying KCL to the node V1.
Applying KCL at node V1
𝑉1 − 24 𝑉1 − 0
+ −1=0
6 12
2 𝑉1 − 48 + 𝑉1 − 12
𝑂𝑟, =0
12
𝑂𝑟, 3𝑉1 − 60 = 0
𝑂𝑟, 𝑉1 = 20 𝑉
The currents I1 and I2 can then be determined using the preceding equations:
𝑉1 − 𝐸 20 𝑉 − 24 𝑉 −4 𝑉
𝐼1 = = = = −0.67 𝐴
𝑅1 6Ω 6Ω
And,
𝑉1 − 0 20 𝑉 − 0 𝑉 20 𝑉
𝐼2 = = = = 1.67 𝐴
𝑅2 12 Ω 12 Ω

Problem 4: Determine the current through 10 Ω

resistor using nodal analysis.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: 0.728 A

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 5: Determine the node voltages for the network in Fig 6. And calculate the current flow
through 8 Ω, 4 Ω and 10 Ω resistor.

Figure 6.
Solution:

Apply KCL at node V1

𝑉1 − 64 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
+ +2=0
8 4
𝑉1 − 64 + 2𝑉1 − 2𝑉2 + 16
𝑂𝑟, =0
8
𝑂𝑟, 3𝑉1 − 2𝑉2 − 48 = 0 ……………….(1)
Apply KCL at node V2
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 − 0
−2 + =0
4 10
5𝑉2 − 5𝑉1 − 40 + 2𝑉2
𝑂𝑟, =0
20
𝑂𝑟, −5𝑉1 + 7𝑉2 − 40 = 0 ……………….(2)
Solving equation (1) and (2),
V1 = 37.82 V
V2 = 32.73 V

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Current flow through 8 Ω resistor
64 𝑉 − 37.82 𝑉
𝐼𝑅1 = = 3.27 𝐴
8Ω
Current flow through 4 Ω resistor
37.82 𝑉 − 32.73 𝑉
𝐼𝑅2 = = 1.27 𝐴
4Ω
Current flow through 10 Ω resistor
32.73 𝑉 − 0 𝑉
𝐼𝑅3 = = 3.27 𝐴
10 Ω

Problem 6: Find the node voltages in the following circuit and determine the current flow through
20 Ω resistor.

Solution:

Apply KCL at node V1

𝑉1 − 20 𝑉1 − 0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
+ + =0
5 10 10
2 𝑉1 − 40 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑂𝑟, =0
10
𝑂𝑟, 4 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 40 ……………….(1)

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Apply KCL at node V2
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 − 0
−5 + =0
10 20
2𝑉2 − 2𝑉1 − 100 + 𝑉2
𝑂𝑟, =0
20
𝑂𝑟, −2 𝑉1 + 3 𝑉2 = 100 ……………….(2)
Solving equation (1) and (2),
V1 = 22 V
V2 = 48 V
Current flow through 8 Ω resistor
(48 − 0)𝑉
𝐼 = = 2.4 𝐴
20 Ω

Problem 7: Determine the nodal voltages for the network shown in below.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: V1 = 6 V and V2 = - 6 V.

Problem 8: Determine the node voltages in the following circuit shown in below.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Solution:

Apply KCL at node V1

𝑉1 − 0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
−10 + +4+ =0
8 2
−80 + 𝑉1 + 32 + 4𝑉1 − 4𝑉2
𝑂𝑟, =0
8
𝑂𝑟, 5 𝑉1 − 4 𝑉2 = 48 ……………….(1)
Apply KCL at node V2
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 − 0
−4 + + =0
2 4
−16 + 2𝑉2 − 2𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑂𝑟, =0
4
𝑂𝑟, −2 𝑉1 + 3 𝑉2 = 16 ……………….(2)
Solving equation (1) and (2),
V1 = 29.71 V
V2 = 25.14 V

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
 Supernode Analysis
A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected
between two non-reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.
Note the following properties of a supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint equation needed to solve
for the node voltages.
2. A supernode has no voltage for its own.
3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.

Problem 9: Find the currents in the two resistors in the circuit of Figure 7.
Answer: 1.67 mA; 0.33 mA

Figure 7.

Problem 10: Determine the current I0 in the network in Figure 8.

Answer: - 0.4285 mA

Figure 8.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 11: Use nodal analysis to find I0 in the network in Figure 9.
Answer: 3.8 mA

Figure 9.
Problem 12: Find V0 in Figure 10 using nodal analysis.
Answer: 5.6 V

Figure 10.
Problem 13: For the circuit shown in Figure 11, find the node voltages.
Answer: -7.333 V; -5.333 V

Figure 11.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 14: Find v and I in the circuit of Figure 12.

Figure 12.

Thevenin Theorem (Open Circuit Voltage)

Any linear two-terminal circuit containing several voltages, currents, and resistances, can be
replaced by just one single voltage source, VTh, and a single resistance, RTh, connected in series
with it.
Where, VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

Figure 13:Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin equivalent: (a) original circuit,
(b) the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Turned off: It means all the independent sources are replaced by their internal resistances, i.e. we
replace every voltage source by 0 V and every current source by 0 A.
Voltage Source → Short Circuited
Current Source → Open Circuited

Question: Explain Thevenin Theorem with appropriate diagram.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Thevenin Theorem Procedure
Preliminary:
1. Remove that portion of the network where the Thévenin equivalent circuit is found. In Fig.
14(a), this requires that the load resistor RL be temporarily removed from the network.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network. (Fig. 14 (b))
RTh :
3. Calculate RTh by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by short
circuits, and current sources by open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance
between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or current
sources is included in the original network, it must remain when the sources are set to zero.)
(Fig. 14(c))
VTh :
4. Calculate VTh by first returning all sources to their original position and finding the open-
circuit voltage between the marked terminals. (Fig. 14 (d)).
Conclusion:
5. Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed
replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit. This step is indicated by the
placement of the resistor RL between the terminals of the Thévenin equivalent circuit as
shown in Fig. 14(e).

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
 Figure 14: (a) Example circuit, (b) Identifying the terminals of particular importance, (c)
Determining RTh for the network, and (d) Determining VTh for the network, and (e) Substituting the
Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network external to RL

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 15: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Figure below, to the left
of the terminals Then find the current through RL = 6 Ω, 16 Ω, and 36 Ω.

Solution:

Figure 15: (a) finding RTh, (b) finding VTh .

Find RTh :
We find by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it with a short circuit) and the 2-A
current source (replacing it with an open circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in Fig. 15(a).
Thus,
𝑅𝑇ℎ = (4 Ω II 12 Ω) + 1 Ω = 4 Ω
Find VTh :
We ignore 1 Ω the resistor since no current flows through it. At the VTh node, KCL gives
𝑉𝑇ℎ − 32 𝑉𝑇ℎ − 0
+ −2=0
4 12
3 𝑉𝑇ℎ − 96 + 𝑉𝑇ℎ − 24
𝑂𝑟, =0
12
𝑂𝑟, 4 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 120
𝑂𝑟, 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 30 𝑉
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 16. The
current through RL is
𝑉𝑇ℎ 30
𝐼𝐿 = =
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 4 + 𝑅𝐿 Figure 16: Thevenin Equivalent Circuit.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
When RL = 6 Ω,
30
𝐼𝐿 = =3𝐴
10
When RL = 6 Ω,
30
𝐼𝐿 = = 1.5 𝐴
20
When RL = 6 Ω,
30
𝐼𝐿 = = 0.75 𝐴
40

Problem 16: Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network in the shaded area of the network
in Figure below. Then determine the current through RL for values of 2 Ω, 10 Ω, and 100 Ω.

Solution:

Figure 17: (a) finding RTh, (b) finding VTh .

Find RTh:
Replacing the voltage source E1 with a short-circuit equivalent yields the network in Fig. 17(a),
where
𝑅𝑇ℎ = (3 Ω II 6 Ω) = 2 Ω

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Find ETh :
For this case, the open circuit voltage ETh is the same as the voltage drop across the 6 Ω resistor
(Figure 17(b)). Applying the voltage divider rule,
𝑅2 𝑅2 6Ω
𝐸𝑇ℎ = 𝐸1 = 𝐸1 = (9𝑉) = 6𝑉
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 6Ω + 3Ω
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 18. The
current through RL is
𝐸𝑇ℎ 6
𝐼𝐿 = =
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 2 + 𝑅𝐿
When RL = 2 Ω,
6
𝐼𝐿 = = 1.5 𝐴 Figure 18: Thevenin Equivalent
4
Circuit.
When RL = 10 Ω,
6
𝐼𝐿 = = 0.5 𝐴
12
When RL = 100 Ω,
6
𝐼𝐿 = = 0.06 𝐴
102

Problem 17: Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network in the shaded area of the network
in Figure below. Then determine the current through RL.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: RTh = 6 Ω, VTh = 48 V, I7Ω = 3.69 A.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 18: Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit at terminal a-b. Then find the current flow
through the 1 Ω resistor.

Solution:

Figure 19: (a) finding RTh, (b) finding VTh .

Find VTh: (Figure 19 (a))

Apply KCL at node V1
𝑉1 − 18 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
−3+ =0
6 6
𝑉1 − 18 − 18 + 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑂𝑟, =0
6
𝑂𝑟, 2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 36 ……………….(1)
Apply KCL at node V2
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 − 0
+ =0
6 4
2𝑉2 − 2𝑉1 + 3 𝑉2
𝑂𝑟, =0
12
𝑂𝑟, −2 𝑉1 + 5 𝑉2 = 0 ……………….(2)

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Solving equation (1) and (2),
V1 = 22.5 V
V2 = 9 V
Therefore, VTh = V2 – 0 = 9 V

Find RTh: (Figure 19 (b))

𝑅𝑇ℎ = (6 Ω + 6 Ω)II 4 Ω = 12 Ω II 4 Ω = 3 Ω
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:

Figure 20: Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network.

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 20. The current through RL =1 Ω is
𝑉𝑇ℎ 9
𝐼𝐿 = = = 2.25 𝐴
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 3 + 1

Problem 19: Apply Thevenin theorem to find V0 in the circuit below when RL = 10 Ω.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: V0 = 12.8 V.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 20: Design the Thevenin equivalent circuit at terminal a-b of the circuit in the figure
below.

Solution:

Figure 21: Finding VTh for the network.

Find VTh: (Figure 21)
Apply KCL at node V1
𝑉1 − 40 𝑉1 − 0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
+ + +3 =0
10 40 20
4 𝑉1 − 160 + 𝑉1 + 2 𝑉1 − 2𝑉2 + 120
𝑂𝑟, =0
40
𝑂𝑟, 7 𝑉1 − 2 𝑉2 = 40 ……………….(1)
Apply KCL at node V2
𝑉2 − 𝑉1
−3=0
20
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 − 60
𝑂𝑟, =0
20
𝑂𝑟, 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 60 ……………….(2)

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Solving equation (1) and (2),
V1 = 32 V
V2 = 92 V
Therefore, VTh = V2 – 0 = 92 V

Find RTh: (Figure 22)

Figure 22: Finding RTh for the network.

𝑅𝑇ℎ = (10 Ω II 40 Ω) + 20Ω = 8 Ω + 20 Ω = 28 Ω

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:

Figure 23: Thevenin Equivalent Circuit for the network.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 21: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit at terminal a-b for the network shown in Figure
below.

Solution:
Find ETh: (Figure 24)

Figure 24: Finding ETh for the network.

The network can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 24. Since the voltage is the same across parallel
elements, the voltage across the series resistors R1 and R2 is E1, or 8 V. Applying the voltage
divider rule,
𝑅1 𝑅1 6Ω
𝐸𝑇ℎ = 𝐸1 = 𝐸1 = (8𝑉) = 4.8 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 6Ω + 4Ω
Find RTh: (Figure 25)

𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅1 II 𝑅2 = 6 Ω II 4 Ω = 2.4 Ω

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
 Figure 25: Finding RTh for the network.

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:

Figure 26: Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network.

Problem 22: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit at terminal a-b for the network shown in Figure
below.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Find ETh: (Figure 27 (b))

Figure 27: (a) Identifying the terminals of particular interest for the network, (b)
Determining ETh for the network.

Apply KCL at node Vb,

𝑉𝑏 − 72 𝑉𝑏 − 0
+ =0
6 3
𝑉𝑏 − 72 + 2 𝑉𝑏
𝑂𝑟, =0
6
𝑂𝑟, 3 𝑉𝑏 = 72
𝑂𝑟, 𝑉𝑏 = 24 𝑉
Apply KCL at node Va,
𝑉𝑎 − 72 𝑉𝑎 − 0
+ =0
12 4
𝑉𝑎 − 72 + 3 𝑉𝑎
𝑂𝑟, =0
12
𝑂𝑟, 4 𝑉𝑎 = 72
𝑂𝑟, 𝑉𝑎 = 18 𝑉
Therefore, ETh = Vb – Va = 24 V – 18 V = 6 V

Find RTh: (Figure 28)

𝑅𝑇ℎ = (𝑅1 II 𝑅3 ) + (𝑅2 II 𝑅4 ) = (6 Ω II 3 Ω) + (4 Ω II 12 Ω) = 2 Ω + 3 Ω = 5 Ω

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
 Figure 28: Finding RTh for the network.

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:

Figure 29: Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Superposition Theorem
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.

To apply the superposition principle, we must keep two things in mind:

1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are
turned off. This implies that when removing a voltage source from a network schematic,
replace it with a direct connection (short circuit) of zero ohms. Any internal resistance
associated with the source must remain in the network. When removing a current source
from a network schematic, replace it by an open circuit of infinite ohms. Any internal
resistance associated with the source must remain in the network. This way we obtain a
simpler and more manageable circuit. The above statements are illustrated in Figure 30.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.

Figure 30: Removing a voltage source and a current source to permit the application of the
superposition theorem.

Procedure to apply Superposition Theorem

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current)
due to that active source using network analysis techniques.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 23: Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit of figure below.

Solution:
Since there are two sources, let
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2
To obtain 𝑣1 , we replace the 3A-current source by an open
circuit, as shown in Fig. 31 (a). Using voltage divider rule,
4 4
𝑣1 = 𝑉= (6) = 2 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 4+8
To get 𝑣2 , we replace the 6V-voltage source by a short circuit,
as shown in Fig. 31(b). Using current divider rule,
𝑅𝑇
𝑖2 =
𝐼
4
Where, 𝑅𝑇 = (8 Ω II 4 Ω) = 2.67 Ω Figure 31: (a) Calculating 𝑣1 ,
(b) calculating 𝑣2 ,.
2.67
𝑖2 = (3) = 2 𝐴
4
Hence,
𝑣2 = 4 𝑖2 = 4 × 2 = 8𝑉
And we find
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 2 + 8 = 10 𝑉

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 24: Using the superposition theorem, find 𝑣0 in the circuit of Figure below.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: 7.4 V.
Problem 25: Using the superposition theorem, determine the current through resistor R2 for the
network in Figure below.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: 8 A.
Problem 26: Using the superposition theorem, determine current I1 for the network in Figure
below.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: 5 A.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 27: Using the superposition theorem, determine the current through the 12 Ω resistor in
Figure below.

Solution:
Considering the effects of the 54 V source requires replacing the 48 V source by a short-circuit

Figure 32: To determine the effect of the 54 V voltage source on current I2.

equivalent as shown in Fig. 32.

The result is that the 12 Ω and 4 Ω resistors are in parallel.
The total resistance seen by the 54 V source is therefore

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + (𝑅2 II 𝑅3 ) = 24 Ω + (12 Ω II 4 Ω) = 24 Ω + 3 Ω = 27 Ω

and the source current is

𝐸1 54 𝑉
𝐼𝑠 = = = 2𝐴
𝑅𝑇 27 Ω

Using the current divider rule results in the contribution to I2 due to the 54 V source:

𝑅23 𝑅3 4Ω
𝐼2′ = 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 = (2𝐴) = 0.5 𝐴
𝑅2 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 4 Ω + 12 Ω

If we now replace the 54 V source by a short-circuit equivalent, the network in Fig. 33 results. The
result is a parallel connection for the 12 Ω and 24 Ω resistors.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
 Figure 33: To determine the effect of the 48 V voltage source on current I2.

Therefore, the total resistance seen by the 48 V source is

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅3 + (𝑅2 II 𝑅1 ) = 4 Ω + (12 Ω II 24 Ω) = 4 Ω + 8 Ω = 12 Ω

and the source current is

𝐸2 48 𝑉
𝐼𝑠 = = =4𝐴
𝑅𝑇 12 Ω

Using the current divider rule results in the contribution to I2 due to the 48 V source:

𝑅12 𝑅1 24 Ω
𝐼2′′ = 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 = (4 𝐴) = 2.67 𝐴
𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 24 Ω + 12 Ω

Figure 34: Using the results of Figs. 32 and 33 to determine the current I2 for the network.

The current I2 due to each source has a different direction, as shown in Fig. 34. The net current
therefore is the difference of the two and the direction of the larger as follows:

𝐼2 = 𝐼2′′ − 𝐼2′ = 2.67 𝐴 − 0.5 𝐴 = 2.17 𝐴

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 28: Using the principle of superposition, find the current I2 through the 12 kΩ resistor in
Figure below.

Solution:
Considering the effect of the 6 mA current source (Figure 35):

Figure 35: The effect of the current source I on the current I2.

Current divider rule:

𝑅12 𝑅1 6 kΩ
𝐼2′ = 𝐼= 𝐼= (6 𝑚𝐴) = 2 𝑚𝐴
𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 6 kΩ + 12 kΩ

Considering the effect of the 9 V voltage source (Figure 30):

𝐸 𝐸 9V
𝐼2′′ = = = = 0.5 𝑚𝐴
𝑅12 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 6 kΩ + 12 kΩ
Since 𝐼2′ and 𝐼2′′ have the same direction through R2, the desired current is the sum of the two:
𝐼2 = 𝐼2′′ + 𝐼2′ = 2 𝑚𝐴 + 0.5 𝑚𝐴 = 2.5 𝑚𝐴

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
 Figure 36:The effect of the voltage source E on the current I2.

Problem 29: Find the current through the 2Ω resistor of the network in Figure below.

Solution:

Figure 37: To effect of E1 on the current I1.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Considering the effect of the 12 V source (Figure 37):
𝐸1 𝐸1 12 V
𝐼1′ = = = = 2𝐴
𝑅12 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2 Ω + 4 Ω

Figure 38: To effect of E2 on the current I1.

Considering the effect of the 6 V source (Figure 38):

𝐸2 𝐸2 6V
𝐼1′′ = = = = 1𝐴
𝑅12 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2 Ω + 4 Ω

Figure 39: To effect of I on the current I1.

Considering the effect of the 3 A source (Figure 39):

Applying the current divider rule,
𝑅12 𝑅2 4Ω
𝐼1′′′ = 𝐼= 𝐼= (3 𝐴) = 2 𝐴
𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2Ω+4Ω

The total current through the 2 Ω resistor appears in Figure 40 and

𝐼1 = 𝐼1′′ + 𝐼1′′′ − 𝐼1′ = 1 𝐴 + 2 𝐴 − 2𝐴 = 1 𝐴

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
 Figure 40: The resultant current I1.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
 Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis is also known as loop analysis or the mesh-current method.
To understand mesh analysis, we should first explain more about what we mean by a mesh.
A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

Figure 41: A circuit with two meshes.

In Figure 35, for example, paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not a mesh.
• Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit, while mesh
analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.
• The current through a mesh is known as mesh current. Here, i1 and i2 are the mesh current.
• Mesh analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis because it is only applicable to a
circuit that is planar. A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in plane with no branches
crossing one another; otherwise it is nonplanar.
• A circuit may have crossing branches and still be planar if it can redrawn such that it has
no crossing branches.

Figure 42: (a) A planar with crossing branches, (b) the same circuit redrawn with no crossing
branches, (c) nonplanar circuit.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Steps to Determine Mesh Currents
1. Make a clear diagram.
2. Assign mesh currents i1 , i2, i3,…. in to the N meshes.
3. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages i terms of the
mesh currents.
4. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
N.B. The direction of the mesh current is arbitrary (clockwise or counterclockwise).
Problem 30: For the circuit in Figure 43, find the branch currents I1, I2, and I3 using mesh analysis.

Figure 43.
Solution:
We first obtain the mesh currents using KVL.
For mesh 1,
−15 + 5𝑖1 + 10(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) + 10 = 0
Or, 15𝑖1 − 10𝑖2 − 5 = 0
Or, 3𝑖1 − 2𝑖2 = 1 (1)
For mesh 2,
6𝑖2 + 4𝑖2 − 10 + 10(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) = 0
Or, −10𝑖1 + 20𝑖2 − 10 = 0
Or, −𝑖1 + 2𝑖2 = 1 (2)
By solving equation (1) and equation (2),
𝑖1 = 1 𝐴 and 𝑖2 = 1 𝐴
Thus,
𝐼1 = 𝑖1 = 1𝐴
𝐼2 = 𝑖2 = 1𝐴
𝐼3 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = 0 𝐴

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 31: Calculate the mesh currents i1 and i2 of the circuit of Figure 44.

Figure 44.
Solution: Try it yourself.
Answer: 𝑖1 = 2 𝐴, 𝑖2 = 0 𝐴.
Problem 32: Use mesh analysis to find the current I0 in the circuit of Figure 45.

Figure 45.
Solution:
We apply KVL to the three meshes in turn.
For mesh 1,
−24 + 10(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) + 12(𝑖1 − 𝑖3 ) = 0
Or, 11𝑖1 − 5𝑖2 − 6𝑖3 = 12 (1)
For mesh 2,
24𝑖2 + 4(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 ) + 10(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) = 0
Or, −5𝑖1 + 19𝑖2 − 2𝑖3 = 0 (2)

For mesh 3,
4𝐼0 + 12(𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) + 4(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) = 0

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
But at node A, 𝐼0 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = 0, so that
4(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) + 12(𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) + 4(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) = 0
Or, −𝑖1 − 𝑖2 + 2𝑖3 = 0 (3)
By solving equation (1), (2) and (3),
𝑖1 = 2.25 𝐴
𝑖2 = 0.75 𝐴
𝑖3 = 1.5 𝐴
Thus, 𝐼0 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = 1.5 𝐴.
Problem 33: Using mesh analysis, find I0 in the circuit of Figure 46.

Figure 46.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: -5 A.
Problem 34: Use mesh analysis to determine the three mesh currents in the circuit of Figure 47.

Figure 47.
Solution: Try it yourself.
Answer: 𝑖1 = 3 𝐴, 𝑖2 = 2 𝐴, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖3 = 3 𝐴.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 35: Determine the current 𝑖1 in the circuit of Figure 48.

Figure 48.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: 𝑖𝑖 = −250 𝑚𝐴, 𝑖2 = 375 𝑚𝐴.

Mesh Analysis with Current Source

Case 1: When a current source exists only in one mesh: Consider the circuit in Figure 49, for
example.

Figure 49.

We set 𝑖2 = −5𝐴 and write a mesh equation for the other mesh in the usual way; that is
−10 + 4𝑖1 + 6(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) = 0
Or, −10 + 4𝑖1 + 6(𝑖1 + 5) = 0
Or, −10 + 10𝑖1 + 30 = 0
Or, 𝑖1 = −2𝐴

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Case 2: When a current source exists between two meshes. Consider the circuit in Figure 50 (a),
for example. We create a superrmesh by excluding the current source and any elements connected
in series with it, as shown in Figure 50(b). Thus,
A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source in
common.

Figure 50: (a) Two meshes having a current source in common, (b) a supermesh, created by excluding
the current.

Applying KVL to the supermesh in Figure 50(b) gives

−20 + 6𝑖1 + 10𝑖2 + 4𝑖2 = 0
6𝑖1 + 14𝑖2 = 20 (1)
We apply KCL to a node in the branch where the two meshes intersect. Applying KCL to node 0
in Figure 50(a) gives
𝑖2 = 𝑖1 + 6 (2)
Solving equation (1) and (2), we get
𝑖1 = −3.2 𝐴, 𝑖2 = 2.8 𝐴

Note the following properties of a supermesh:

1. The current source in the supermesh provides the constraint equation necessary to solve
for the mesh currents.
2. A supermesh has no current of its own.
3. A supermesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 36: In the circuit shown in Figure 51 determine the current through 2Ω resistor.

Figure 51.
Soluution:

Figure 52.
I1 and I2 are the two meshes in which 2 A current source is common to I1 and I2 meshes which is
as shown in Figure 52 (a).
Draw a supermesh by combining two meshes I1 and I2 as shown in Figure 52(b).
Apply KVL to the supermesh as
4𝐼1 + 6𝐼2 + 6 + 2𝐼2 − 10 = 0
Or, 4𝐼1 + 8𝐼2 = 4 (1)
Apply KCL at the upper node of current source
𝐼2 − 𝐼1 = 2 (2)
Solving the above equations
𝐼1 = −1𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = 1 𝐴
Current through 2Ω resistor is 𝐼2 = 1 𝐴.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 37: In the circuit shown in Figure 53 determine all the loop currents.

Figure 53.

Solution:

Figure 54.

Apply for Supermesh

1𝑖1 + 2(𝑖1 − 𝑖3 ) + 4(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 ) + 10 = 0
Or, 3𝑖1 + 4𝑖2 − 6𝑖3 = −10 (1)

Apply KVL for i3

3𝑖3 + 4(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) + 2(𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) = 0
Or, −2𝑖1 − 4𝑖2 + 9𝑖3 = 0 (2)

Apply KCL at node O

𝑖2 − 𝑖1 = 5 (3)

Solving the above equations

𝑖1 = 5.556 𝐴, 𝑖2 = −0.556 𝐴, 𝑖3 = −1.4814 𝐴

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 38: Use mesh analysis to determine all the mesh currents in Figure 55.

Figure 55.
Solution:

Figure 56.
Apply KVL for I2 is
2𝐼2 + 4(𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ) + 2(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) = 0
Or, −2𝐼1 + 8𝐼2 − 4𝐼3 = 0 (1)
Apply KVL for supermesh
2(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) + 4(𝐼3 − 𝐼2 ) + 8𝐼3 − 6 = 0
Or, 2𝐼1 − 6𝐼2 + 12𝐼3 = 6 (2)
Apply KCL at node e
𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 3 (3)
By solving equations (1), (2), and (3)
𝐼1 = 3.4736 𝐴, 𝐼2 = 1.105 𝐴, 𝐼3 = 0.4736 𝐴

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 39: Determine the three mesh currents in Figure below.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: 𝑖1 = 9 𝐴, 𝑖2 = 2.5 𝐴, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖3 = 2𝐴.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
 Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source 𝐼𝑁 in parallel with a resistor 𝑅𝑁 , where 𝐼𝑁 is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and 𝑅𝑁 is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals where the
independent sources are turned off.
Thus, the circuit in Figure 57(a) can be replaced by the one in Figure 57(b).

Figure 57: (a) Original circuit, (b) Norton's equivalent circuit.

We find 𝑅𝑁 in the same way we find 𝑅𝑇ℎ . The Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal i.e.
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ
Calculate 𝑅𝑁 by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced with short circuits,
and current sources with open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance between the two
marked terminals.
To find the Norton current 𝐼𝑁 , we determine the short-
circuit current flowing from terminal a to b in both
circuits in Figure 57. Thus,
𝐼𝑁 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐
shown in Figure 58. Dependent and independent
Figure 58: Finding Norton current, IN.
sources are treated the same way as in Thevenin’s
theorem.
Observe the close relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorems: 𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ , and
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝐼𝑁 =
𝑅𝑇ℎ
This is essentially source transformation. For this reason, source transformation is often called
Thevenin-Norton transformation.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Since 𝑉𝑇ℎ , 𝐼𝑁 , and 𝑅𝑇ℎ are related to determine the Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit requires
that we find:
The open-circuit voltage 𝑣𝑜𝑐 across terminals a and b.(i.e. 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 𝑣𝑜𝑐 )
The short-circuit current 𝑖𝑠𝑐 at terminals a and b.(i.e. 𝐼𝑁 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐 )
The equivalent or input resistance 𝑅𝑖𝑛 at terminals a and b when all independent sources are turned
𝑣𝑜𝑐
off. (𝑅𝑇ℎ = = 𝑅𝑁 )
𝑖𝑠𝑐

Problem 40: Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Figure 59 at terminals a-b.

Figure 59.
Solution:

Figure 60: (a) Determine RN, (b) Determine IN.

𝑹𝑵 :
From Figure 60(a),

𝑅𝑁 = 5 ||(8 + 4 + 8) = 5||20 = 4Ω

𝑰𝑵 :
From Figure 60(b)
Apply mesh analysis, we obtain

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
From 𝑖1 ,
𝑖1 = 2 𝐴
From 𝑖2 ,
4 (𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) + 8𝑖2 + 8𝑖2 − 12 = 0
Or, 20 𝑖2 − 4𝑖1 − 12 = 0
Or, 20 𝑖2 − 4 × 2 − 12 = 0
Or, 20 𝑖2 = 20
Or, 𝑖2 = 1 𝐴
Hence, we obtain, , 𝑖2 = 1 𝐴 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼𝑁
Norton Equivalent Circuit:

Figure 61: Norton equivalent of the circuit.

Problem 41: Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit in Figure 62, at terminals a-b.

Figure 62.
Solution: Try it yourself.
Answer: 𝑅𝑁 = 3Ω, 𝐼𝑁 = 4.5 𝐴.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 42: Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the network in the shaded area of Figure 63.

Figure 63.
Solution: Try it yourself.
Answer: 𝑅𝑁 = 2Ω, 𝐼𝑁 = 3 𝐴.

Problem 43: Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the network external to the 9Ω resistor in Figure
64.

Figure 65.
Solution:

Figure 64: (a) Identifying the terminals of particular interest for the network, (b)
Determining RN.
RN:
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 5 + 4 = 9Ω

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
IN :

Figure 66: Determining IN for the network.

𝑅1 𝐼 5 × 10
𝐼𝑁 = = = 5.556 𝐴
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 5+4
Norton Equivalent Circuit:

Figure 67: Substituting the Norton equivalent circuit

for the network external to the resistor RL.

Problem 44: Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the portion of the network to the left of a-b in
Figure 68.

Figure 68.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Solution:

Figure 69: (a) Identifying the particular interest for the network. (b) Determining RN of the network.

RN: From Figure 69(b)

𝑅𝑁 = 4||6 = 2.4 Ω
IN:

Figure 70.

Using superposition theorem,

For the 7-V battery, determining the contribution to IN from the voltage source E1.(Figure 70(a))
𝐸1 7
𝐼𝑁′ = = = 1.75 𝐴
𝑅1 4
For the 8-A source (Figure 70(b)),
𝐼𝑁′′ = 𝐼 = 8𝐴
The result is
𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼𝑁′′ − 𝐼𝑁′ = 8 − 1.75 = 6.25 𝐴

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)
Norton Equivalent Circuit:

Figure 71: Substituting the Norton equivalent circuit for the network to the left
of the terminals a-b.

Problem 45: Determine the Thevenin and Norton equivalents of the circuit of Figure 72.

Figure 72.
Solution: Try it yourself.
Answer: -7.857 V,, -3.2235 mA, 2429 kΩ.

Problem 46: Find the Norton equivalent circuit to the

left of terminals A-B for the network shown in Figure
73. Connect the Norton equivalent circuit to the load
and find the current in the 50Ω resistor.
Solution: Try it yourself.
Answer: RN = 55Ω, IN = 10.7 A, I50Ω = 5.6 A.

Figure 73.

Developed By: Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, DIU (Mobile: 01858940488)